Psych Review (Acrobatiq): Units 1,2,3,4, & 7

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Behaviorism

A school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself; early 20th century; Ivan pavlov, John b. watson, B.F. skinner

Survey

A measure administered through either a face-to-face or telephone interview or a written or computer-generated questionnaire, to get a picture of beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest

Recall test

A measure of explicit memory that involve retrieving information that has been previously learned

Recognition memory test

A measure of memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before

Dependent variable

A measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation

Operational definition

A precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable

Debriefing

A procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A procedure in which magnetic pulses are applied to the brain of living persons with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivating a small brain region

Random assignment to conditions

A procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random table number

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters that are in the synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons

Spurious relationship

A relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and "explains away" the relationship

Cerebellum

A.K.A. the little brain, it functions to coordinate voluntary movement

Source monitoring

Ability to accurately identify the source of a memory

Free choice

Ability to have the option to participate in something or do something else as an alternative

Privacy

Ability to keep data anonymous

Introspection

Asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks

Relearning (or savings)

Assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten

Frontotemporal Dementia

Associated with changes in artistic and musical tastes and skills as well as with an increase in repetitive behaviors

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory

Empiricism

Belief that the newborns' mind is a "blank slate" and that the accumulation of experiences mold the person into who he or she becomes

Double-blind experiment

Both the researcher and the research participants are blind to condition

Lesions

Brains of living human beings may be damaged

Proactive interference

Earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later

Humanistic Psychology

Emphasizes each person is inherently good and motivated to learn and improve to become a healthy, effectively functioning individual, personal responsibility, and human potential; 1950s; Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

John Locke

English philosopher that is known for his viewpoint on empiricism

Occam's Razor

Entities should not be multiplied by necessity; simpler theory will be preferred

Cognitive biases

Errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes

Misinformation effect

Errors in memory that occur when new information influences existing memories

Interrater Reliability

Estimate how much agreement there is between the two observers about what the subjects were doing

Informed consent

Explain the research procedures and inform the participants of his or her rights during the investigation

Generalization

Extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables

Reticular formation

Filter out some of the stimuli that are coming into the brain from the spinal cord and to relay the remainder of the signals to other areas of the brain

Episodic memory

Firsthand experiences, or episodes, that we have on a daily basis

Collectivism

Focuses on developing harmonious social relationships with others, group togetherness and connectedness, and duty and responsibility to one's family and other groups

Hypothalamus (endocrine system def)

Main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system and directs the release of hormones by its interactions with the pituitary gland

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Major controller of the body's functions

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Lack of this can lead to tremors and seizures

Gambler's fallacy

People who see a flipped coin come up "heads" five times in a row will frequently predict, and perhaps even wager money, that "tails" will be next

Functional fixedness

People's schemas prevent them from using an object in new and nontraditional ways

Period of consolidation

Period of time in which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored

Research hypothesis

Precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory. Specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables

Sympathetic division of the ANS

Preparing the body for rapid action in response to stress from threats or emergencies

Hippocampus

Preprocessor and elaborator of information

Most direct ethical concern of the scientist in a human experiment

Preventing harm to the research participants

Amygdala

Primarily responsible for regulating our perceptions of and reactions to aggression and fear

Elaborative encoding

Process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful

Retrieval

Process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory

Visual cortex

Processes visual information

Occipital lobe

Processes visual information (lobe)

Adrenal glands

Produce hormones that regulate salt and water balance in the body, and they are involved in metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. Produce adrenaline and noradrenaline when stress or threatened

Parsimonious

Provides the simplest possible account of those outcomes

Pancreas

Secretes hormones designed to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and main stores of energy

Endocrine System

Secretes hormones that influence our emotions and behaviors

Pineal gland

Secretes melotonin, a hormone that helps regulate the wake-sleep cycle

Input

Sensory cortex

Memory Duration

Sensory input - sensory memory - short term memory- long term memory

Predictor variable

Sometimes referred to as independent variables

Synapses

Spaces between the cells

Research design

Specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data

Resting Potential

State in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of negatively charged ions than does the area outside the cell

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation

Cognitive psychology

Study of how we think, process information and solve problems, how we learn and remember, and how we acquire and use language

Developmental psychology

Study of the development of a human being from conception until death

Personality psychology

Study of the differences and uniqueness of people and the influences on a person's personality

True Experiment

Study where participants are randomly assigned into two groups

State-dependent learning

Superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding

Mind-body Dualism

The body is physical and the mind is nonphysical, mysterious and somehow controls the body

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to experience of damage; enables us to learn and remember new things and adjust to new experiences

Sensory memory

The brief storage of sensory information

Independent Variable

The causing variable that is created (manipulated by the experimenter

Egocentrism

The child's thinking is centered in his or her own view of the world (not that the child is selfish)

External Validity

The extent to which the results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was conducted

Internal validity

The extent to which we can trust the conclusions that have been drawn about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables

Spacing effect

The fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time

Neurogensis

The forming of new neurons

Brain lateralization

The idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain are specialized to perform different functions

Observer Bias

The individual observing behavior is influenced by their own experiences, expectations, or knowledge about the purpose of the observation or study

Initial Equivalence

The influence of common-causal variables is controlled, and thus eliminated

Implicit memory

The influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences; no conscious awareness; procedural, priming, classical conditioning

Spinal cord

The long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves and supporting cells that extends down from the brain

Brain stem

The oldest and innermost region of the brain. It controls the most basic functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses

Cerebral cortex

The outer barklike layer of our brain that allows us to so successfully use language, acquire complex skills, create tools, and live in social groups

Motor cortex

The part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and the spinal cord

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing

Theory of natural selection

The physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they were useful or functional

Short-term memory (STM)

The place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually less than one minute

Encoding

The process by which we place our experiences into memory

Chunking

The process of organizing information into smaller groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM

Maintenance rehearsal

The process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory

Replication

The process of repeating previous research which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry

Working memory

The processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM

Positive psychology

The scientific study of optimal human functioning

Scientific method

The set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research

Social psychology

The study of how social situations and cultures in which people live influence their thinking, feelings, and behavior

Overconfidence

The tendency for people to be too certain about their ability to accurately remember events and to make judgements

Recency effect

The tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list

Availability heuristic

The tendency to make judgments of the frequency or likelihood that an event occurs on the basis of the ease with which it can be retrieved from memory

Counterfactual thinking

The tendency to think about and experience events according to "what might have been'

Confirmation bias

The tendency to verify and confirm our existing memories rather than to challenge and disconfirm them

Falsifiable

The variables of interest can be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect

Salient

They attract our attention (things that are unique, colorful, bright, moving, and unexpected)

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking

Psi-gamma

Those phenomena that involve anomalous information transfer, like ESP, clairvoyance, and remote viewing

Psi-kappa

Those phenomena that involve anomalous transfer of matter, such as psychokinesis or telekinesis, or even anomalous transfer of energy, such as pyrokinsesis

Axon

Transmits information away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands

Ganzfeld Procedure

constraining physical ability on receiver end, sender in other room has deck of cards; results in 34% instead of 25% right- statistical significance

Glands

groups of cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Individualism

Valuing the self and one's independence from others, sometimes at the expense of others

Measured variables

Variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables

Confounding variables

Variables other than the independent variable on which the participants in one experimental condition differ systematically from those in other conditions

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

We are certain that we know something that we are trying to recall but cannot quite come up with it

Eidetic imagery memory

Iconic memory seems to last longer (photographic memory)

Evolutionary psychology

A contemporary perspective of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior

Structuralism

1st psychology; A school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements of psychological experience; late 19th century; Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B. Titchener

Functionalism

2nd psychology; Inspired by Darwin's work in biology. To understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess; late 19th century; William James, John Dewey

Cognitive Development

A field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment; 1920s; Jean piaget; Lev vygotsky

Self-actualization

A basic, broad need to develop our special unique human potential

Neuron

A cell in the nervous system whose function it is to receive and transmit information

Neurotransmitter

A chemical that relays signals across the synapses between neurons

Institutional Review Board

A committee of at least 5 members whose goal it is to determine the cost-benefit ratio of research conducted within an institution

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A common neurotransmitter used in the spinal cord and motor neurons to stimulate muscle contractions. It's also used in the brain to regulate memory, sleeping, and dreaming. Alzheimers disease is associated with this in an undersupply

Experimenter Bias

A situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various experimental conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis

Primacy effect

A tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list

Single-unit recording method

A thin microelectrode is surgically inserted in or near an individual neuron

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain activity in each brain area

Common-causal variable

A variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them

Scatter plot

A visual image of the relationship between two variables

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and emotional memory of an unusual event that people believe they remember very well

Medulla

Area of the brain stem that controls heart rate and breathing

Conceptual variables

Abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses

Population

All the people that the researcher wishes to know about

Sleeper effect

An attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of information

Context-dependent learning

An increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

An instrument that records the electrical activity produced by the brain's neurons through the use of electrodes placed on the surface of the research participant's head

Theory

An integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

An invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain's use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug that has been injected into a person's bloodstream

Reflex

An involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus

Variable

Any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places

Thalamus

Applies still more filtering to the sensory information coming from the spinal cord and through the reticular formation, and it relays some of these remaining signals to the higher brain levels

Nature versus nurture

Are genes or environment most influential in determining the behavior of individuals? They both play a part by working together

Representativeness heuristic

Basing our judgements on information that seems to represent, or match, what we expect will happen, while ignoring other potentially more relevant statistical information

Parasympathetic division of the ANS

Calms the body by slowing the heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from the activities that the sympathetic system causes

Soma

Cell body of the neuron; contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive

Glial cells

Cells that surround and link to the neurons, protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and absorbing unused neurotransmitters

Action Potential

Change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted

Priming

Changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently

Agonist

Chemically similar, mimics the effects

Dendrite

Collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma

Cadavers

Compares brain structure of nonliving brains

Quasi-experimental design

Compares two groups that already exist in the population

Overlearning

Continuing to practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material

Vocalization

Controlling vocal cords, no sensory homunculus

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

Controls the external aspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs

Myelin sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses; is a layer of fatty tissue that acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of signal

Outcome variable

Dependent variables

Case Study

Descriptive records of one of more individuals' experiences and behavior

Three major types of research designs

Descriptive research Correlational research Experimental research

Anomalous

Deviating from a general role, method or analogy; inconsistent with what is naturally expected

Clinical psychology

Diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health

Differences versus similarities

Differences between men&women, or similarities between them. Cultural and ethnic difference/similarities

Psychodynamic Psychology

Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior. It has built on Freud's original ideas, and it has also influenced modern neuroscience; late 19th century-early 20th century; Sigmund freud, Erik erikson

Corticalization

Folding of the cerebral cortex

Terminal buttons

Form junctions with other cells

Fissures

Four lobes, each separated by folds

Objective

Free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist

René Descartes

French philosopher who influenced the belief the mind an body were separate entities, believed in nature

Automatic versus controlled processing

Freud's emphasis on unconscious mental activities that influence and even control our thoughts and behaviors

Node of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath that electrical charges jumps on while traveling down the axon

Behavioral Neuroscience

Genetics and the links among brain, mind, and behavior

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Governs the internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal

Plato

Greek philosopher that argued nature was the reasoning behind traits

Aristotle

Greek philosopher that argued nurture was the reasoning behind traits

Pons

Helps control the movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balance and walking

Hypothalamus

Helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sex drive and responds to the satisfaction of these needs by creating feelings of pleasure

Cerebellum

Helps retrieve procedural memories

Scaffolding

Helps the child reach beyond his or her current level of thinking by creating supports

Mind versus Body

How our thoughts, feelings, and ideas are related to the body and brain

Hippocampus

Important in storing information in long-term memory

Contralateral Control

In most cases the left hemisphere receives sensations from and controls the right side of the body, vice versa

Classical conditioning effects

In which we learn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation

Observer Effect

Inference with or modification of the subject's behaviors by the process of observation

Steps of scientific method

Informal observations/practical problems 1. Research Question 2. Empirical Study 3. Data Analysis 4. Conclusions 5. Research Literature

Heuristics

Information-processing strategies that are useful in many cases but may lead to errors when misapplied

Phineas Gage

Injury to cerebral cortex

Serotonin

Involved in many functions, including mood, appetite, sleep, and aggression. Low levels of it are associated with depression

Dopamine

Involved in movement, motivation, and emotion, it produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain's reward system, and it's also involved in learning. Schizophrenia is linked to an increase in this, Parkinson disease is linked to a reduction in this

Explicit memory

Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously and intentionally remembered; semantic, episodic

Limbic system

Largely responsible for memory and emotions

Retroactive interference

Learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier

Probability

Likelihood of something happening

Prototype

Member of the category that is most average or typical of the category

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Memory decays rapidly at first, but the amount of decay levels off with time

Long-term memory (LTM)

Memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years

Schemata

Mental representations of the world that are formed and adjusted using the processes of assimilation and accommodation as a person experiences life

Glutamate

Most common neurotransmitter, its released in more than 90% of the brain's synapses. Found in MSG. Excessive amounts can cause overstimulation, migraines, and seizures

Pearson correlation coefficient

Most common statistical measure of the strength of the linear relationships among variables

Output

Motor cortex

Categories

Networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other

What theory can account for all behavior?

No single theory can, rather theories are each limited in that they can make predictions in some situations

Homeostasis

Normal state

Negative linear

Occurs when one variable is above-average with a contrasting below-average value for the other variable

Memory

Our capacity to acquire, store, and retrieve the information and habits that guide our behavior

Hierarchy of needs

Our internal motivation to strive for self-actualization

Semantic memory

Our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world

Procedural memory

Our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things; motor and cognitive skills

Schemas

Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information

Sample

People chosen to participate in the research

APA Guidelines on animal testing

Psychologists: Must acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current, federal, state, and local laws, and with professional standards Must be trained in research methods and be experienced in the care of laboratory animals Ensure all individuals under their supervision have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species Make reasonable efforts to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain Can only cause pain when no other option exists To perform surgeries under appprpriate anesthesia

Somatosensory cortex

Receives information from different parts of the body

Algorithms

Recipe-style information-processing strategies that guarantee a correct answer at all times

Antagonist

Reduces or blocks the effects

Statistical Significance

Refers to difference between groups; quantitative means to evaluate the research hypothesis

Biological psychology

Relationship between bodily systems and chemicals and how they influence behavior and thought

Nonlinear relationships

Relationships between variables that cannot be described with a straight line

Endorphins

Released in response to behaviors such as vigorous exercise, orgasm, and eating spicy foods. Found in opium, morphine, and heroin

Naturalistic observation

Research based on the observation of everyday events occurring in the natural environment of people or animals

Correlational research

Research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge

Descriptive research

Research designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs

Experimental research

Research in which there is a random assignment of research participants into two groups. Followed by a manipulation of a given experience for one group while the other is not manipulated. The two groups are then compared to determine the influence of the manipulation

Basic research

Research that answers fundamental questions about behavior

Applied research

Research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems

Pituitary gland

Responsible for controlling the body's growth, but it also has many other influences that make it primary importance to regulating behavior

Auditory cortex

Responsible for hearing and language (cortex)

Temporal lobe

Responsible primarily for hearing and language

Parietal lobe

Responsible primarily for processing information about touch

Frontal lobe

Responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment, personality

Empirical Study

Results of verifiable evidence from a systematic collection and analysis of data that has been objectively observed, measured, and undergone experimentation

Linear relationship

When the association between the variables on the scatter plot can be easily approximated with a straight line

Positive linear

When the linear relationship indicates that both variables are above-average values

Deception

Whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

links the CNS to the body's sense receptors, muscles, and glands


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