Psych Review (Acrobatiq): Units 1,2,3,4, & 7
Behaviorism
A school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself; early 20th century; Ivan pavlov, John b. watson, B.F. skinner
Survey
A measure administered through either a face-to-face or telephone interview or a written or computer-generated questionnaire, to get a picture of beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest
Recall test
A measure of explicit memory that involve retrieving information that has been previously learned
Recognition memory test
A measure of memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before
Dependent variable
A measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation
Operational definition
A precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
Debriefing
A procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
A procedure in which magnetic pulses are applied to the brain of living persons with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivating a small brain region
Random assignment to conditions
A procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random table number
Reuptake
A process in which neurotransmitters that are in the synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons
Spurious relationship
A relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and "explains away" the relationship
Cerebellum
A.K.A. the little brain, it functions to coordinate voluntary movement
Source monitoring
Ability to accurately identify the source of a memory
Free choice
Ability to have the option to participate in something or do something else as an alternative
Privacy
Ability to keep data anonymous
Introspection
Asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks
Relearning (or savings)
Assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten
Frontotemporal Dementia
Associated with changes in artistic and musical tastes and skills as well as with an increase in repetitive behaviors
Echoic memory
Auditory sensory memory
Empiricism
Belief that the newborns' mind is a "blank slate" and that the accumulation of experiences mold the person into who he or she becomes
Double-blind experiment
Both the researcher and the research participants are blind to condition
Lesions
Brains of living human beings may be damaged
Proactive interference
Earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later
Humanistic Psychology
Emphasizes each person is inherently good and motivated to learn and improve to become a healthy, effectively functioning individual, personal responsibility, and human potential; 1950s; Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
John Locke
English philosopher that is known for his viewpoint on empiricism
Occam's Razor
Entities should not be multiplied by necessity; simpler theory will be preferred
Cognitive biases
Errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes
Misinformation effect
Errors in memory that occur when new information influences existing memories
Interrater Reliability
Estimate how much agreement there is between the two observers about what the subjects were doing
Informed consent
Explain the research procedures and inform the participants of his or her rights during the investigation
Generalization
Extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables
Reticular formation
Filter out some of the stimuli that are coming into the brain from the spinal cord and to relay the remainder of the signals to other areas of the brain
Episodic memory
Firsthand experiences, or episodes, that we have on a daily basis
Collectivism
Focuses on developing harmonious social relationships with others, group togetherness and connectedness, and duty and responsibility to one's family and other groups
Hypothalamus (endocrine system def)
Main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system and directs the release of hormones by its interactions with the pituitary gland
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Major controller of the body's functions
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Lack of this can lead to tremors and seizures
Gambler's fallacy
People who see a flipped coin come up "heads" five times in a row will frequently predict, and perhaps even wager money, that "tails" will be next
Functional fixedness
People's schemas prevent them from using an object in new and nontraditional ways
Period of consolidation
Period of time in which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored
Research hypothesis
Precise statement of the presumed relationship among specific parts of a theory. Specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables
Sympathetic division of the ANS
Preparing the body for rapid action in response to stress from threats or emergencies
Hippocampus
Preprocessor and elaborator of information
Most direct ethical concern of the scientist in a human experiment
Preventing harm to the research participants
Amygdala
Primarily responsible for regulating our perceptions of and reactions to aggression and fear
Elaborative encoding
Process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful
Retrieval
Process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory
Visual cortex
Processes visual information
Occipital lobe
Processes visual information (lobe)
Adrenal glands
Produce hormones that regulate salt and water balance in the body, and they are involved in metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. Produce adrenaline and noradrenaline when stress or threatened
Parsimonious
Provides the simplest possible account of those outcomes
Pancreas
Secretes hormones designed to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and main stores of energy
Endocrine System
Secretes hormones that influence our emotions and behaviors
Pineal gland
Secretes melotonin, a hormone that helps regulate the wake-sleep cycle
Input
Sensory cortex
Memory Duration
Sensory input - sensory memory - short term memory- long term memory
Predictor variable
Sometimes referred to as independent variables
Synapses
Spaces between the cells
Research design
Specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data
Resting Potential
State in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of negatively charged ions than does the area outside the cell
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation
Cognitive psychology
Study of how we think, process information and solve problems, how we learn and remember, and how we acquire and use language
Developmental psychology
Study of the development of a human being from conception until death
Personality psychology
Study of the differences and uniqueness of people and the influences on a person's personality
True Experiment
Study where participants are randomly assigned into two groups
State-dependent learning
Superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding
Mind-body Dualism
The body is physical and the mind is nonphysical, mysterious and somehow controls the body
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to experience of damage; enables us to learn and remember new things and adjust to new experiences
Sensory memory
The brief storage of sensory information
Independent Variable
The causing variable that is created (manipulated by the experimenter
Egocentrism
The child's thinking is centered in his or her own view of the world (not that the child is selfish)
External Validity
The extent to which the results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was conducted
Internal validity
The extent to which we can trust the conclusions that have been drawn about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Spacing effect
The fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time
Neurogensis
The forming of new neurons
Brain lateralization
The idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain are specialized to perform different functions
Observer Bias
The individual observing behavior is influenced by their own experiences, expectations, or knowledge about the purpose of the observation or study
Initial Equivalence
The influence of common-causal variables is controlled, and thus eliminated
Implicit memory
The influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences; no conscious awareness; procedural, priming, classical conditioning
Spinal cord
The long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves and supporting cells that extends down from the brain
Brain stem
The oldest and innermost region of the brain. It controls the most basic functions of life, including breathing, attention, and motor responses
Cerebral cortex
The outer barklike layer of our brain that allows us to so successfully use language, acquire complex skills, create tools, and live in social groups
Motor cortex
The part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and the spinal cord
Central executive
The part of working memory that directs attention and processing
Theory of natural selection
The physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they were useful or functional
Short-term memory (STM)
The place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually less than one minute
Encoding
The process by which we place our experiences into memory
Chunking
The process of organizing information into smaller groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM
Maintenance rehearsal
The process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory
Replication
The process of repeating previous research which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry
Working memory
The processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM
Positive psychology
The scientific study of optimal human functioning
Scientific method
The set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research
Social psychology
The study of how social situations and cultures in which people live influence their thinking, feelings, and behavior
Overconfidence
The tendency for people to be too certain about their ability to accurately remember events and to make judgements
Recency effect
The tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list
Availability heuristic
The tendency to make judgments of the frequency or likelihood that an event occurs on the basis of the ease with which it can be retrieved from memory
Counterfactual thinking
The tendency to think about and experience events according to "what might have been'
Confirmation bias
The tendency to verify and confirm our existing memories rather than to challenge and disconfirm them
Falsifiable
The variables of interest can be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect
Salient
They attract our attention (things that are unique, colorful, bright, moving, and unexpected)
Metacognition
Thinking about thinking
Psi-gamma
Those phenomena that involve anomalous information transfer, like ESP, clairvoyance, and remote viewing
Psi-kappa
Those phenomena that involve anomalous transfer of matter, such as psychokinesis or telekinesis, or even anomalous transfer of energy, such as pyrokinsesis
Axon
Transmits information away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands
Ganzfeld Procedure
constraining physical ability on receiver end, sender in other room has deck of cards; results in 34% instead of 25% right- statistical significance
Glands
groups of cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Individualism
Valuing the self and one's independence from others, sometimes at the expense of others
Measured variables
Variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables
Confounding variables
Variables other than the independent variable on which the participants in one experimental condition differ systematically from those in other conditions
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
We are certain that we know something that we are trying to recall but cannot quite come up with it
Eidetic imagery memory
Iconic memory seems to last longer (photographic memory)
Evolutionary psychology
A contemporary perspective of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior
Structuralism
1st psychology; A school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements of psychological experience; late 19th century; Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B. Titchener
Functionalism
2nd psychology; Inspired by Darwin's work in biology. To understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess; late 19th century; William James, John Dewey
Cognitive Development
A field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment; 1920s; Jean piaget; Lev vygotsky
Self-actualization
A basic, broad need to develop our special unique human potential
Neuron
A cell in the nervous system whose function it is to receive and transmit information
Neurotransmitter
A chemical that relays signals across the synapses between neurons
Institutional Review Board
A committee of at least 5 members whose goal it is to determine the cost-benefit ratio of research conducted within an institution
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A common neurotransmitter used in the spinal cord and motor neurons to stimulate muscle contractions. It's also used in the brain to regulate memory, sleeping, and dreaming. Alzheimers disease is associated with this in an undersupply
Experimenter Bias
A situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various experimental conditions differently, resulting in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis
Primacy effect
A tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list
Single-unit recording method
A thin microelectrode is surgically inserted in or near an individual neuron
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain activity in each brain area
Common-causal variable
A variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them
Scatter plot
A visual image of the relationship between two variables
Flashbulb memory
A vivid and emotional memory of an unusual event that people believe they remember very well
Medulla
Area of the brain stem that controls heart rate and breathing
Conceptual variables
Abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses
Population
All the people that the researcher wishes to know about
Sleeper effect
An attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of information
Context-dependent learning
An increase in retrieval when the external situation in which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
An instrument that records the electrical activity produced by the brain's neurons through the use of electrodes placed on the surface of the research participant's head
Theory
An integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
An invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain's use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug that has been injected into a person's bloodstream
Reflex
An involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus
Variable
Any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places
Thalamus
Applies still more filtering to the sensory information coming from the spinal cord and through the reticular formation, and it relays some of these remaining signals to the higher brain levels
Nature versus nurture
Are genes or environment most influential in determining the behavior of individuals? They both play a part by working together
Representativeness heuristic
Basing our judgements on information that seems to represent, or match, what we expect will happen, while ignoring other potentially more relevant statistical information
Parasympathetic division of the ANS
Calms the body by slowing the heart and breathing and by allowing the body to recover from the activities that the sympathetic system causes
Soma
Cell body of the neuron; contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive
Glial cells
Cells that surround and link to the neurons, protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and absorbing unused neurotransmitters
Action Potential
Change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted
Priming
Changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently
Agonist
Chemically similar, mimics the effects
Dendrite
Collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma
Cadavers
Compares brain structure of nonliving brains
Quasi-experimental design
Compares two groups that already exist in the population
Overlearning
Continuing to practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material
Vocalization
Controlling vocal cords, no sensory homunculus
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
Controls the external aspects of the body, including the skeletal muscles, skin, and sense organs
Myelin sheath
Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses; is a layer of fatty tissue that acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of signal
Outcome variable
Dependent variables
Case Study
Descriptive records of one of more individuals' experiences and behavior
Three major types of research designs
Descriptive research Correlational research Experimental research
Anomalous
Deviating from a general role, method or analogy; inconsistent with what is naturally expected
Clinical psychology
Diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health
Differences versus similarities
Differences between men&women, or similarities between them. Cultural and ethnic difference/similarities
Psychodynamic Psychology
Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior. It has built on Freud's original ideas, and it has also influenced modern neuroscience; late 19th century-early 20th century; Sigmund freud, Erik erikson
Corticalization
Folding of the cerebral cortex
Terminal buttons
Form junctions with other cells
Fissures
Four lobes, each separated by folds
Objective
Free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist
René Descartes
French philosopher who influenced the belief the mind an body were separate entities, believed in nature
Automatic versus controlled processing
Freud's emphasis on unconscious mental activities that influence and even control our thoughts and behaviors
Node of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath that electrical charges jumps on while traveling down the axon
Behavioral Neuroscience
Genetics and the links among brain, mind, and behavior
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Governs the internal activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, urination, and sexual arousal
Plato
Greek philosopher that argued nature was the reasoning behind traits
Aristotle
Greek philosopher that argued nurture was the reasoning behind traits
Pons
Helps control the movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balance and walking
Hypothalamus
Helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sex drive and responds to the satisfaction of these needs by creating feelings of pleasure
Cerebellum
Helps retrieve procedural memories
Scaffolding
Helps the child reach beyond his or her current level of thinking by creating supports
Mind versus Body
How our thoughts, feelings, and ideas are related to the body and brain
Hippocampus
Important in storing information in long-term memory
Contralateral Control
In most cases the left hemisphere receives sensations from and controls the right side of the body, vice versa
Classical conditioning effects
In which we learn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation
Observer Effect
Inference with or modification of the subject's behaviors by the process of observation
Steps of scientific method
Informal observations/practical problems 1. Research Question 2. Empirical Study 3. Data Analysis 4. Conclusions 5. Research Literature
Heuristics
Information-processing strategies that are useful in many cases but may lead to errors when misapplied
Phineas Gage
Injury to cerebral cortex
Serotonin
Involved in many functions, including mood, appetite, sleep, and aggression. Low levels of it are associated with depression
Dopamine
Involved in movement, motivation, and emotion, it produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain's reward system, and it's also involved in learning. Schizophrenia is linked to an increase in this, Parkinson disease is linked to a reduction in this
Explicit memory
Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously and intentionally remembered; semantic, episodic
Limbic system
Largely responsible for memory and emotions
Retroactive interference
Learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier
Probability
Likelihood of something happening
Prototype
Member of the category that is most average or typical of the category
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Memory decays rapidly at first, but the amount of decay levels off with time
Long-term memory (LTM)
Memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years
Schemata
Mental representations of the world that are formed and adjusted using the processes of assimilation and accommodation as a person experiences life
Glutamate
Most common neurotransmitter, its released in more than 90% of the brain's synapses. Found in MSG. Excessive amounts can cause overstimulation, migraines, and seizures
Pearson correlation coefficient
Most common statistical measure of the strength of the linear relationships among variables
Output
Motor cortex
Categories
Networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other
What theory can account for all behavior?
No single theory can, rather theories are each limited in that they can make predictions in some situations
Homeostasis
Normal state
Negative linear
Occurs when one variable is above-average with a contrasting below-average value for the other variable
Memory
Our capacity to acquire, store, and retrieve the information and habits that guide our behavior
Hierarchy of needs
Our internal motivation to strive for self-actualization
Semantic memory
Our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world
Procedural memory
Our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things; motor and cognitive skills
Schemas
Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information
Sample
People chosen to participate in the research
APA Guidelines on animal testing
Psychologists: Must acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current, federal, state, and local laws, and with professional standards Must be trained in research methods and be experienced in the care of laboratory animals Ensure all individuals under their supervision have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species Make reasonable efforts to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain Can only cause pain when no other option exists To perform surgeries under appprpriate anesthesia
Somatosensory cortex
Receives information from different parts of the body
Algorithms
Recipe-style information-processing strategies that guarantee a correct answer at all times
Antagonist
Reduces or blocks the effects
Statistical Significance
Refers to difference between groups; quantitative means to evaluate the research hypothesis
Biological psychology
Relationship between bodily systems and chemicals and how they influence behavior and thought
Nonlinear relationships
Relationships between variables that cannot be described with a straight line
Endorphins
Released in response to behaviors such as vigorous exercise, orgasm, and eating spicy foods. Found in opium, morphine, and heroin
Naturalistic observation
Research based on the observation of everyday events occurring in the natural environment of people or animals
Correlational research
Research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge
Descriptive research
Research designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs
Experimental research
Research in which there is a random assignment of research participants into two groups. Followed by a manipulation of a given experience for one group while the other is not manipulated. The two groups are then compared to determine the influence of the manipulation
Basic research
Research that answers fundamental questions about behavior
Applied research
Research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems
Pituitary gland
Responsible for controlling the body's growth, but it also has many other influences that make it primary importance to regulating behavior
Auditory cortex
Responsible for hearing and language (cortex)
Temporal lobe
Responsible primarily for hearing and language
Parietal lobe
Responsible primarily for processing information about touch
Frontal lobe
Responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment, personality
Empirical Study
Results of verifiable evidence from a systematic collection and analysis of data that has been objectively observed, measured, and undergone experimentation
Linear relationship
When the association between the variables on the scatter plot can be easily approximated with a straight line
Positive linear
When the linear relationship indicates that both variables are above-average values
Deception
Whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
links the CNS to the body's sense receptors, muscles, and glands