psychology 101, Chapter 15: Psychology Disorders

bipolar disorder

(commonly known as manic depression) often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person's mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other (in contrast to unipolar, which indicates a persistently sad mood). • a manic episode is characterized as a "distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week," that lasts most of the time each day. • The person may talk loudly and rapidly, exhibiting flight of ideas, abruptly switching from one topic to another

peripartum onset

(commonly referred to as postpartum depression), applies to women who experience major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth of their child.

dissociative identity disorder

(formerly called multiple personality disorder). People with dissociative identity disorder exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each well-defined and distinct from one another. They also experience memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge.

Social anxiety disorder

(formerly called social phobia) is characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others.

specific phobia

(formerly known as simple phobia) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation

• persistent depressive disorder

(previously known as dysthymia) experience depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depressive disorder. People with persistent depressive disorder are chronically sad and melancholy, but do not meet all the criteria for major depression. However, episodes of full-blown major depressive disorder can occur during persistent depressive disorder.

antisocial personality disorder

(sometimes referred to as psychopathy) shows no regard at all for other people's rights or feelings. people with this disorder have no remorse over one's misdeeds. a person must be at least 18 years old to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. • Disinhibition is a propensity toward impulse control problems, lack of planning and forethought, insistence on immediate gratification, and inability to restrain behavior. • Boldness describes a tendency to remain calm in threatening situations, high self-assurance, a sense of dominance, and a tendency toward thrill-seeking. • Meanness is defined as "aggressive resource seeking without regard for others," and is signaled by a lack of empathy, disdain for and lack of close relationships with others, and a tendency to accomplish goals through cruelty.

orbitofrontal cortex

A brain region that is believed to play a critical role in OCD, it's an area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and decision-making. The orbitofrontal cortex is part of a series of brain regions that, collectively, is called the OCD circuit; this circuit consists of several interconnected regions that influence the perceived emotional value of stimuli and the selection of both behavioral and cognitive responses.

Mania

A state of extreme elation and agitation. When people experience mania, they may become extremely talkative, behave recklessly, or attempt to take on many tasks simultaneously.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

Although a number of classification systems have been developed over time, the one that is used by most mental health professionals in the United States is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association

elevated amygdala activity and dampened PFC

Depressed individuals show elevated amygdala activity, especially when presented with negative emotional stimuli, such as photos of sad faces. Additionally, depressed individuals exhibit less activation in the prefrontal, particularly on the left side. Because the PFC can dampen amygdala activation, thereby enabling one to suppress negative emotions, decreased activation in certain regions of the PFC may inhibit its ability to override negative emotions that might then lead to more negative mood states

locus coeruleus

Located in the brainstem, the locus coeruleus is the brain's major source of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that triggers the body's fight-or-flight response. Activation of the locus coeruleus is associated with anxiety and fear. Neurobiological theories of panic disorder suggest that it may play a role in panic disorder.

5-HTTLPR gene

People who experienced several stressful life events were significantly more likely to experience episodes of major depression if they carried one or two short versions of a specific gene that regulates serotonin (the 5-HTTLPR gene), than if they carried two long versions.

norepinephrine and serotonin

People with mood disorders often have imbalances in these neurotransmitters. They're important regulators of the bodily functions that are disrupted in mood disorders, including appetite, sex drive, sleep, arousal, and mood

panic disorder

People with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks

International Classification of Diseases (ICD)

Published by the World Health Organization (WHO), the ICD was developed in Europe shortly after World War II. Although the ICD is used for clinical purposes, this tool is also used to examine the general health of populations and to monitor the prevalence of diseases and other health problems internationally.

Rachman

Rachman proposed that phobias can be acquired through three major learning pathways. • Classical Conditioning • vicarious learning, such as modeling • verbal transmission or information

harmful dysfunction (Wakefield)

Wakefield argued that natural internal mechanisms—that is, psychological processes honed by evolution, such as cognition, perception, and learning. Dysfunction occurs when an internal mechanism breaks down and can no longer perform its normal function. But, the presence of a dysfunction by itself does not determine a disorder. The dysfunction must be harmful in that it leads to negative consequences for the individual or for others, as judged by the standards of the individual's culture.

psychological disorder

a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Schizophrenia

a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. Schizophrenia is considered a psychotic disorder, or one in which the person's thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where she is not able to function normally in life.

hallucination

a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation. Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) occur in roughly two-thirds of patients with schizophrenia and are by far the most common form of hallucination. (experiencing a sensroy stimuli when none are present)

generalized anxiety disorder

a relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension.

seasonal pattern

applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year (e.g., fall or winter).

diagnosis

appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms

Delusions

beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence.

grandiose delusions

beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important.

hoarding disorder

cannot bear to part with personal possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions are. As a result, these individuals accumulate excessive amounts of usually worthless items that clutter their living areas

Gray matter

cell bodies of neurons

Avolition

characterized by a lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks, such as bathing and grooming

Dissociative disorders

characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of self. Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a psychological rather than physical cause.

Anxiety disorders

characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior

Depersonalization/derealization disorder

characterized by recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both. Depersonalization is defined as feelings of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one's whole self or from aspects of the self". Derealization is conceptualized as a sense of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings".

Mood disorders

characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania and elation.

Borderline personality disorder

characterized chiefly by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity. People with borderline personality disorder cannot tolerate the thought of being alone and will make frantic efforts (including making suicidal gestures and engaging in self-mutilation) to avoid abandonment or separation (whether real or imagined). These individuals have an unstable view of self and, thus, might suddenly display a shift in personal attitudes, interests, career plans, and choice of friends. They sometimes show intense and inappropriate anger that they have difficulty controlling, and they can be moody, sarcastic, bitter, and verbally abusive.

hopelessness theory

cognitive theory of depression proposing that a style of thinking that perceives negative life events as having stable and global causes leads to a sense of hopelessness and then to depression

neurodevelopmental disorders

conditions that are diagnosed early in childhood, often before the time a child enters school, and involve developmental problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning.

panic attack

defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying. • Panic attacks themselves are not mental disorders.

defining symptoms of major depressive disorder

disorder include "depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day" (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing tearful to others), and loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities.

personality disorders

exhibit a personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of their culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions). • Uncontrollable thoughts that can be disturbing • Compulsion, the actions in response to the thoughts (release valves)

Depressive disorders

group of disorders in which depression is the main feature. Depression is a vague term that, in everyday language, refers to an intense and persistent sadness

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. obsessive-compulsive and related disorders elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a status so intense that these cognitions and activities disrupt daily life. Included in this category are obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder

Cluster B disorders

include antisocial personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder. People with these disorders usually are impulsive, overly dramatic, highly emotional, and erratic

Cluster C disorders

include avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (which is not the same thing as obsessive-compulsive disorder). People with these disorders often appear to be nervous and fearful.

Cluster A disorders

include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder. People with these disorders display a personality style that is odd or eccentric.

diathesis-stress model

integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological.

paranoid delusions

involve the (false) belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person

agoraphobia

is listed in the DSM-5 as a separate anxiety disorder. Agoraphobia, which literally means "fear of the marketplace," is characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or receive help if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack.

safety behaviors

mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes

prodromal symptoms

minor symptoms of psychosis, such as unusual thought content, paranoia, odd communication, delusions, problems at school or work, and a decline in social functioning

Body dysmorphic disorder

preoccupied with a perceived flaw in their physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

proposed that an overabundance of dopamine or too many dopamine receptors are responsible for the onset and maintenance of schizophrenia. More recent work in this area suggests that abnormalities in dopamine vary by brain region and thus contribute to symptoms in unique ways. In general, this research has suggested that an overabundance of dopamine in the limbic system may be responsible for some symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions, whereas low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex might be responsible primarily for the negative symptoms

biological perspective on psychological disorders

psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena, such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities

diminished emotional expression

reduced display of observable verbal and nonverbal behaviors that communicate internal emotions

Alogia

reduced speech output

anhedonia

refers to an inability to experience pleasure. One who exhibits anhedonia expresses little interest in what most people consider to be pleasurable activities, such as hobbies, recreation, or sexual activity.

Disorganized thinking

refers to disjointed and incoherent thought processes.

Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior

refers to unusual behaviors and movements: becoming unusually active, exhibiting silly child-like behaviors (giggling and self-absorbed smiling), engaging in repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying odd facial expressions and gestures

catatonic behaviors

show decreased reactivity to the environment, such as posturing, in which the person maintains a rigid and bizarre posture for long periods of time, or catatonic stupor, a complete lack of movement and verbal behavior.

autism spectrum disorder

show signs of significant disturbances in three main areas: (a) deficits in social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive patterns of behavior or interests.

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

shows a constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning

asociality

social withdrawal and lack of interest in engaging in social interactions with others.

somatic delusion

the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body (e.g., that one's kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches)

ventricles

the cavities within the brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid. Brain imaging studies reveal that people with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles

comorbidity

the co-occurrence of two disorders

Rumination

the repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressed symptoms, rather that distracting one's self from the symptoms or attempting to address them in an active, problem solving manner

psychopathology

the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment.

Beck

theorized that depression-prone people possess depressive schemas, or mental predispositions to think about most things in a negative way. Depressive schemas contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, worthlessness, and inadequacy, and may develop early in childhood in response to adverse experiences, then remain dormant until they are activated by stressful or negative life events

dissociative fugue

they suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes even adopt a new identity

Behavioral inhibition

thought to be an inherited trait, and it is characterized by a consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations

suicidal ideation

thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), thinking about or planning suicide, or making an actual suicide attempt

dissociative amnesia

unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence.

Three D's of symptomology

• Deviance from our cultural norm. • Distress (within the patient or outside of the patient (the patient's family)) • Disfunction (daily living issues) • (additional) Danger to self and to others

American Psychiatruc Association's defintion for a psychological disorder

• There are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. • The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction • The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life • The disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to certain events.