Psych of Human Sexuality Midterm

Amenorrhea

The absence of menstruation. o Primary amenorrhea- when adolescent girl fails to menstruate by age 16, often because of a congenital malformation of the uterus, imbalance of hormones, or result of being intersexed. o Secondary amenorrhea- when a woman who has already had at least one period experiences an interruption in her menstrual cycle. Occurs during pregnancy, but also among women who stopped birth control pills and those who are approaching menopause. Also common among girls who are very athletic or have anorexia.

Semen

The accumulated secretions of the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate.

Ethics in Sexology Research Informed consent

The act of informing participants at the outset of a study of any potential risks and rewards, thereby enabling them to make a truly informed decision.

Debriefing

The act of telling participants the true purpose of the research and informing them of any deception that took place after the study is over.

Cross-dressing

The act of wearing clothing that is typically associated with the other sex.

Chemical castration

The administration of anti-androgen drugs so as to block the production of testosterone. • Estrogen is also a hormone produced by the adrenal gonads and adrenal glands like testosterone. Produced by both men and women. Women produce more. Men and women need both testosterone and estrogen, both related to sexual arousal/behaviors.

Why are Men and Women Attracted to Different Characteristics?: Evolutionary Theory Parental investment

The amount of effort required to produce a child who carries your own genetic material. • Men have become more attuned to focus on appearance more than anything else because it is the most useful cue for enhancing reproductive success- attracted to women more likely to be healthy/fertile- low waist-to-hip ratio, facial and bodily symmetry, and long, shiny hair. • Women pursue sex in context of long-term relationships with men who are reliable and can provide protection and resources for her and offspring. Should prefer older men with more resources. Masculine features are linked to having a stronger immune system, seek out more "manly" men when they are most fertile. Women's mating preferences appear to change during ovulation- in favor of evolutionary theory. • Cross-culturally, men desire higher number of partners in next month than do women. • Study- if question implied higher likelihood of casual sex, men were more likely to accept offer, whereas women were more likely to decline it.

Heterosexism

The assumption that everyone is heterosexual and that attraction to the other sex is normative.

A Note on Statistics Mean

The average value of all of the scores in a dataset.

Monosexism

The belief that exclusive attraction to one sex is the norm. • Some research suggests that biphobia is even more prevalent than homophobia. • Research showed there was no discernible difference in psychological adjustment among men of different sexualities.

Propinquity effect

The closer two people are physically, the greater the odds that they will meet and an attraction will develop between them.

Sex Differences in the Expression of Sexual Orientation Erotic plasticity

The degree to which a person's sex drive and sexual behavior is "flexible" and responsive to cultural and situational pressures. • Baumeister details evidence throughout history indicating that (1) women's sexual behavior fluctuates and varies more across time than men's, (2) culture, education, and religion appear to have a stronger effect on female sexuality than male, and (3) there is greater discrepancy between sexual attitudes and behaviors for women than for men. • Gay and heterosexual men only showed pupil dilation in response to images of desired sex, whereas heterosexual women showed dilated in response to both male and female sexual imagery. Pupil dilation is automatic response from seeing interesting stimulus. Data suggests that lesbians may not demonstrate the same degree of erotic plasticity as heterosexual women in these studies. o Suggests that sexual orientation may be organized differently in brains of men and women- men more likely to "orient" on targets of specific sex, whereas women tend to possess more flexibility in this regard.

Sociosexuality

The degree to which commitment and an emotional connection to one's partner are necessary precursors to sexual activity. Those with a restricted sociosexual orientation require commitment and intimacy, while those with an unrestricted orientation do not.

Correlation

The degree to which two variables are statistically associated. o Spurious correlation- an association that exists due to some third factor that links the variable together.

Physical attractiveness

The degree to which we perceive another person as beautiful or handsome. • Perceptions of attractiveness are also subject to social influence- people evaluated photos of both same-race and different-race targets as more attractive when participants'' peers had ostensibly rated those targets as more attractive. • Also is context-dependent- we evaluate a person' beauty in reference to other people nearby.

The Perspective of This Text

"Essentialist" theories which view sexuality as an essential aspect of humans, rooted in evolution and biology (look to factors such as hormones, genetics, evolved processes, or innate characteristics) vs "social constructionist" theories which view sexuality largely as product of socialization and cultural influences. Argue that sexuality is not "hardwired" and is largely learned.

Two-spirit

A Native American phenomenon in which both male and female spirits are presumed to occupy a single person's body. This culture has a much broader view of gender and are more accepting of persons who do not fit neatly into the gender binary.

Sex

A biological term used to categorize whether someone is genetically/biologically male or female. Three different dimensions of sex: chromosomes, gonads, and hormones.

Peyronie's disease

A build-up of scar tissue around the cavernous bodies that results in a severe curvature of the penis and makes intercourse difficult and painful. • Aside from penis, other major external portion of male sexual anatomy is the scrotum- a pouch of skin hanging behind the penis that houses the testicles. Sparsely covered in hair and hangs loosely.

Vagina

A canal that extends from the introitus to the uterus that changes in size during sexual arousal and childbirth.

Minimal risk

A classification for research studies that are unlikely to cause more harm to someone than they might ordinarily experience in their everyday life.

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)

A controversial DSM diagnosis that describes particularly severe cases of PMS. Symptoms such as marked changes in mood, difficulty sleeping, concentration problems, and physical symptoms, and experiences personal distress or interference in daily life as a result.

Clitoris

A female genital structure that contains erectile tissue and is composed of a glans, a shaft containing two cavernous bodies, and crura that anchor it to the pubic bone. Its only known function is to provide sexual pleasure. • Within the labia minora is a region known as the vestibule, which houses the openings to the urethra and vagina. The meatus (urethral opening) is located between the clitoris and vaginal opening and has excretory functions.

Phalloplasty

A form of gender affirmation surgery in which skin is taken from other parts of the body and transplanted to the genital area to create a functional penis. This term is also used to describe several forms of penile augmentation surgery. • Outcomes of gender affirmation surgery are generally favorable. • Small but growing trend to administer puberty-blocking drugs- medications that halt the development of secondary sex characteristics; but is difficult to accurately predict which children will remain gender dysphoric long-term, which makes some doctors hesitant to prescribe these drugs along with unknown long-term health effects.

Vaginoplasty

A form of gender affirmation surgery that involves removing the penis and scrotum and reusing the skin to create a functional vagina with labia. o FTM transsexuals also might undergo hysterectomy- removal of ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus, and mastectomy- removal of breasts.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning based on principles of reinforcement and punishment.

Cognitive-Behavioral and Learning Theories: Classical conditioning

A form of learning in which repeated pairings of stimuli result in a neutral stimulus becoming a cue for a specific behavior.

Sensation seeking

A general tendency to pursue risky and thrilling activities. Might have a biological component to this personality trait (fewer dopamine receptors linked to greater sensation seeking behaviors).

Grafenberg spot

A highly sensitive portion of the vagina. Scientists are debating whether it is a distinct anatomic site, or the internal portion of the clitoris. Location usually described as a couple inches inside the vagina on the front wall and can be stimulated by inserting two fingers into the vagina and making the "come here" motion."

Superincision

A lengthwise slit in the upper portion of the foreskin. Also known as a dorsal slit. It reveals the glans without necessarily removing the foreskin.

Direct observation

A method of inquiry in which researchers watch subjects and record what they observe.

Cremaster muscle

A muscle that helps regulate testicular temperature by moving the testes closer or further from the body. In warmer temperature, the muscle relaxes, letting tests fall further from body; in colder temperature, muscle contact, drawing testes in and generating "shrinkage." Because temperature regulation is vital for sperm health, men with undescended testes are infertile.

Uterus

A muscular organ that protects and nourishes a developing fetus, suspended by ligaments in the pelvic cavity. Also known as the womb. o Innermost lining of uterus is the endometrium, which builds up and sheds during each menstrual cycle. Surrounding endometrium are layers of muscle (the myometrium) and fibrous tissues (the perimetrium) that enable uterus to change greatly in size during pregnancy.

Oxycotin

A neuropeptide hormone manufactured in the brain and released during physical intimacy that plays a role in bonding. Also assists with release of milk during breastfeeding. Sometimes referred to the "love hormone" or "cuddle drug." Also plays a role in generating sexual arousal.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to increases in sexual arousal and behavior.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter linked to the decreases in sexual arousal and behavior. Sexual effects are opposite of those of dopamine.

Mons veneris

A pad of fatty tissue that cushions the internal genital structures and is typically covered in hair.

Transvestism

A paraphilia characterized by cross-dressing for purposes of sexual arousal.

Biological Sex Variations Intersexed

A person who possesses both male and female biological traits. • See Table 5.2 on P.122 for biological sex variations chart.

Hypogonadism

A physical condition in which testosterone production is diminished. Men with very low levels of testosterone typically have less sexual desire.

Hypothalamus

A portion of the limbic system that plays an important role in regulating sexual behavior. o One portion of hypothalamus where there are reliable sex differences is the preoptic area (POA), which tends to be larger in adult men than adult women. o Another portion of hypothalamus that differs between sexes is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), which tends to be larger in men. Size of BNST tends to be related to gender identity. Suggests that early hormonal exposure may potentially organize brain toward specific gender. • All of these factors must work together and build on each other in very specific sequence. If anything falls out of sequence, end result can be very different. Result is intersexuality.

Female genital cutting

A procedure in which a woman's external genital structures are permanently damaged or removed without medical necessity.

Gender

A psychosocial term that refers to the psychological, cultural, and social characteristics that we think of as belonging to men and women. Refers to our set of expectations about what makes someone masculine or feminine.

Experiment

A research method in which one variable is manipulated in order to see what effect this has on a measurable outcome. Must hold all factors constant other than IV and use random assignment to different experimental conditions.

Surveys research

A research method in which people are asked to report on their own sexual attitudes and practices. The vast majority of our knowledge on human sexuality comes from survey research.

Random selection

A sampling procedure in which participants are recruited from at random from the target population. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to take part in the study.

Seminiferous tubules

A series of tightly coiled tubes in which sperm production occurs. Located inside the testes.

Gender roles

A set of cultural norms or rules that dictate how people of a specific sex "should" behave.

Vesticular bulbs

A set of erectile tissue that expands in size during sexual arousal extending the vulva outward. Located on each side of the vagina near the introitus, consist of spongy tissue.

The Big Five

A set of five factors that any personality can supposedly be boiled down to: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. (Agreeableness and extraversion have been the most consistently related to sexual behavior).

Factors That Influence Sexual Arousal Limbic system

A set of structures deep within the brain that includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Sometimes referred to as the brain's "pleasure center." Exerts a profound influence on both animal and human sexual behavior. o Hypothalamus appears to be one of the most important for normal sexual functioning, particularly in the males of most species.

Turner's syndrome

A sex variation in which an individual is born with a single X chromosome. The second sex chromosome is missing or damaged. Have feminine body appearance, although tend to be shorter than average and typically have little breast development. External genitals appear to be feminine, but internally ovaries are underdeveloped and may only appear as streaks of tissue, which means menstruation does not occur at puberty and sexual reproduction is not possible. o Usually identify as female and tend to have more stereotypically feminine interests. Not linked to same-gender attraction. Have active sex lives, but important for puberty to be induced via hormone injections because no ovaries are present- important effect on development of sexuality.

Klinefelter's syndrome

A sex variation that occurs when a Y-carrying sperm fertilizes an egg that possesses two X chromosomes. Anatomically male in terms of genital appearance, but testes are usually smaller than average and sperm production tends to be very low. Also bodies have feminized features including increased breast tissue and rounded body shape. One of the most common sex variations. Tend to identify as male. Not linked to same-gender attraction. Overall interest in sex tends to be low. Testosterone injections can enhance sexual desire and masculinization of body.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

A sex variation that occurs when a biological male fetus is insensitive to the production of its own androgens. Despite possessing the XY chromosome combination, testes, and high levels of masculinizing hormones, end result is a body and genitals that have a female appearance. o Can be either complete (child appears to be typical female at birth and has shallow vagina, diagnosis not made until adolescence when discover menstruation has not occurred, raised as girls and usually adopt female gender identity, most are sexually attracted to men) or partial (incomplete masculinization of genitalia, may possess genitals not clearly identifiable as male/female, usually confusing to decide how to raise child, usually "assign" one and can surgically alter genitalia to remove "ambiguity.")

5-alpha-reductase deficiency (5aRD)

A sex variation that occurs when a biological male fetus is unable to convert testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) due to insufficient levels of the 5-alpha reductase enzyme. o DHT is necessary for development of male external genitalia, so without it results in feminized genital appearance. Male gonads are present internally but mix of male/female or completely female external genitalia is present. Most are raised as girls and adopt female gender identity, but during puberty produce more testosterone and become more masculine, testes descend, genital structures grow into small penis, and male secondary sex characteristics develop (deep voice, facial hair...). Most switch to male gender identity and then are sexually interested in women.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

A sex variation that occurs when a person's adrenal glands produce excessive amounts of androgens starting before birth and throughout the individual's life. Can happen in both men and women. o In men, physical and psychological development follows the typical male pattern. In women, become more masculine both physically and psychologically . At birth, female child with CAH will have genitals appear to be either partially or completely masculine, although internally female gonads are present. o Most biological females with AH adopt female gender identity but have interests common among men, attracted to men and women.

Kinsey scale

A sexual orientation continuum that ranges from 0 (exclusive heterosexual attraction and behavior) to 6 (exclusive homosexual attraction and behavior). o Provides a categorization method that allows for vast individual variability and does not imply that individuals will always have the same "number" for their entire lives. o Criticized that it does not include people who are asexual or pansexual.

Lordosis

A sexual posture that occurs naturally in female rats in which the back curves upward to assist in copulation. Castrated male rats do this even if given testosterone later in life. o If female rats are injected with testosterone, they exhibit masculine behavior throughout their lives. Appears to be a critical period of development during which hormones "wire" the brain for sexual behavior, at least in animals. • See Table 5.1 P.120 for chart of typical sequence of biological sex differentiation.

• Bogus pipeline technique

A social psychological technique in which participants are hooked up to a lie-detector machine and falsely convinced that it can detect whether they are telling the truth. Commonly used as a means of ensuring greater honesty in responding. Found that when participants were not hooked up to lie-detector, men reporter more partners than women, but when in lie-detector condition, no sex difference in number of partners was reported. • Study with speed-dating- when men approached women, typical, women were significantly choosier. But when women approached men, this sex difference in selectivity disappeared completed. Men and women became equally selective. o Indicates that choosiness is a product of a highly gendered society that dictates who should be the initiator of sexual/romantic encounters.

Taste Hormones Testosterone

A steroid hormone secreted by both the gonads and the adrenal glands that affects sexual behavior. Both men and women produce it, but men produce more. Most is produced in testes and ovaries o Testosterone has clear effects on men's levels of sexual desire and sexual behaviors. (Ex. men who had their testes removed through castration: surgical removal of the testes, typically experience a loss of libido and have more difficulty achieving erections.

Fallopian tube

A structure that carries eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. Extends out on each side at the upper end of the uterus. o At end of fallopian tubes are fimbriae, which are fingerlike projections that "catch" eggs and direct them into the tubes. Once inside fallopian tube, an egg moves slowly toward the uterus via tiny hairs (cilia). o Occasionally, a fertilized egg will implant in the fallopian tube before it reaches the uterus, which creates a dangerous situation known as ectopic pregnancy.

Epididymis

A structure that sits behind each testicle in which sperm maturation occurs. After sperm are produced in seminiferous tubules, they proceed to epididymis where they are stored for several weeks to allow them time to mature. Shaped like a crescent moon and sits on top and back of each testicle.

Erotophobia

A tendency to exhibit strong, negative emotions and attitudes toward sex.

Erotophilia

A tendency to exhibit strong, positive emotions and attitudes toward sex.

Gay affirmation therapy

A therapeutic approach that involves getting patients to accept their sexuality, not to change their identity, pattern of attraction, or behavior. APA encourages this to clients who are homosexual.

The introitus is partly covered by a thin, circular piece of tissue known as the hymen:

A thin piece of tissue that covers the introitus. o Scientists have described as many as seven different types of hymens, inclyding the annular (rounded appearance and one hole in center), septated (strip of tissue in center creates two holes), and cribiform varieties (a hymen with several small holes in it).

Metoidioplasty

A type of gender affirmation surgery in which the clitoris is turned into an erectile phallus.

Experiment advantages

Ability to control variables precisely, allowing us to make claims about causality.

Social Structural Perspectives Sociocultural perspective

Acknowledges that biological and evolved factors play some role in contributing to sex differences, but specifies that such differences are primarily a function of the social structure. • Research shows that in societies with more gender equality, men and women's partner preferences are more similar. Also, women's interest in casual sex is higher with a male celebrity because that person is more of a known quantity.

Seduction

Akin to desire stage of Kaplan's model, refers to set of processes that stimulate sexual activity. Desire is viewed as stemming from behaviors we employ to attract (or "seduce") others, including spending time on appearance or flirting with someone.

Sexual Orientation Attitudes Sexual prejudice

All forms of prejudice that stem from an individual's actual or perceived sexual orientation.

Female Sexual Anatomy: External Anatomy Vulva

All of the external female genital structures. Includes everything from pubic hair to labia to vaginal opening.

Prepuce

Also known as the clitoral hood. Akin to the foreskin that covers the glans of the penis.

Pederasty

An ancient Greek practice in which an older man educated and mentored a male adolescent, who would have sex with him in return.

Perineum

An area of skin that runs between the introitus and the anus. During childbirth, an episiotomy is sometimes performed, in which an incision is made into the perineum to expand the size of the birth canal to reduce vaginal tearing.

Confidentiality

An ethical requirement that involves protecting the privacy of research participants.

Plateau

An extension of the excitement phase in which vasocongestion and myotonia become more pronounced. In men, they have a complete erection, fully engorged and elevated testes, and the secretion of pre-ejaculate by the Cowper's gland. In women, they have swelling in nipples and areola, complete expansion and lengthening of vagina, retraction of clitoris into body, and development of the orgasmic platform.

Gender identity

An individual's own psychological perception of being male or female.

Mate-choice hypothesis

Argues that female orgasm is only likely to occur with those men who are most genetically fit, or who represent best long-term prospects. By reserving orgasm for only the highest quality mates, becomes reinforcing variable that encourages continued copulation with those partners, thereby promoting reproductive success. o Theory also about female orgasm being a byproduct of the male orgasm such as nipples for men.

Pansexuality

Attraction to members of all sexes and gender identities.

Exotic becomes erotic

Bem's theory that feelings of difference from our peers evokes physiological arousal that later transforms into sexual arousal. See chart on P. 156. o "Pre-homosexual" children were rated as significantly more gender-nonconforming than "pre-heterosexual" children.

Internal Anatomy Pelvic floor muscles

Beneath the vulva, a complex, crisscrossed set of muscles that contract involuntarily when a woman reaches orgasm. Can be strengthened through Kegel exercises.

Interstitial cells

Cells within the testes that produce sex hormones. Sit in between the seminiferous tubules. Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Smell Pheromones

Chemicals secreted by the body that play a role in sexual communication.

Cultural and Societal Influences Incest

Child sexual abuse perpetrated by someone related to the child. This term is often used more generally to describe any sexual activity among blood relatives, regardless of whether it is consensual. o Most cultures discourage incest, but not many truly universal principles of sexuality. • Religion is one of the major forces behind cultural variations in sexuality.

Survey research advantages

Data can be collected quickly and easily from large numbers of people, more diverse audience with it being online, enhanced anonymity and privacy to participants, multiple methods of administration (online survey vs face-to-face interview- good because can clarify things) depending on study.

The Erotic Stimulus Pathway Theory

David Reed- four stages: seduction, sensations, surrender, and reflection.

Attraction Processes Among Gay Men and Lesbians

Demographic differences appear to be more common among same-sex couples than among heterosexual couples. Might be due to smaller field of eligible (smaller pool of potential dating prospects). Propinquity may also play lesser role among gays/lesbians, choose more online dating than heterosexuals, might be more difficult to meet romantic/sexual partners in daily lives.

Cowper's glands

During sexual arousal, these glands release a small amount of pre-ejaculate that alkalinizes the urethra, making it more hospitable for sperm to travel through. Located where the ejaculatory duct empties into the urethra. • Male genital modification can not only occur with the penis but also with the scrotum- some inject saline solution into scrotum for sexually pleasurable feeling.

Direct observation advantages

Eliminates a number of response biases by eliminating participants' subjective reports of own behavior, can be filmed allowing researchers to go back and look at it again.

Koro

Fear that the penis is retracting inside the body. Typically found among men in southeast Asia.

What Drives Us to Have Sex?

Forces that interact to produce sexual behavior can be lumped into three broad categories: psychological variables, cultural and societal factors, and biological and evolutionary influences.

Female Breast and Genital Health Issues

Four phases of the menstrual cycle: the follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation. Ovulation and menstruation are of more interest due to their effects on female psychology.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud believed human behavior was driven by two factors: sex and death.

Chapter 5:

Gender and Gender Identity

Sensations

Gives way to sensations, a phase that roughly corresponds to what Masters and Johnson termed excitement and plateau. Sensory input and sexual fantasies combine to create heightened sense of arousal that makes us want to continue sexual activity. In first two phases, psychological factors are seen as propelling physiological responses.

Bartholin's glands

Glands near the vaginal opening that secrete a drop of two of fluid prior to orgasm. Located on either side of the introitus. Thought to create a genital scent.

Cisgender

Having a gender identity and expression that is consistent with one's biological sex.

Asexuality

Having no interest in partnered sexual activity.

The Triphasic Model of Sexual Response

Helen Singer Kaplan introduced three-stage model of sexual response that streamlined Masters and Johnson model, while adding a psychological component. Also makes it more applicable to the treatment of sexual disorders.

Chapter 3:

Human Sexual Anatomy

Chapter 4:

Human Sexual Response: Understanding Arousal and Orgasm

Deception

Intentionally withholding information or misleading participants in a research study.

Stage 3: orgasm

Kapla's discussion of sexual response stopped here because people rarely experience problems during resolution phase.

Stage 2: excitement

Kaplan combined the excitement and plateau phases of Masters and Johnson because saw little to distinguish between them.

Social or observational learning

Learning that occurs by watching others' activities. If we see others rewarded for engaging in certain behaviors, we tend to imitate them; if we see others experience negative outcomes as a result of engaging in certain behaviors, we typically avoid those behaviors. o Most famous example of social learning- Bandura's Bobo doll experiment which found that exposure to violent media affects children's aggressive tendencies. • Ex. imitating what you see depicted in porn or in the media.

Mammography

Mammography is the primary clinical technique for detecting breast cancer involving taking an X-ray of each breast.

The Sexual Response Cycle

Masters and Johnson specified four phases in their model: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Hearing Female copulatory vocalizations

Naturally cycling women earned more money and got more tips while ovulating of female lap dancers, but no difference for women on the pill. • Female copulatory vocalizations: The sounds that women make during sex.

Nonexperimental Research

No manipulation of variables- researchers make observations and note which variables seem to go together.

Survey research disadvantages

Nonresponse: The idea that not everyone contacted will want to participate in a given research study. Hurts representativeness of sample because those who refuse to participate might differ in some way from those who agreed to participate. Self-selection: The idea that persons who volunteer to participate in research studies are different from the rest of the population. Socially desirable responding: The tendency for research subjects to present themselves in the most favorable light possible. o Researchers also must avoid leading questions (questions that direct participants to a specific answer) and double-barreled questions (questions that inquire about multiple things, thereby muddling responses).

Experiment disadvantages

Not always a viable option for sexology studies due to practical/ethical reasons, also people might act differently in a lab setting than in the real world, threatening the external validity (ability to generalize findings beyond lab).

Case report disadvantages

Not that representative of the broader population, and rely heavily on participants' subjective reports of the past (same self-presentational issues and response biases that affect survey research).

Biological Influences on Gender Identity and Sexuality

Our biological sex is a function of three separate components: our chromosomes, gonads, and hormone levels. These factors work together to differentiate the bodies and brains of biological males and females.

Gender stereotypes

Overgeneralized beliefs about the qualities and characteristics of men and women. Includes psychological traits, role behaviors, and occupations.

Dysmenorrhea

Painful menstruation caused by overproduction of prostaglandins or a pre-existing medical condition. Primary dysmenorrhea is diagnosed when the body produces too many prostaglandins, a substance that causes very intense contractions of the uterus. Secondary dysmenorrhea is diagnosed when a pre-existing medical condition creates painful menstruation.

Endometriosis

Perhaps the most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea is endometriosis: a condition in which a woman has endometrial cells outside of her uterus, often on the ovaries or fallopian tubes. Can permanently damage reproductive structures and result in infertility.

Psychological Influences

Personality characteristics, learned associations, pos/neg attitudes toward others, current mood state.

Negging

Pointing out something negative about another person as a means of catching that person's attention. Creates negative affect, generally not effective at getting someone to like you. • Research suggests your best pickup line is to be direct and yourself and avoid crude/sexually suggestive pick-up lines. • Flippant pick-up lines produce a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement (rewards are unpredictable), just like a slot machine at a casino. • When participants are subliminally exposed to a pleasant stimulus (photo of adorable kitten), they evaluate strangers more positively than when they are first exposed to an unpleasant stimulus (photo of bucket of snakes). We indirectly transfer our existing emotional states onto new people we meet.

The Senses: Touch Primary erogenous zones

Portions of the body where nerve endings are present in large quantities. Such as genitals, perineum, nipples, lips, and inner thigh.

Transphobia

Prejudice against transsexuals.

Biphobia

Prejudice specific to bisexuals.

Homophobia

Prejudice specific to gays and lesbians.

Remaining portion of seminal fluid is produced by the prostate gland:

Produces alkaline secretions that aid in sperm survival in the acidity of the male urethra and female reproductive tract. Located just below the bladder. Sometimes referred to as the "male G-spot."

Case report advantages

Provide great depth of information about an unusual subject.

Reflection

Reflection phase- we psychologically reinterpret our sexual experiences and give them meaning. Person may attach pos/neg meaning to event, will affect likelihood of pursuing this partner specifically and sexual activity in general in the future. • Focuses almost exclusively on role of psychology/cognitive factors, giving little attention to physical responses. • See Table 4.3 on P.111 to compare different models of sexual response.

Secondary erogenous zones

Regions of the body that have taken on sexual significance as a result of conditioning.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality

See p.8 for list of major psychological theories.

Direct observation disadvantages

Self-selection in a big concern (maybe those who are comfortable enough to participate are different from most people), reactivity: the idea that research participants sometimes alter their behavior when they know others are watching, also need to carefully operationalize variables so they can be recorded as accurately and unambiguously as possible.

Dhat

Semen loss anxiety found among men in certain Eastern cultures.

Chapter 2:

Sexology Research: History, Methods, and Ethics

Chapter 6:

Sexual Orientation

Stage 1: sexual desire

Sexual response is not likely to occur unless someone wants to have sex- something needs to precede excitement. Desire is a product of many psychological factors, including emotions, stress, prior learning experiences, body image..etc.

Variations in Gender Expression Transgender

Someone whose behaviors or physical appearance is not consistent with societal gender roles.

Transsexual

Someone whose gender identity does not match the person's biological sex.

Physiological Arousal

Study where men encountered woman on shaky bridge- positive associated between generalized physiological arousal and attraction towards women. Same with men who worked out before rating attractiveness of female confederate.

Anaphrodisiacs

Substances that decrease sexual desire and behavior.

Substances Aphrodisiacs

Substances that increase sexual desire and behavior.

Oophorectomy

Surgical removal of the ovaries. Women who have their ovaries removed through this procedure experience low libido and difficulties becoming sexually aroused due to lack of testosterone. Also women may need estrogen as well which is also involved in female sexual desire. o But with people of normal testosterone levels, not a positive correlation between more testosterone and sexual desire/behaviors.

Circumcision

Surgical removal of the penile foreskin.

Libido

The Freudian term for sex drive. • Believed personality consisted of three distinct parts: id, ego, and superego. These personality aspects work together to produce behavior across all situations.

Chapter 7:

The Laws of Attraction • Study showed that impressions formed from brief exposure from looking at photo were highly correlated with impressions formed from unlimited exposure. We can tell almost immediately whether we are going to like someone.

Ovaries

The female gonads. Two primary functions: (1) production of sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone), which play an important role in regulating the menstrual cycle, and (2) production and release of egg (ova). During ovulation, either the left or right ovary will release an egg.

Menstrual Cycle Problems Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

The general term that encompasses all of the emotional changes and physical discomfort a woman might experience prior to getting her period.

Exchange theories

The idea that how we feel about a given relationship depends upon the type of outcomes we receive in return for what we have to put into the relationship. o When our exchanges yield high rewards and low costs, we act so as to maintain our relationship; however, when the costs begin to exceed the benefits, we are likely to end things and move on.

Sexual strategies theory

The idea that men and women have developed different mating strategies as a function of differing levels of parental investment (the amount of time and bodily effort expended). o Investment required by men to make a baby is relatively small- in order to maximize chances of reproductive success, best interest to pursue sexual activity with a lot of fertile women. For women, to maximize reproductive success, in best interest to look for men who are going to stick around and provide necessary resources to help raise children. • But this theory does not explain variations in sexual orientations- How can humans be inherently motivated to reproduce if not everyone is heterosexual?

Contrast effect

The idea that perceptions of average can be thrown off by the presence of a few outliers. • Attractiveness is a complex judgement that not only depends on individual preferences and personality, but also social influence and social comparison processes. • Women rate physical attractiveness as less important than do men. Women tend to prefer older partners and desire someone with better financial prospects and higher level of education. • Study- we seem to like the idea of "winning over" someone who did not like us at first. • Study- people who committed "benign pratfalls" such as spilling coffee on oneself were rated as more attractive only if person was first presented as smart/successful. Maybe due to "humanizing" the person or feeling empathy for them. • See Table 7.3 on P.188 for major variables in sexual attraction.

Placebo effect

The idea that when people strongly believe that a treatment will have an effect on them, it often does, even though the treatment is biologically inert. • Alcohol is an aphrodisiac, reduces our inhibitions but also creates expectancy effects (we come to believe that consuming alcohol will put us "in the mood" or make us feel sexual. o Expectancy effects such as self-fulfilling prophecy (if we believe that some outcome is likely, we will work consciously and unconsciously to make it a reality). But alcohol in large quantities has depressing effect on sexual arousal and makes it more difficult to reach orgasm for both men and women. o See chart on P.103 for sexual effects of several alleged aphrodisiacs.

Orgasmic platform

The increased swelling of the outer third of the vagina.

Labia minora

The inner lips. Protects the vaginal and urethral openings. Hairless folds of tissue situated between the outer lips.

Foreskin

The loose and retractable layer of skin that serves as a sheath for the head of the penis. Covers the corona and glans.

Cervix

The lower end of the uterus. Opening of the cervix permits sperm to enter and menstrual fluid to exit.

Hormonal sex

The major class of hormones released by one's gonads (i.e., androgens-primarily released by testes, or estrogens-primarily released by ovaries). Both females/males produce both hormones, but females produce more estrogens and males produce more androgens. As fetus is developing, it is presence/absence of these hormones that differentiates the internal/external sexual structures of male/female body. Hormones also have a profound effect on how our brains develop in utero.

Testes

The male gonads. Inside the scrotum and suspended by the spermatic cord. o Most men have two testes similar in size, each serving two functions: (1) production of sex hormones (largely testosterone) and (2) production of sperm.

Median

The middle score (i.e., 50th percentile) in a dataset.

Mere exposure effect

The more familiar we become with a given stimulus, the more we tend to like it. o For this to work, your initial impression of another person must be close to neutral. If initial reaction is strongly negative, repeated exposure might actually make you like them less. • Study where women who attended most classes were rated as most attractive by students even though none of them really knew any of the women who visited the school.

Id

The most basic part of personality. Houses the libido and operates under the pleasure principle, meaning it seeks to obtain gratification and fulfillment of its needs.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain that controls our thoughts, memories, imagination, and use of language. Can be used to either facilitate or inhibit sexual arousal in a variety of ways (Ex. sexual fantasy). • Other way brain influences sexual arousal is through production of neurotransmitters- substances that transmit signals between nerve cells. Two most potent NTs that affect sexual arousal are dopamine and serotonin.

Labia majora

The outer lips. Encases the genital structures beneath the mons. Folds of tissue usually covered with pubic hair that begin at the mons and extend downwards, encasing most of the remaining genital structures.

Orgasm

The peak of sexual arousal during which the muscles around the genitals make a series of brief, rhythmic contractions. o Some men/women can reach orgasms through thought and mental imagery alone and many have experienced orgasms during sleep, sometimes referred to as nocturnal orgasms or nocturnal emissions.

Refractory period

The period of time after an orgasm during which no additional orgasms are possible. Usually only experienced by men. Little is known about the reason behind this, but that maybe it has a basis in neurological and hormonal changes that occur in the body following orgasm, such as an increase in oxytocin levels. • Whereas men's responses tend to follow the sequential pattern of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, women's responses have the potential to be far more variable. • Both men and women fake orgasms sometimes, but women do it more often and frequently see it as a way to protect their partners from getting hurt. When men fake it, they are more likely to see it as a way to exit an undesirable/uncomfortable situation.

Sample Selection Convenience samples

The persons who are most readily accessible for research purposes. Ex. undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses. But might not be representative enough.

Ovulation

The portion of the menstrual cycle during which a mature egg is released from an ovary. Produces a number of important changes in women's sexual behavior, including everything from how she dresses to the types of partners she finds attractive.

Vomeronasal organ (VNO)

The portion of the olfactory (i.e. smell) system that processes pheromones. • Evidence for pheromones- menstrual synchrony- women in close quarters eventually started to get their periods around the same time, thought to stem from women's exposure to each other's pheromones.

Superego

The portion of the personality representing the conscience. Tries to persuade the ego to do what is moral.

Ego

The portion of the personality that keeps the id in check. Operate under the reality principle, trying to satisfy the id and avoid self-destruction.

Incidence

The rate at which new cases of a problem or disease occur.

Resolution

The return of the genitals to their nonaroused state and the final phase of the Masters and Johnson sexual response cycle. Penis becomes flaccid again, orgasmic platform disappears, heart and breathing rate slow. Can follow any of the previous phases (don't have to reach orgasm to enter resolution).

Areola

The round, darkened area that surrounds the nipple. • Both nipple and areola have many nerve endings and are sensitive to touch. Some women can even reach orgasm through nipple stimulation alone. • Breasts are composed of fatty tissue and mammary glands. All women have approximately the same number of mammary glands, the structures that generate maternal milk, but size of woman's breast is determined by amount of fatty tissue. Thus, women with larger breasts do not necessarily produce more milk.

Sexology

The scientific study of sex.

Menstruation

The shedding of the endometrial lining of the uterus when pregnancy has not occurred.

Chromosomal sex

The specific combination of sex chromosomes contained within one's genes. Determined at the moment of conception (when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg). Typically, egg cells carry single X-chromosome and sperm cells carry either single X- or Y-chromosome (XX is female and XY is male).

Gonadal sex

The specific gonads (i.e., ovaries vs. testes) present within one's body. Gonads begin to develop in response to genetic signals approximately six weeks after conception. Once developed, gonads begin releasing sex hormones.

Comparison level

The standard by which we evaluate our relationship outcomes. To determine whether our outcomes are good, we hold them up to some comparison level. o Ex. comparing the outcome we are receiving from our current relationship to those we received in the past. Cost-benefit ratio. Are you getting what you think you deserve?

Excitement

The start of sexual arousal and the first phase of the Masters and Johnson sexual response cycle. o Characterized by two physiological processes that begin here and are carried through the remaining phases. First, vasocongestion: an increase in blood flow to bodily tissues (in this case, genital tissues). Such as erections in men or for women when the clitoris, labia, and uterus become engorged and increase in size. Second, myotonia: voluntary and involuntary tensing and contracting of muscles (both in genital region and throughout body). o Other physical changes include increases in heart and breathing rate as well as the sex flush- increasing reddish appearance of the chest and torso during arousal.

Breasts (Secondary Characteristics) Nipple

The structure through which maternal milk is released at the center of the areola.

Case report

The study of one participant or a small group of participants in great depth and detail.

Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary psychology

The study of psychological traits as evolved adaptions. • One of the main ideas promoted by evolutionary psychologists is that human beings have an inherent motivation to produce as many of own offspring as possible. o It is thought that we have developed preferences for specific characteristics in our romantic/sexual partners that are likely to result in successful reproduction. o Ex. men being attracted to women with "hourglass" figure appears more fertile, less risks during childbirth, long silky hair indicates good health.

Personality Theories Personality Psychology

The study of relatively stable, intrapsychic factors that generate consistent patterns of behavior. Personality refers to something enduring that resides within an individual, which leads that person to respond to specific stimuli in a certain way.

Similarity Assortative mating

The tendency for people to match with partners who are similar to them on a variety of dimensions. Such as age, religion, and education level.

Prevalence

The total number of people who are currently afflicted with a given problem or disease.

Vas deferens

The tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. This is the tube that is cut during a vasectomy. Vas deferens exits scrotum through spermatic cord, goes up into abdomen, and loops around bladder before joining up with prostate. o Portion of prostate where vas deferens enters is known as the ejaculatory duct, which empties into the urethra. In ejaculatory duct, sperm from vas deferens mix with secretions from seminal vesicles and prostate to create semen.

Sexual orientation

The unique pattern of sexual and romantic desire, behavior, and identity each person expresses. Scientists cannot agree upon a universal definition. o Best viewed as existing on a continuum, because sexuality can be quite complex and people rarely fit neatly into a narrowly defined set of categories.

Reparative therapy

The use of operant conditioning principles to change someone's sexual orientation, usually from homosexual to heterosexual.

Introitus

The vaginal opening. Situated between the urethral opening and anus.

Biopsychosocial perspective

The view that health and behavior stem from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors. o This perspective acknowledges complexity and allows us to look at sexuality as product of whole person with mind and body being fundamentally and intimately interconnected. Looks at sexuality on a continuum- more holistic approach where we consider entire person.

Measurement and Prevalence

The way researchers operationalize sexual orientation has major implications for results obtained, with lower numbers typically observed when sexual orientation is assessed in terms of self-identity and higher numbers when it is assessed in terms of behavior.

Chapter 1:

Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality

Social comparison theory

This theory posits that we are driven to obtain accurate evaluations of the self and that one way of doing so is by comparing our attitudes and beliefs to those of others. o We actively seek to surround ourselves with people who hold similar beliefs and attitudes because it validates our own worldview and raises our self-esteem. • However, similarity is a very poor predictor of relationship success. The factors that initially attract us to someone are not necessarily the same factors that promote relationship stability and success. • We also do not necessarily want partners who are similar to us in all ways- on some dimensions we prefer complementarity rather than similarity. Thus, "birds of a feather flock together" is a bit oversimplified- "opposites attract" in some ways as well. • Data shows that couples today are more likely to marry outside of their race and faith.

Early theory of female orgasm suggested it served as a "sperm retention mechanism," orgasm might serve the purpose of retaining as much sperm as possible.

Two main arguments: orgasm increases likelihood of woman falling asleep after sex and as result of lying down, sperm loss will be minimized; orgasm induces "blow-suck" mechanism where uterine contractions draw sperm further inside reproductive tract.

Seminal vesicles

Two small glands that empty into the ejaculatory duct and produce the bulk of the seminal fluid by secreting alkaline, sugary substance that appears designed to enable nutrition and survival of sperm.

Surrender

Ultimately we surrender to orgasm. Our ability to give up control affects this response. Some have more difficulty "letting go" that others- may feel vulnerable/distracted.

Gender dysphoria

Unhappiness and discomfort that stems from a mismatch between one's physical sex and one's psychological gender identity.

Affective Influences

When someone makes us feel good or says something nice to us, we tend to like that person more, whereas when someone makes us feel bad or says something mean to us, we tend to like that person less.

Misattribution of physiological arousal

When the true source of arousal is ambiguous, we may incorrectly label the cause. Only occurs when there are competing explanations for the arousal.

Freud also proposed elaborate theory of psychosexual development- all children pass through series of five stages where different parts of the body serve as a source of pleasure: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital.

o If a child does not pass through all stages in expected order, can become "fixated" leading to lifelong urge to gratify relevant body part from that stage (ex. fixated in oral stage might result in constant hewing on pens/nails as adult). o Most well-known part of psychosexual theory: Oedipus complex- sexual desire for boy's mother and hatred for one's father o Penis envy-psychological traumatization due to either lack of penis or sexual desire for one's father (Electra complex).

Masters and Johnson were among the first to use electronic devices for studying sexual arousal. Some common technologies used in sexuality research today:

o Penile strain gauge: Small circular tube, a device for measuring sexual arousal through changes in penile circumference. o Vaginal photoplethysmograph: A device for measuring sexual arousal via changes in vaginal blood volume as determined by a photocell that captures reflected light.

Transvestite

• A transvestite engages in cross-dressing for purposes of sexual arousal but does not have a desire to change sexes. Transvestism is often a type of fetish. Transssexuals most commonly report feeling as though they are trapped in the body of the "wrong sex." Most transevestites are heterosexual, married men. • Might be a neurological basis that potentially stems from prenatal hormone exposure for transsexualism. o Most transsexuals appear to be attracted to people who match their biological sex. o Autogynephilia- when a biological man is aroused by the mental image of being a woman; autoandrophilia- when a biological woman is aroused by the mental image of being a woman.

Biological and Evolutionary Influences

• Biological- refer to a person's genes or hormone levels that might influence how their brain develops or functions. • Evolutionary- there is little that is unique about humans' sexual activities.

Biopsychosocial Theories

• Daryl Bem proposes that individuals are not born with certain sexual orientation- brown with temperament that predisposes us to prefer some activities over others. o Some children's temperaments lead them to prefer activities associated with other sex- engage in gender nonconformity. We begin to see those who engage in different activities as exotic. Theory is that feelings of difference evoke nonsexual physiological arousal when child is near peer that feels different from them and during puberty, when sexual feelings begin to develop, physiological arousal turns to sexual arousal.

A Brief History of Sexology

• Early sex research necessitated some degree of secrecy- many taboo topics that couldn't get funded or supported- many researchers risked their career to study them. o Alfred Kinsey worked with William Masters and Virginia Johnson on sex research. Sexology as a Science • See p.31 for summary of sexology research methods.

Theories of Sexual Orientation: Early Psychological Theories

• Freud said that all humans are polymorphously perverse: the Freudian notion that humans can derive sexual pleasure from almost anything. o Said that everyone is inherently bisexual, but through normal progression through the psychosexual stages of development it would result in a pattern of heterosexual attraction, thereby making bisexuality a latent characteristic in most people. o He argued that male homosexuality could stem from two sources: fixation in the phallic stage of development, or an unresolved Oedipal complex due to presence of an overbearing mother and absentee father.

Psychosocial Influences on Gender Identity and Sexuality

• From the moment a child is born, the way parents interact with that child is completely different depending upon whether it is a boy or a girl. o Study where adults were to interact with infant presented as either boy or girl. All adults were actually interacting with same infant. Often were treated differently depending on perceived gender. Verbalized more language and engaged in more nurturing play with infant perceived as girl and chose dolls/other feminine toys, but chose trucks/tools when playing with perceived boy. o Simply knowing a child's sex prompts a set of beliefs about gender-appropriate behaviors/traits that can creep into social interactions, sometimes subconsciously. o May lead children to engage in gender-stereotypic behavior through a self-fulfilling prophecy: when other's expectations elicit and reinforce certain behavior, effectively making a stereotype come true. o Also gender-segregated play beings very quickly in childhood and continues throughout adolescence. Teachers also harbor stereotypes about the academic abilities of the sexes, such as believing math comes easier to boys. Can have important implications for students' academic outcomes and chosen career paths. Teachers' beliefs about students' abilities subtly affects how well students do in school. Another self-fulfilling prophecy. o See Table 5.3 on P.129 for gendered presentations of men/women in the media.

John Money case

• John Money case- shows us that gender is not something that we can simply assign at birth. Suggests that gender identity is likely "wired" in our brains before birth. • All of these sex variations tell us that biology and genetics play an indisputable role in the development of both gender identity and sexuality. Also, out of all the potential biological variables, prenatal sex hormone exposure may be the most important of all. However, there is certainly room for psychosocial factors to contribute to the development of gender as well.

Evolutionary Theories

• Kin selection hypothesis: An evolutionary theory of homosexuality, which argues that persons with same-sex attraction tend to invest in raising the offspring of their relatives in order to pass along their family's genes. Sometimes referred to as the "gay uncle hypothesis." o Western cultures failed to support this hypothesis, but received support in cultures where same-sex attracted biological males adopt feminine gender roles/identities. o Suggests that there may be something to the kin selection idea, but that it only emerges under very limited circumstances (when male same-sex attraction co-occurs with more feminine gender expression in a socially accepting environment). o Theory that enhanced fertility would compensate for fact that not all children in genetic pool would produce offspring of their own- greater female fertility is associated with higher likelihood of having gay children. o Evolutionary accounts of female same-sex behavior are less common but one is the alloparenting hypothesis- women have evolved a "flexible" sexuality that can shift between attraction to men and women, adaptive for female ancestors, if father left and women needed to care for family they could start relationship with other women. Or to reduce conflict among co-wives in polygynous marriages. Hypotheses are limited and difficult to test.

Sex differences

• Larger sex differences have merged with respect to the Big Five agreeableness and neuroticism. Women tend to be (1) more trusting and compliant, and (2) experience more anxiety and negative affect than men. Vary cross-culturally which suggests these differences are a product of culture and society, not genetics. o Also, men are more inclined to aggress in very direct and physical ways, whereas women are more inclined to aggress in more indirect and verbal ways (spreading rumors/gossip). Part of reason men are more aggressive overall is that they are provoked more often. o Findings suggest that men may not be genetically predisposed to be more aggressive than women but society expects men and women to act out their aggression in very different ways and allows men more opportunities to be aggressive. o Men tend to interrupt their conversation partners more than women but is situationally dependent. Also, women are better at decoding emotion behind facial expressions. o Men have more favorable attitudes toward "hooking up" and are more willing to have sex with people they just met. Men masturbate and look at porn more than women. Men have higher sex drive and more daily thoughts about sex. o Women have more erotic plasticity than men- female sexuality is more flexible and responsive to social/cultural factors than male sexuality. From evidence indicating that (1) women have a nonspecific genital response pattern- genital arousal from wider range of sexual stimuli, (2) women are more likely to report a bisexual orientation, (3) women's sexual identity is more likely to change over time, and (4) women are far less likely to develop fetishes or become fixated on one specific sexual object.

Sexual Fluidity

• Lisa Diamond argues that sexual orientation may have stronger biological component in men than in women. Men are more likely to be "hardwired" for attraction to one sex, whereas women's sexuality is less likely to be focused on one specific category. • Sexual fluidity: The ability to adapt sexual and romantic attraction toward a specific person instead of an overall gender category. Reflects one's capacity to change attraction patterns across contexts. Women have more fluidity overall, but men can be sexually fluid as well. o Diamond's perspective is similar to Bems' because suggests that biology creates sexual capacity influenced by social and environmental factors. • Sexuality is a product of multiple factors and there may be several routes to any given sexual orientation.

Psychological Models of Sexual Response

• Masters and Johnson model is not universally accepted- criticized for being purely biological, giving no consideration to the psychological aspects of sexual arousal/response. What about sexual desire?

Sexual Orientation Myths

• Men cannot truly be bisexual. • All gay men are effeminate and all lesbians are masculine. • In a gay relationship, someone must play the "husband" and someone must play the "wife." • Gay parents tend to raise gay children. • Homosexuality is correlated with pedophilia. • All gay men are more promiscuous and are incapable of commitment.

Male Sexual Anatomy: External Anatomy

• Penis consists of three parts: root, shaft, and glans. Root is the internal portion that serves to anchor it to the pubic bones. Shaft and glans are external portions visible to naked eye. Shaft is loose and pendulous and covered with hair at the base. Glans (head) sits at end of shaft and contains urethral opening (meatus), most sensitive portion of penis containing largest concentration of nerve endings. • At base of glans is corona (crown) which is the distinctive ridge encircling the head.

Primary treatments for gender dysphoric disorder

• Primary treatments for gender dysphoric disorder are not psychiatric but include gender affirmation survey- attempts to bring their body in line with their gender identity. o Gender affirmation surgery: A surgical procedure in which a transsexual person's body is adjusted to match that person's gender identity.

Neurochemical Factors

• Sexual attraction and behavior are at least partly determined by our sense of smell (pheromones have an effect). • Relative amount of NTs such as dopamine and serotonin in our brain when we meet someone new may have a profound impact on whether we develop an attraction toward that person. Also, the higher partners' levels of oxytocin, the more positive and affectionate they are around one another. Not only does it contribute to initial attraction but also helps sustain attraction over time by promoting reciprocal positive interactions.

Internal Anatomy

• Shaft is composed of three long cylinders, all of which fill with blood during sexual arousal and creating an erection. o Two of these cylinders are known as the cavernous bodies: two cylinders of erectile tissue that run along the upper portion of the penis. o Sitting below the cavernous bodies is the smaller spongy body: a cylinder of erectile tissue that encases the urethra and expands to form the glans.

Biological and Hormonal Theories

• Simon LeVay reported that the third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH3) in heterosexual men was more than twice the size of the INAH3 in homosexual men, but was similar in size to that of heterosexual women. But many research errors with AIDS affecting brains and lack of certainty with people's sexual orientations. o Study found that gay men's brains looked more like those of heterosexual women in that they tended to be more symmetrical- left and right spheres were similar size and possessed greater concentration of nerve connections in left side of amygdala. o Also, heterosexual individuals (male and female) tend to have more symmetrical faces than gays and lesbians. o Homosexuals more likely to be left-handed, and gay and lesbians tend to exhibit sex-atypical finger-length ratios. Lesbians tend to exhibit a more masculine pattern, whereas gay men tend to show an even more exaggerated masculine pattern- but only those with two or more older brothers. (Fraternal birth order effect- the more biological older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay o Identical twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation than are fraternal twins or non-twin siblings. Probably has to do with prenatal hormone exposure. Theory that gay men and lesbians are exposed to higher than usual levels of androgens in utero. o Biology seems to play some role in the development of sexual orientation but our understanding remains limited.

Psychology of the Breasts and Vulva: Female Bodily Concerns

• Some women pursue "vaginal rejuvenation" survey, advertised to tighten the vagina, which can have many risks. • Evidence for a sexual double standard, where men's and women's bodies are evaluate differently, with women being subject to the harshest criticism.

Limitations of Kaplan Model

• Viewed that sexual problems could occur at any stage and problems in one stage do not necessarily translate to problems in other stages. Might have hypoactive sexual desire disorder (low levels of sexual desire) but still be able to have a physical sexual response. Identifying stage at which problem occurs is necessary for understanding/treatment cases of sexual dysfunction because different parts of brain/body are involved at each stage. • Most controversial aspect is emphasis on sexual desire which is not a necessary precursor for sexual response (desire may develop after sexual activity has begun- responsive desire).

Scarcity

• When a person's availability decreases, their attractiveness increases (just like when marketing a product). • Study- at a bar, as the window of opportunity for going home with someone narrowed, perceptions of others' attractiveness went up. But also could have been affected by alcohol. • Study- both men and women were willing to take the low-availability target to a fancier dinner and spend more money on that person compare to other targets- "playing hard to get" increases one's desirability as a potential romantic partner. o Scarcity increases perceived desirability of prospective partners and encourages people to expend more resources on them.

Vision

• Women are more likely to have a nonspecific genital response pattern (they demonstrate arousal in response to a wider range of sexual stimuli), which some have interpreted as an indicator that they have greater erotic plasticity than men. • Preparation response hypothesis- women became genitally responsive to all sexual cues in order to reduce the risk of injury (vaginal tears) in the event that sex is forced upon them.