Psych of Personality Ch 18: Stress, Coping, Adjustment, and Health

Type D Personality

"distressed" personality a dimension along which individuals differ on two underlying traits: (1) negative affectivity (2) social inhibition

cognitive events that must occur for stress to be evoked

(1) *primary appraisal* - the person must perceive that the event is a threat to his or her personal goals (2) *secondary appraisal* - the person concludes that he or she does not have the resources to cope with the demands of the threatening event if either of these appraisals is absent - if the person does not perceive the event as threatening, or if the person feels he or she has plenty of resources for coping with the threat - then the stress is not evoked

theories for disclosure's impact on health (how disclosure promotes adjustment)

(1) disclosure reduces the cost of having to inhibit information (2) writing about an event allows a person to reinterpret and reframe the meaning of that event - a person writing or talking about a past traumatic event can try to better understand the event, search for some positive meaning in the event (positive re-appraisal), and integrate that event into his or her current situation

moderator

*a variable that influences the direction or degree of the relationship between two other variables* - ex: if stress is correlated with illness, yet this correlation is stronger for some people compared to others (ex: those higher in neuroticism), then we would say that the personality trait of neuroticism is a moderator of the relationship between stress and illness can also be a *risk multiplier* - ex: drug use and peer usage are related, but only in high sensation seekers - so high sensation seeking multiplies the risk of having peers who use drugs on the probability that the person will themselves use drugs *not just used in health psychology

episodic acute stress

*repeated episodes* of acute stress ex: a weekend job that is stressful, or having to meet a deadline each month can lead to migraines, hypertension, stroke, anxiety, depression, or serious gastrointestinal distress

health behaviors

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positive emotions' role in the stress process

Positive emotions may: (1) sustain coping efforts (2) provide a break from stress (3) give people time and opportunity to restore depleted resources, including the restoration of social relationships

Type A personality and cardiovascular disease

Type A is an independent factor - not related to things like smoking or eating habits it's not Type A overall, but specifically the hostility component (structured interviews focused more on hostility and showed more of a relationship; questionnaires focused more on the competitive achievement motivation and time urgency substrates, and those did not find relationships)

traumatic stress

a *massive instance* of acute stress, the *effects* of which *can reverberate for years or even a lifetime* differs from acute stress mainly in terms of the symptoms associated with the stress response - symptoms called *PTSD* often relive the experience through nightmares or intense flashbacks, have difficulty sleeping, have physical complaints, have flattened emotions, and feel detached or estranged from others these symptoms can be severe enough and last long enough to significantly impair the person's daily life, such as having trouble with personal relationships or holding down a job

positive reappraisal

a cognitive process whereby a person focuses on the good in what is happening or has happened include seeing opportunities for personal growth and seeing how one's own efforts can benefit other people by changing how they interpret what is happening to them, people actually change the meaning of situations such that the adversity, in fact, gives them strength

attributional style

a dispositional way of explaining the causes of bad events "where does the person typically place blame when things go wrong?" dimensions: - external vs. internal - unstable vs. stable - specific vs. global

negative affectivity (Type D)

a substrate of Type D personality defined as the tendency to frequently experience negative emotions across time and situations, including such unpleasant emotions as tension, worry, irritability, and anxiety very similar to the trait of neuroticism and includes, in addition to a high frequency of negative emotions: - a negative view of oneself - a tendency to complain - finding oneself reacting more than usual to stressful situations

social inhibition (Type D)

a substrate of Type D personality defined as the tendency to inhibit the expression of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in social interactions people high on social inhibition feel insecure or apprehensive in the company of others and worry about social evaluation and being the target of disapproval from others; consequently, they inhibit themselves when around others and keep people at a distance - they are less likely to seek social support when they have problems

CAVE Technique

a way to measure attributional style by analyzing people's actual written explanations advantage: allows researcher to study participants who are either not available or not willing to participate in typical research, provided that such participants have made public some material containing causal explanations (ex: presidential speeches, movie star interviews, song lyrics, children's stories, myths and religion)

emotional inhibition and the brain

areas dealing with successful regulation of negative emotions mainly in *prefrontal cortex* of the brain (fMRI scans) PFC - planning, executive control, & *regulation of emotions*

Type A personality

collection of behaviors including competitive and aggressive, active and energetic in actions and speaking, and more ambitious and driven includes three substrates: (1) competitive achievement motivation (2) time urgency (3) hostility

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

come from instances of traumatic stress syndrome that occurs in some persons after experiencing or witnessing life-threatening events (ex: military combat, natural disasters, terrorist incidents, serious accidents, or violent personal assaults such as rape) often relive the experience through nightmares or intense flashbacks, have difficulty sleeping, have physical complaints, have flattened emotions, and feel detached or estranged from others these symptoms can be severe enough and last long enough to significantly impair the person's daily life, such as having trouble with personal relationships or holding down a job

alarm stage

consists of *fight-or-flight response* of the sympathetic nervous system and the associated peripheral nervous system reactions these include the release of hormones that prepare the body for challenge first stage of general adaptation syndrome

creating positive events

creating a positive time-out from stress ex: pause and reflect on something positive, like a compliment received, a pleasing or humorous memory, or a sunset - these sorts of time-outs can give a person a momentary respite from the chronic stress humor can be a tension reducer and may contribute to mental and physical health

stressors

events that cause stress have several common attributes: (1) stressors are *extreme*, in the sense that they produce a state of feeling overwhelmed and overloaded, that one just cannot take it much longer - *intense* (2) stressors often produce *opposing tendencies*, such as wanting and not wanting an activity or object - ex: wanting to study but also wanting to put it off as long as possible - *conflict* (3) stressors are *uncontrollable*, outside of our power to influence - ex: an exam we cannot avoid

major life events

events that require people to make major adjustments in their lives ex: death of a spouse, loss of a job, being put in jail, marriage, pregnancy some of these events are thought to be positive (marriage, going to college), but these events are also likely to be stressful - stress is the subjective response to an event and even though an event is positive, it may have the three characteristics association with stressors: intensity, conflict, and uncontrollability study found that people with the most stress points were also the most likely to have a serious illness during that year - links found between major life events and illness cold study: - participants were either given plain nose drops or common cold drops - participants who experienced more negative life events were more likely to develop a cold after being given the virus idea: stress lowers immune system, which makes it less effective at fighting illness

disclosure and health

experiment 1 - college students either wrote about a distressing/traumatic experience or something trivial (15 minutes each night for four nights) - traumatic topic group reported more distress and discomfort while writing, and blood pressure measures taken while writing suggested they were feeling more stress than the trivial topic group - six months later, found that trauma group had *fewer illnesses* in those months compared with trivial group - also went to health center less often -idea: *just the act of writing about an upsetting event, even if no one ever reads the writing, may have a beneficial effect on health* experiment 2 - new college freshmen - one group write about their difficulties and feelings about the challenges of leaving family and friends at home and starting independent life at college; other group write about trivial things - one semester later: feelings group had gone to student health center fewer times people who keep unpleasant info to themselves more likely to develop anxiety or depression two minutes of writing on two consecutive days produced measurable health benefits assessed four-six weeks later

arteriosclerosis

hardening or blocking of the arteries

hostility and cardiovascular disease

hostility is a strong predictor of cardiovascular disease also associated with systemic inflammation, as indicated by elevated levels of blood leukocyte counts (white blood cell counts) - inflammation = risk for coronary disease strong feelings of hostility and aggression produce fight-or-flight response --> increase in blood pressure, constriction of arteries, increase in heart rate and amount of blood pumped out with each heartbeat (aka the person's body suddenly pumps more blood through smaller arteries) --> can produce wear and tear on the inside lining of arteries, causing microscopic tears and abrasions to which cholesterol and fat can become attached fight-or-flight --> stress hormones released --> could lead to artery damage and subsequent buildup of fatty deposits on the artery walls fat molecules build up --> arteries become progressively narrower (arteriosclerosis - hardening or blocking of arteries) --> arteries that feed heart muscles become blocked --> shortage of blood to heart (heart attack)

broaden and build model of positive emotions

idea that positive emotions "*broaden*" the scope of attention, cognition, and action - this helps the person see more options in stressful situations, think about alternatives, and try different ways of coping with the stress "*build*" - suggests positive emotions help a person build up reserves of energy, as well as social resources, especially in terms of how positive emotions help a person build a social support network (important in facilitating adaptive coping and adjustment to stress - experiments find that after a period of acute stress, positive emotions facilitated recovery)

optimistic bias

most people's tendency to underestimate their risk, with the average person rating his or her risk as below what is the true probability it can actually lead people in general to ignore or minimize the risks inherent in life or to take more risks than they should

Type D and cardiovascular disease

negative affectivity and social inhibition act synergistically to put cardiac patients at risk for future adverse cardiac events - need high levels of both traits to put an individual at risk for further cardiac problems associated with poorer outcomes, like increased mortality, faster progression of the disease, and poorer health status after rehabilitation program underlying mechanism candidates: (1) disturbances in the brain's stress response, with high Type D persons showing an exaggerated stress response evidenced by higher levels of cortisol in their blood (stress hormone that if high levels occur over time can increase inflammation in arteries, leading to buildup and blockages) --> aka association between Type D and physical health is mediated by measures of inflammatory burden (2) the factors, including health related behaviors and social support - Type D subjects less likely to eat sensibly, spend less time outdoors, more bothered by events in their daily lives, less likely to get medical checkups; report lower levels of perceived social support --> aka Type D trait affects health through poorer health behaviors and lower social support

interaction model

objective events happen to people, but personality factors determine the impact of those events by influencing people's ability to cope personality has its effects on the *coping responses* - how people respond to the event - personality acts as a *moderator* personality makes a person more or less vulnerable to events (ex: if a person were infected with a cold virus but had a hard-driving, competitive personality, that person would not rest, or do other necessary behaviors to fight off the virus, and could become very ill)

optimism and health

optimism is correlated (so no causation!) with good health by self-report, ratings of general health made by the participants' physicians, number of visits to the doctor, survival time after heart attacks, immune system functioning, faster rehabilitation after breast cancer surgery, longer life, and health behaviors such as exercising regularly, avoiding fatty foods, drinking in moderation or not at all, and responding to a cold with appropriate action

emotional inhibition vs. expression and happiness

participants kept daily records of how they were feeling each day for three consecutive weeks, then completed a questionnaire measure on emotional expressiveness --> emotional expressiveness correlated with higher levels of happiness over the three weeks, as well as with lower levels of anxiety and guilt emotional expressiveness also correlated with higher self-esteem

emotional inhibition vs. expression and relationships

people who expressed their feelings to their partners reported having fewer problems in their relationships knowing how another feels allows you to adjust your behavior accordingly - if your partner never expresses how he or she feels, then it is difficult to know what makes him or her happy or sad or angry

pessimistic attributional style

people who make *stable, global,* and *internal* explanations for bad events

optimistic attributional style

people who make *unstable, specific,* and *external* explanations for *bad events*

health behavior model

personality does not directly influence the relationship between stress and illness - instead, *personality affects health indirectly by influencing the degree to which a person engages in health-promoting or health-degrading behaviors* ex: a conscientious person exercises more and eats healthier --> they live longer and get sick less often

transactional model

personality has three potential effects: (1) it can influence *coping*, as in the interactional model (2) it can influence how the person appraises or *interprets the events* (3) it can influence the *events themselves* - people don't just respond to situations, they also create situations through their choices and actions transactional because stressful events don't just influence persons, persons also influence events (this influence comes about through the appraisal of the events, as well as the selection and modification of events ex: neuroticism may relate to ill health through its effects on stress appraisal and stress exposure

illness behavior model

personality influences the degree to which a person perceives and pays attention to bodily sensations and the degree to which the person interprets and labels those sensations as an illness the way in which a person perceives and labels those sensations, then, influences the person's illness behaviors, such as reporting the symptoms and going to a doctor ex: a hypochondriac may notice every sensation, and may engage in illness behaviors all the time

general adaptation syndrome

persons under chronic stress eventually deplete bodily resources and become vulnerable to infection stages: (1) *alarm stage* - fight or flight response (2) *resistance stage* - depletion of bodily resources (3) *exhaustion stage* - susceptibility to illness and disease

chronic stress

refers to *stress that does not end* (ex: an abusive relationship) day in and day out, chronic stress grinds us down until our *resistance is gone* serious systemic illnesses, such as those associated with decreased immune system functioning, or cardiovascular disease, can result from chronic stress

pessimism and health

research found that pessimistic participants were more likely to die at an earlier age than optimistic participants - the real difference in cause of deaths was the *frequency of accidents and violent deaths* - the effect was particularly strong for males - seems like many (male) pessimists make a habit of being in the wrong place at the wrong time may be due to a *preference for potentially hazardous situations and activities* - perhaps pessimists are motivated to escape their gloomy moods by choosing exciting but risky situations and activities

chronic emotional inhibition

someone who characteristically inhibits the free expression of emotion may suffer the effects of *chronic sympathetic nervous system arousal* - people who keep their negative emotions to themselves are more likely than expressive persons to have a higher mortality rate, a greater likelihood of recurrence of cancer after treatment, and a suppressed immune system - cancer patients who express their negative emotions, and who emotionally fight their disease, sometimes live longer than patients who accept their situation, inhibit their emotions, and quietly accept their treatment

additive effects

stress has additive effects - the effects of stress add up and accumulate in a person over time

health psychology

studies the relationship between the mind and the body, as well as the ways in which these two components respond to challenges from the environment (e.g., stressful events, germs) to produce either illness or health

predisposition model

suggests that associations exist between personality and illness because of a third variable, which is causing them both ex: enhanced sympathetic nervous system reactivity may be the cause of a subsequent illness, as well as cause the behaviors and emotions that lead a person to be called neurotic could be related to genetic predispositions (ex: there could be a gene that makes people both more likely to be a high sensation seeker and more likely to develop an addiction to drugs)

emotional inhibition

suppression of emotional expression often thought of as a trait (i.e., some people chronically suppress their emotions) ex: hiding your disappointment when receiving a gift you didn't like Freud saw it as a problem, but developmental psychology sees it as a huge achievement (develops around age 3 - children learn not to strike back when angry, or not to cry when upset) study: view funny and sad video; emotional suppression group and no-suppression group - suppression group showed increased level of physiological arousal before the videos even began - participants were preparing for the effort necessary to suppress their emotions - increased physiological activity during the video - indicates increased. sympathetic nervous system arousal - suppression group did successfully suppress emotions - suppression group reported slightly less amusement in funny video but equal amount of sadness in sad video *suppression of emotion takes effort and exerts physiological costs above and beyond emotional arousal*

disclosure

telling someone about a private aspect of oneself idea that it takes physical energy to inhibit the thoughts and feelings associated with traumatic, negative, or upsetting events; over time, this stress builds, and can lead to a likelihood of stress-related problems like trouble sleeping, irritability, physical symptoms, and even illness resulting from lowered immune system functioning people who disclose more often are less likely to develop anxiety and depression

illness behavior

the action that people take when they think they have an illness, such as complaining to others about their symptoms, going to the doctor, taking the day off from school or work, or taking medication illness behavior not perfectly related to illness - some people will tough it out, and refuse to engage in illness behavior when sick, and others will engage in illness behaviors even when not sick

self-efficacy

the belief that one can do the behaviors necessary to achieve a desired outcome, and the confidence one has in their ability to perform the actions needed to achieve a specific outcome ex: someone's belief and confidence that he or she can climb Mt. Everest - the subjective feeling, the positive expectation about performing the behaviors necessary to climb the mountain - is self-efficacy

resistance stage

the body is using its resources at an above average rate (*depleting bodily resources*), even though the immediate fight-or-flight has been resisted at this point, stress is being resisted, but the effort is making demands on this person's resources and energy second stage of general adaptation syndrome

dispositional optimism

the expectation that good events will be plentiful in the future, and that bad events will be rare in the future emphasizes not explanatory style but expectations for the future

frustration

the high-arousal unpleasant subjective feeling that comes when a person is blocked from attaining an important goal

daily hassles

the major source of stress in most people's lives although only minor, can be chronic and repetitive (ex: daily traffic, worries about weight, an unpleasant boss, having too many things to do) persons with a lot of minor stress in their lives suffer more than expected from psychological and physical symptoms

illness

the presence of an objectively measurable abnormal physiological process, such as fever, high blood pressure, or a tumor

exhaustion stage

the stage in which a person is *most susceptible to illness and disease*, as his or her physiological resources are depleted third stage of general adaptation syndrome

stress

the subjective feeling produced by events that are uncontrollable or threatening stress is a RESPONSE to the perceived demands of the situation - NOT the situation itself a feeling of being overwhelmed by events that you cannot seem to control

hostility

the substrate of Type A personality that includes: - a tendency to respond to everyday frustrations with anger and aggression - becoming irritable easily - feeling frequent resentment - acting in a rude, critical, antagonistic, and uncooperative manner in everyday interactions people high in hostility are not necessarily violent or outwardly aggressive, or assertive or demanding of others - such people are likely to react disagreeably to disappointments, frustrations, and inconveniences (ex: a person whose food got stuck in the vending machine reacts by screaming and attacking the garbage) hostile people are easily irritated, even by small frustrations

time urgency

the substrate of Type A personality that includes: - hating wasting time - always being in a hurry and feeling under pressure to get the most doe in the least amount of time - often doing two things at once

competitive achievement motivation

the substrate of Type A personality that includes: - liking to work hard and achieve goals - recognition, power, and the defeat of obstacles - feeling at their best when competing with others (aka need for achievement)

problem-focused coping

using thoughts and behaviors to manage or solve the underlying causes of stress can be useful in situations that, on the surface, appear uncontrollable - ex: AIDS caregivers - focused on things they could control, like to-do lists, administering medications, making the bed - keeping these lists and ticking off completed items gave caregivers opportunity to feel effective and in control in an otherwise overwhelming situation solving problems, even little ones, can give a person a positive sense of control even in the most stressful and uncontrollable circumstances

acute stress

what most people associate with the term stress results from the *sudden onset of demands* this type of stress is often experienced as tension headaches, emotional upsets, gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation and pressure ex: 9/11, and many people who were not directly involved experiencing the stress that comes from feeling that events are not under control

primary appraisal

when a person perceives that an event is a threat to his or her personal goals

mediation

when the influence of one variable (ex: personality) on another (ex: longevity) works by going through a third variable - the mediator (ex: health behaviors) ex: the effect of conscientiousness on longevity goes through, or is due to, specific health behaviors a way of understanding an observed relationship (ex: conscientiousness correlated with longevity) by specifying the underlying mechanism captured by the mediator variable (ex: health behavior) ex: extraversion and popularity are correlated, but it's not extraversion that directly affects popularity, but rather the fact that extraverts are better verbalizers - the effect of extraversion on popularity is going through oral fluency

secondary appraisal

when the person concludes that he or she does not have the resources to cope with the demands of the threatening event