Psychology 2

Morphemes

(the smallest units of language that carry meaning) can be used by combing one or more phonemes together, and morphology involves focusing on how words are formed from combinations of morphemes. ex: re-, -ed, pro-

Phonology

focuses on the phonemes (sound units within a given language) and how they can be combined in meaningful ways

distress

occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors

Imitation:

Especially in children, modeling and imitation of others influences identity formation.

Drug types

1) DEPRESSANTS = Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines: reduce nervous system activity. reduce anxiety 2) STIMULANTS = Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy 3) HALLUCINOGENS = LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) peyote, mushrooms 4) PAIN KILLERS = Opiates, opioids 5) MARIJUANA = Listed separately because it can be categorized as a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen based on its various effects.

Carl Rogers three components of self-concept:

1) Self-Image 2) Self-Esteem 3) The Ideal Self = Who I wish I could be.

Piaget's Stages of CD (Cognitive Development)

1) Sensorimotor: ages: 0-2 years: Involves learning to perceive the world using senses. During this stage, they learn object permanence, the concept that even if you hide a ball under the rug, the ball continues to exist. 2) Preoperational: ages: 2-7 years: The child learns that objects and ideas can be shown using symbols (symbolic thinking), such as images and words. They also learn to speak. During this period of time, the child is very egocentric, and do not understand other people's perspectives. Conservation is developed. Imagination is strong. Simple arithmetic reasoning develops 3) Concrete operational: ages: 7-11 years: During this period of time the child learns the principle of conservation, which is the concept that a tall slender cup can hold the same amount of fluid as a short wider cup, even though the cups are different. The child is also able to think logically about actual events. 4) Formal operational: ages 12- adulthood: During this period of time people learn how to reason based on morals, how to form hypotheses and other forms of abstract reasoning.

Theories of Identity Development: Erickson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

1. 0 to 1.5; Trust vs. Mistrust a)Trust in the world around us and hope for the future b) Distrust and fear 2. 1.5 to 3; Autonomy vs. Shame a) Sense of self-efficacy b) Self-doubt (external locus of control) 3. 3 to 5; Initiative vs. Guilt a) Sense of purpose and selfmotivation b) Sense of Guilt and inadequacy 4. 5 to 12; Industry vs. Inferiority a) Sense of competence and understanding b) Sense of inferiority, low self-esteem. 5. 12 to 18; Identity vs. Confusion a) True sense of self and uniqueness b) Identity confusion 6. 18 to 40; Intimacy vs. Isolation (main crisis in adulthood) a) Intimate relationships and love b) Loneliness 7. 40 to 65; Generativity vs. Stagnation a) Making contributions to society b) Unable to make contributions in meaningful ways 8. 65+; Integrity vs. Despair a) Wisdom and integrity b) Dissatisfaction with life's outcomes

Self-Concept

1. A collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. it is a collective mental picture of oneself: "I am a tall, young, attractive, athletic male." 2. Answers many questions: "Who am I?"; "Who do others think I am?"; "What are my strengths?"; "What is my nature?"; "How do I behave? 3. THINK: MY TOTAL CONCEPTION OF MYSELF

self-image

1. A persistent mental picture of one's appearance and personality, including observable traits (height, weight, hair color, gender, etc.) and self-knowledge derived from experience or internalization of the judgments of others (e.g., people think I'm fat; people think I'm handsome; people think I'm nice). It is my mental picture of my own personal characteristics: "I am a young, attractive, athletic woman." 2. Answers the questions: "How do I see myself?"; "How do others see me" (In ways I've internalized); "How do I perceive that others see me?" 3. THINK: MY APPEARANCE

Self-Esteem

1. A person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Relatively stable and enduring. It is a valuation judgment of one's worth: "I feel good about being a fast runner. Being a fast runner makes me feel like an important person. a) actual self: actual self is our self-concept. It's who we (or others) think we are and which attributes we (or others) think that we possess b) ought self: is a representation of characteristics that we (or others) think we ought to possess. c) ideal self: is a representation of characteristics that we (or others) would ideally like to possess. The closer these three are the higher self esteem. 2. Answers the questions: "How do I feel about myself?"; "Why am I of worth?" 3. THINK: MY VALUE

Self-Schemas

1. A pre-existing, organized pattern of thought (i.e., cognitive framework) about oneself that is used to categorize or process information. Self-schemas, like schemas generally, can be helpful, but can also result in bias or omission of information. It is my cognitive framework about myself: "I am an athlete; therefore, I make friends who are also athletic." 2. Answers the questions: "What does this mean [based on my schemas]?" "How will I act [based on my schemas] 3. THINK: HOW MY IDEAS OF WHO I AM ARE USED TO CATEGORIZE NEW INFORMATion

cognitive dissonance theory

1. A state of unpleasant psychological tension experienced when one holds two attitudes or beliefs that are in conflict with one another. A person is likely to ease the tension by changing their attitude or belief to remove the conflict. This case illustrates that our behaviors are often in conflict with our attitudes a) Research indicates that people are most likely to behave in a way that matches their attitudes (i.e., no cognitive dissonance) when a person: • Holds the attitude as the result of personal experience • Is an expert in the subject • Frequently expresses the attitude • Expects a favorable (i.e., positive) outcome • Has a risk of gaining or losing something based on the outcome

Functional Attitudes Theory:

1. A theory asserting that attitudes serve four functions: a) Knowledge: Attitudes give us valuable information about other people, events, and the likelihood of outcomes. Ex: One would predict that an individual who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming action. b) Ego-Expressive: Attitudes are one route through which we express our self-identity. Ex: if a person strongly identifies with a sports team, he may wear a hat that helps identity him as a fan. c) Adaptive: Socially-acceptable attitudes provide an adaptive advantage in society much like certain random mutations provide an evolutionary advantage. d) Ego-defensive: Attitudes that protect our self- esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong. Ex: A child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject.

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

1. Age-related physical changes = brain size shrinks and neural plasticity decreases. a) loss of neurons in frontal lode and corpus callosum at a faster rate than the cerebellum 2. age-related memory changes: a) Overall memory = Declines b) Procedural memory = Stable c) Working memory = Significant decline d) Semantic memory = Stable

States of Consciousness

1. Alertness, Sleep, Dreaming, Hypnosis, Meditation, and Drug-Altered. 2. Wave frequency decreases according to: beta (14-40 Hz) > alpha (9-13 Hz) > theta (4-8 Hz) > delta (0.5-3.9 Hz)

Expectancy-value theory

1. An aspect of Cognitive Motivational Theory. The magnitude of one's motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of an interplay between an individual's 1) expectation of success and 2) perception of the relative value of the rewards associated with success. 2. states the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individuals expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

stress: appraisal

1. Appraisal: How an individual cognitively appraises a potentially stressful situation. a) Primary Appraisal = Initial evaluation of the potential threat. It is suggested that we judge the potential threat to be either: irrelevant (unimportant), benign-positive (good), or stressful (bad). b) Secondary Appraisal = If the threat is determined to be stressful, the individual next judges whether he or she has the resources to cope with the stress.

Galton on Theories of Intelligence

1. Argued that individual heritable characteristics contributed to intelligence as much as any gene contributes to physical traits. 2. Shed light on twin studies and adoption studies. a) adoption studies help us understand environmental influences and genetic influence on behavior 3. Galton's Genetic Bias and Eugenics: When you see GALTON THINK: Nature, NOT Nurture. Despite his twin studies providing groundbreaking evidence for nurture, Galton leaned toward a stronger genetic component. In fact, this bias led him to be a strong proponent of eugenics 4. Eugenics = Any belief, method, or practice designed to improve the genetic makeup of the human race, usually by preventing the birth, reproduction rate, or survival of individuals deemed to have "less-desirable" genes. Today, eugenics is almost universally considered unethical by scientists and non-scientists alike

Learning Theory of Attitude Change:

1. Attitudes can be changed by learning. This includes classical conditioning (associating positive feelings with the target attitude or object), operant conditioning (reinforcing the desired attitude or punishing the undesirable one), and observational learning (modeling the desirable attitude can lead to change). 2. Attitude change can be promoted by 1) attractiveness of the source (which could be physical attractiveness or perceived credibility), 2) a balanced, or unbiased, message and, 3) moderate self-esteem of the target.

Arousal Theory of motivation

1. Behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. That optimum level varies among individuals. People seek new interests, action, or stimuli when arousal is low to increase arousal. When arousal is too high (hyperstimulation) they reduce activity or seek more relaxing activities to reduce the level of arousal.

Incentive Theory

1. Behavior is motivated by a desire to obtain rewards or to avoid punishments 2. states that we can be driven/motivated to behave in certain ways by incentives (objects/events that encourage or discourage certain behaviors

drive reduction theory of motivation

1. Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce or eliminate an uncomfortable or undesirable internal state a) Primary drives involve physiological needs for survival (e.g. food, water, and sex). a) Secondary drives take on their motivating force because they have been associated with and/or provide access to the basic needs listed above (e.g. money, social status, and fame). these drives stem from learning

Needs-Based Theories

1. Behavior is motivated by the drive to satisfy one's most urgent needs a) maslow's hierarchy of needs: classified needs into 5 groups. needs based on a priority. b) ERG theory is an extension on maslow's hierarchy of needs. - Existence needs: Physiological and safety - Relatedness needs: Love/belonging and esteem - Growth needs: Self-esteem and self-actualization 2. Difference bwt Maslow and ERG, with maslow an individual would need to satisfy lower-level needs before moving on to higher needs, this is not the case in ERG theory because an individual can be motivated by needs from each category simultaneously

other influences of cognitive development

1. CULTURE: Different expectations and traditions; different cultures will reward different behaviors because of different values. 2. HEREDITY: Inheritance of genetic predispositions; inherited disorders such as Down's Syndrome or Autism. 3. ENVIRONMENT: different parenting styles can reward different behaviors; exposure to environmental chemicals or toxins; fetal environment (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome) 4. BIOLOGY: metabolic or other biological conditions can alter cognition or cause brain damage

Narcolepsy

1. Chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that release hypocretin—a hormone that normally regulates sleep-wake cycles. Symptoms include cataplexy and inappropriate daytime sleep. Patients experience daytime sleepiness similar to that described by normal adults after 24-48 hours of sleep deprivation. During narcolepsy episodes the individual enters REM sleep after 5 minutes or less, when REM is normally reached after 90-120 minutes. a) Cataplexy = Sudden, transient periods of muscle weakness or paralysis during which the patient remains fully conscious and aware. b) disrupted REM cycle usually increase REM time during next cycle. c) Symptoms of narcolepsy also include hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations when one is going to sleep or popping out bed respectfully.

Three primary components of attitude

1. Cognitive = How you THINK about something or somebody. 2. Affective (Emotional) = How you FEEL about something or somebody. 3. Behavioral = How you BEHAVE toward, or with respect to, somebody or something.

Attention

1. Concentration on on aspect of environmental stimuli while ignoring or excluding other stimuli.

Approaches to PS: Deductive Reasoning

1. Conclusions are based on assumed premises; also referred to as "Top-Down Processing." 2. Starts from general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. It uses a broader or more general premise to draw conclusions about narrower, more specific examples.

Dyssomnias

1. Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep a) Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep b) Sleep Apnea: Difficulty breathing while asleep

STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST

1. IQ = mental age/chronological age*100 2. IQ Correlations: IQ is positively correlated with the following, and negatively correlated with the opposite, or lack thereof. As usual, intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. a) High level of parental expectation b) Higher socioeconomic status c) Early educational intervention d) Adequate nutrition

alcohol

1. In general, it is considered a depressant because of its ability to agonize GABA neurotransmission (a feature it shares with both the barbiturates and benzodiazepenes). 2. The specific effects of these depressants vary widely as a function of dose. At low doses, they can result in relatively minor mood changes and mild impairment of coordination. At high doses, these drugs can result in unconsciousness and in the case of alcohol and barbiturates, death. Using alcohol in conjunction with either benzodiazepenes or barbiturates can exacerbate the effects of these drugs in the user and make negative outcomes much more likely 3. GABA is a primary inhibitory NT in the brain. its receptor is a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization.

Cognition:

1. Information Processing Theory (a.k.a., Information Processing Model) a) Thinking: Thinking includes the perception of stimuli, encoding those stimuli, and storage of that information for later retrieval. b) Analysis of Stimuli: As a part of decision-making, stimuli are altered and analyzed by the brain, not just responded to automatically. c) Situational Modification: Stored decision-making and problem-solving experiences from the past can be extrapolated to solve new problems. d) Obstacle Evaluation: An individual's skill level in problem-solving does not depend solely on their cognitive development level, but largely on the nature and context of the problem/obstacle. 2. describes how our brains work as machines that pay attention to and perceive our surroundings. Once this information has been processed it is stored in our brains so that it can be drawn upon later.

instinct vs arousal theories of motivation

1. Instinct theories of motivation basically assert that behavior is motivated by instincts which are hardwired as a function of evolution. An instinct by definition is an inborn pattern of behavior that is not learned and is exhibited by all members of a given species. There are very few, if any, examples of instinctive behaviors among humans. An example of instinct motivating behavior in a nonhuman animal would be seasonal migrations seen in a number of birds, insects, and fish. 2. Arousal theories of motivation state that behavior is driven by a need to maintain some optimal level of arousal. If we are overstimulated, we will behave in ways to reduce that stimulation. If we are under stimulated, we will seek out stimulation in our environments. As an example, think of final exam weeks in college. You are overwhelmed by all that is going on, and you want nothing more than to get out of school and relax. However, once you've spent a few weeks at home, you become bored and likely yearn to return to school.

Theories of motivation

1. Instinct: 2. Drive-Reduction 3. Arousal 4. Hierarchy of Needs 5. Needs based theories

Influence of Language on Cognition

1. It is thought that language can help broaden our understanding of the world. It enables us to share our thoughts and ideas. Speaking with one another can also expose us to new vocabulary and grammatical structure. Confounding factors include: environment, genetics, and culture. 2. Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity hypothesis): suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language. so language affects the way we think.

Theories and Langauge development

1. Learning (a.k.a., environmental, behaviorist, nurture): asserts that we are born without any knowledge of language and that we learn language through classical learning mechanisms (e.g., being reinforced for engaging in linguistic behavior) and through observational learning. (operant conditioning) 2. Nativist (a.k.a., biological or nature): asserts that humans are prewired for language at birth and that language will naturally emerge as we grow and interact with our environments 3. social Interactionist: asserts that language acquisition occurs in predictable, fixed stages of development. It focuses on the interplay bwt social and biological processes. Both biology and the environment shapes the language a) language is driven by the child's drive to communicate. 4. Whorf hypothesis, or linguistic relativity: o the idea that the structure of language affects the perceptions of its speakers. it is a principle suggesting that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition, and thus people's perceptions are relative to their spoken language.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

1. Lower levels of arousal are optimal for highly cognitive tasks 2. high arousal are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina. 3. simple tasks require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks.

Approaches to PS: Inductive Reasoning

1. Making generalizations from specific observations; also referred to as "Bottom-Up Processing." 2. seeks to create a theory via generalizations, starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from it. 3. Observations leads to hypothesis. IR uses a small set of observations as the basis for forming a statement about a larger set of premises or conclusions.

Barriers to effective PS

1. Mental set: Predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem; a tendency to rely on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past. Mental sets can lead to rigid thinking and a lack of cognitive flexibility. 2. Functional fixedness: = One example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object or tool in the ways we have seen it used previously in a nontraditional way. ex: to think flathead screwdrivers only purpose is to loosen or tighten a screw when it can lift up the lid on a paint can. 3. Cognitive bias: = An error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, a lack of objectivity, a failure to consider all available options or consequences, or prejudice toward one approach or outcome.

Approaches to PS: Intuition

1. One's "gut feeling." Often based on previous experience, in which case, it is an example of unconsciously applying a heuristic, or mental set. 2. not supported by actual evidence. Relying on a keen sense

opiates

1. Opiates have pronounced analgesic properties and act on the opioid system in the brain. Users report feelings of euphoria when administering these drugs intravenously or via smoking. These drugs also affect motility of smooth muscle, regulation of temperature, heart rate, and respiration. 2. opiates: natural 3. opioid: synthetic

Locus of control

1. Persons with an external locus of control tend to be more prone to low self-esteem, and even depression. 2. Those with an internal locus of control tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem.

Theories of emotion: Schachter-Singer theory

1. Posits that emotions are composed of 2 factors: a physiological component and a cognitive component. Here, physiological arousal is interpreted in context which leads to the emotional experience. a) we first experience physiological stimulation, then we cognitively interpret what is happening, which then leads us to the emotion we are experiencing. ex: if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase. Then you might cognitively examine the details of the situation, and experience fear, and decide you are scared. ** Arousal -> Physiological response (interpret) + Cognitive appraisal --> Emotion

Managing stress

1. Problem-Solving Approach: Find solutions, obtain help, stress prevention plan, etc. 2. Emotional Approach: Change how you feel about the stressor through positive thinking, taking personal responsibility, internal locus of control, etc. • Proven Tools for Stress Management = Exercise, relaxation, spirituality

Dreaming

1. Psychoanalytic theory 2. Cognitive Theory 3. Information Processing Theory 4. Problem-Solving Theory 5. Activation-Synthesis Theory

The limbic system

1. Region of the brain most directly tied to the emotion. The ventral prefrontal cortex is also involved. Research suggests the LEFT prefrontal cortex processes positive emotions and the RIGHT prefrontal cortex processes negative emotions. 2. Limbic System = Emotion and Motivation 3. COMPONENTS OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM: a) Amygdala (implicit emotional memory): relate to emotions and attention; produces emotion b) Thalamus c) Hypothalamus: largely dictates/controls emotional states d) Hippocampus (explicit emotional memory) e) Corpus Callosum f) Fornix g) Septal Nuclei h) Cingulate Gyrus

deductive reasoning vs. inductive reasoning

1. The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory. 2. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations 3. deductive reasoning moves from board generalizations to specific observations.

self-efficacy

1. The strength of a person's belief in their own abilities. it is a self-evaluation of one's ability: "I am confident I can accomplish anything." "I usually fail." 2. Answers the question: "What am I capable of doing?" 3. THINK: MY ABILITY

Identity

1. Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that make a person unique or different relative to others, especially in relation to, or within, social contexts. It is how I am defined by myself, by others, AND in various situations: "I am a leader. I am a pre-med student. I am a native Pacific Islander." 2. Answers the questions: "Who am I?"; "Who am I in various social roles or settings?" 3. THINK: WHO I AM

Self-Identity

1. Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that people use to define themselves. it is how I define myself: "I am a fast runner. I am a future doctor." 2. Answers the question: "Who do I think that I am?" 3. THINK: MY IDEA OF WHO I AM

General Adaptation Syndrome

1. alarm stage: initial reaction of the stressor and activation of the SNS; release of ACTH, cortisol and Epi a) the alarm stage would be associated with increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and so dilated pupils, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, decreased blood flow to the digestive organs, increased glucose production, and decreased peristalsis would all be more likely to occur during this stage 2. resistance stage: continuous release 3. exhaustion stage: when the body can no longer maintain and elevated response with the SNS activity

Schemas (Piaget)

1. are patterns of thought that we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among those categories. They prove useful because they allow us to speed up processing of the tremendous amount of information that bombards us each day, but they can also bias the ways in which we deal with new information to create stereotypes about a category of individuals or objects and prevent us from retaining information that doesn't fit the schema. 2. We often assimilate new information to fit into an existing schema, but we can also accommodate, or amend, the schema to include new infor.

Theories of emotion: Cannon-Bard theory

1. asserted that the physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time. In other words, fear is felt at the exact same time that sympathetic nervous system activation occurs. However, research indicates that if signals of physiological arousal are blocked, then the emotional experience is blunted. emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time, independent of each other. Ex: if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase, and you may interpret the situation as scary. This would then lead you to scream. ** Arousal -> Physiological response + Emotion occur at the same time

social cognitive theory

1. essentially predicts that attitudes will change because of observational learning experienced by the person doing the changing a) behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other to produce learning and thereby change.

opponent-process theory

1. explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms 2. Whenever we take some substance this creates a physiological and psychological state that pushes us away from the norm.

Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence

1. fluids intel: consists of problem-solving skills, working memory, and processing speed. 2. Crystallized Intel: related to the use of learned skills and knowledge over the lifetime. like verbal or general world knowledge. Both decline with age

Stimulants

1. increase arousal in the nervous system. 2. Amphetamine and cocaine act as stimulants of the central nervous system. Users report feelings of euphoria and high levels of energy. Physiologically, users experience increased heart and respiration rates that would normally be associated with an acute stress response. Amphetamine and cocaine act as agonists of the monoamine neurotransmitters with their effects on dopamine activity receiving the most attention from researchers. Both drugs block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse, but amphetamine actually causes additional release of dopamine into the synapse 3. Ecstasy also a stimulant.

accommodation

1. is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.

Assimilation

1. is the process of classifying new info into existing schemata

instinct theory of motivation

1. people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts ex: wolves are pack creatures

Drug addiction

1. related to mesolimbic pathway, Nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle. 2. Drug addiction stimulates a dopamine based reward pathway in the limbic system of the brain. 3. The mesolimbic dopamine pathway originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain and projects to the nucleus accumbens. This pathway is thought to be instrumental in dopamine's role in drugs of abuse.

Theories of Emotion: James-Lange Theory

1. states that emotions arise from physiological arousal. In other words, we only experience fear because of the activation of the sympathetic nervous system upon encountering a threatening stimulus. Ex: if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase, and you may scream. These physiological and behavioral cues are what lead you to understand the situation as scary ** Arousal -> Physiological response --> Emotion

Approaches to PS: Heuristics

1."Rules of Thumb." Heuristics can be helpful in problem solving, but can also cause functional fixedness and a lack of cognitive flexibility. a) Representative Heuristic = Reliance on prototypes or stereotypes as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment. Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information is called the base rate fallacy. Previous experience will predict the future. :We have a tendency to make judgments based on the probability of something happening based on our typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than a salad - RH: is a mental shortcut based on the reasoning that is related to how representative something seems to be a category (how likely is a woman to be a librarian based on how similar she seems to the idea on has of a typical librarian). b) Availability Heuristic = Favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment. How likely something is. Tends to lead to the incorrect answer. : the tendency to believe that something is more common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu. Availability heuristic occurs when the estimates of the likelihood of a given outcome (winning the lottery) are influenced by readily available examples of that event occurring (seeing the story of the jackpot winner). - AH is a mental shortcut whereby one gives precedence to the most immediate examples that come to mind. c) Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic = Giving higher priority to the very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it. 2.

Sleep

2. Stages of sleep: a) Stage One = Falling asleep, EEG is a mix of alpha and theta waves. This stage of sleep has mainly theta waves that are of low to moderate frequency. b) Stage Two = Deeper sleep, EEG is theta waves mixed with sleep spindles and K complexes. There is a decrease in heart rate, respiration, and body temperature. c) Stage Three = Transitional, EEG is mostly theta waves, but delta waves begin to appear. d) Stage Four = Deep sleep, often called "delta sleep" because the EEG contains slow (low frequency) delta waves. growth hormones are secreted e) Rapid-Eye Movement Sleep (REM): REM is an intervallic period of sleep denoted by rapid or random eye movements and a heightened sense of alertness that is greater than any of the sleep stages. It occurs in between the other stages of sleep, with several periods of REM happening throughout the night. The first REM period are shorter and the longest REM period usually occurs in the morning right before waking. Most vivid dreams are thought to occur during REM sleep. : Paradoxical Sleep = Phrase used to describe the ironic fact that during REM sleep alertness, heart rate, breathing, and EEG patterns are nearly that of wakefulness, and yet one's muscles are paralyzed.

Emotion

A complex psychological state of mind involving one's mood, feelings, and reactions to circumstances.

Attitude

A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can be a tendency to be positive, negative, biased, or neutral. It is possible to be uncertain or unclear of one's attitudes— something colloquially described as having "mixed feelings."

Social Identity

A person's sense of who they are based on the groups to which they belong. This is very closely related to "Identity" as defined above, except that the term identity INCLUDES one's social identity but is not exclusively one's group-based identity. Identity by itself defines what makes a person unique relative to others. Social identity is that portion of our self-identity derived specifically from group membership.

eustress

A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal

Looking-glass Self

A theory suggesting that a person's self-concept is largely determined by how they believe others see them. From this perspective, the self is not a function of what we are, but what others think we are.

Social Identity Theory

A theory suggesting that individuals derive significant pride and selfesteem from their group memberships. As a result, individuals always strive to INCREASE the status of the group to which they belong (i.e., their IN-GROUPS), and will discriminate and hold prejudices against other groups to which they do not belong (i.e., their OUT-GROUPS).

HYPNOSIS:

A trance-like state under which a person becomes highly suggestible. It is induced by a therapist and can serve to recall repressed memories, control pain, or stop undesirable behavior (e.g., weight loss, addictions

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors such as nightmares, movements, emotions, or sleepwalking that occur during sleep. a) Sleepwalking (a.k.a., sommambulism) b) Night Terrors (a.k.a., pavor nocturnus) = Experience of severe anxiety, dread, or terror during the first few hours of Stages 3-4 (non-REM) sleep. Most common in children. Associated with screaming, thrashing, or suddenly sitting up in bed, and hyperstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system

Attitude Influences Behavior

Absent any strong external influences, attitude generally guides behavior. The more strongly held the attitude, the more directly and quickly it will determine behavior.

Role-Taking

Adopting and acting out a particular social role. This could be as simple as a child playing "cops and robbers," or the more complex types of role-taking that help adults feel empathy for others (i.e., "put yourself in someone else's shoes")

Emotional memory

An emotional memory has two components, one implicit and one explicit. The explicit portion is the CONSCIOUS memory of having experienced the emotion. The implicit portion is the UNCONSCIOUS encoding and storage of the actual feeling. This implicit memory may be retrieved, and the emotion "felt again," when one encounters a similar experience, or during explicit recall of the original event. a) explicit memory: is the story of the event: what happened, where it occurred, who was involved, the fact that the scenario was traumatic. b) implicit memory: corresponds to the sensations of unease and anxiety when put back into a similar environment

MEDITATION

An intentionally altered state of consciousness intended to improve focus or overall well-being. Meditation is a part of many religious beliefs. It is not well defined scientifically, but it has been shown to be associated with a relaxed, slower wave state of arousal reproducible on an EEG. alpha

self-determination theory

Another need-based theory based on: 1. Autonomy: the need to be in control of ones actions and ideas 2. Competence: the need to complete an excel at difficult tasks 3. Relatedness: the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships.

Boras area

Broca's Area = Motor aspects of speech (e.g., moving your mouth and tongue)

Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area communicate via

Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area communicate via a bundle of axons called the arcuate fasciculus. This connection allows integration of language comprehension and speech.

controlled vs automatic processing

Controlled processing requires attention, while automatic processing does not. When you are first learning to drive a car, that task requires an incredible amount of attention, and it would be difficult to engage in some other task that required attention at the same time. However, as tasks become well-learned, processing becomes more automatic and requires less active attention. This is why you can engage in a task like driving and carrying on a meaningful conversation once you have mastered driving

the adaptive role of emotion

Darwin proposed that emotion, like all other traits, evolved via natural selection. Possible support for this theory lies in the fact that some emotions are tied to evolutionarily older parts of the brain, indicating they may have evolved earlier in our ancestral history. The facial expressions associated with some emotions appear to have functional advantages that could logically be selected during evolution. For example, the universal emotion of disgust includes a scrunching of the nose and mouth, which would limit the intake of foul odors. Similarly, the expression of fear usually involves widening of the eyes, which would allow in more light and visual information for identification of a perceived threat.

Cognitive process Theory (Hall)

Dreams are a conceptualization of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions about five concepts: our self, others, the world around us, morals, and conflict

Problem-Solving Theory

Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind—unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.

Binet

First to develop an intelligence scale, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and the concept of mental age vs. chronological age. Binet's purpose was to identify children who needed extra educational help or attention in school. Adapted by a Stanford professor to create the Stanford-Binet IQ Test widely in use today.

Theories of Intelligence

Gardner's theories of multiple emotions: 1) Visual-Spatial 2) Bodily-Kinesthetic 3) Musical 4) Interpersonal 5) Intrapersonal 6) Naturalistic (added by Gardner later, some texts report only seven intelligences) 7) Linguistic 8) Logical-Mathematical ** the last two are the most important.

belief perseverance

In cases in which we are confronted with evidence that clearly contradicts our previously held belief, yet continue to hold onto it. Ex: omeone would be demonstrating belief perseverance if they continue to assert that elderly people make poor drivers even after reading a news story that indicates that a much higher percentage of younger drivers are involved in automobile accidents than elderly drivers. One of the reasons we might do so relates to the fact that we tend to be very sure of our own judgments and opinions which can lead to overconfidence.

Spearman

Introduced the concept of General Intelligence—often called the "g factor" and assigned a lowercase variable, g. Spearman argued that general intelligence was the bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed.

Physiological Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation

Is Positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression, and multiple chronic diseases including: heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.

Wernicke's Area

Language comprehension

Marijunana

Marijuana acts on the endocannibinoid neurotransmitter system. Users report mild euphoria, sedation, and increased appetite as the most common effects of the drug. Marijuana's abuse potential and potential medical applications are points of controversy among the scientists.

Approaches to PS: Algorithms =

Mathematical formulas or a step-by-step, flowchart-like approach. Will always result in a successful resolution. time-consuming

Information Processing Theory

Memories and information accumulated during the day are consolidated during sleep. Dreaming is the cerebral cortex associating images or meaning with this consolidation process

Emotion and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

Physiological Markers of Emotion: • Skin Temperature = Lower during fear; higher during anger • Skin Conductivity = Indicator of general stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system • Heart Rate = Higher during anger or fear; lower during happiness • Blood Pressure = Higher during anger, fear, sadness AND happiness

BEHAVIOR INFLUENCES ATTITUDE

Our behavior can change our attitudes significantly. People tend to have a positive attitude toward behaviors they exhibit themselves, or toward things in which they personally participate. Clearly, the behavior of others impacts our attitudes about them. a) Self-Perception Theory: Suggests that actions influence attitudes because people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior b) Foot-in-door Phenomenon: People are more likely to agree to a larger or more difficult request if they first agree to a smaller request. In this case, the behavior of the person making the request changes the attitude of the person being asked to do something. c) Role-playing Effects: A person acting out a role is likely to internalize the attitudes associated with that role. In this case, one's own behavior (acting a part) directly impacts, almost determines, the attitudes they will hold. : Zimbardo Prison Study: A psychologist staged interactions between two groups of college students, one group playing the role of prison guards, and the other the role of prisoners. Within only six days, the attitudes of the "guards" had become so harsh and domineering, and the attitudes of the "prisoners" had become so despondent, defiant, or depressed, that Zimbardo ended the study prematurely on ethical grounds

Response to stressors

Physiological: Initial response = Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. Chronic stress → ulcers, decreased immune response, increased risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, etc.

Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change:

People change their attitudes because they feel cognitive dissonance, as a method to reduce that discomfort.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) = Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. Dreams can serve as a virtual form of wish fulfillment.

Extrinsic Motivation

Purpose or drive to act based upon external rewards or stimuli.

Intrinsic Motivation

Purpose or drive to act based upon personal, internal, often unseen motives.

regions of the brain that are responsible for maintaining conscious alertness

RF in the medulla oblongata

Selective attention

Selective attention refers to the process by which we focus on one aspect of our environment while ignoring others. Selective attention can lead to inattentional blindness, a lack of attention that is not associated with sensory deficits, (e.g., think of the example of the involving the gorilla that walked amongst the basketball players dressed in black and white that was likely mentioned in your psychology textbook) because we are "blind" to those aspects of the visual field upon which we are not focused.

Theories of Identity Development: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Stages: 1. Pre-conventional Morality (pre-adolescence) = a) Obedience: concerned with avoiding punishment : If i steal the drug, then i will go to jail b) Self-Interest: About gaining rewards, I scratch your back if you scratch mine. : I need to save my wife because i want to spend more of my life with her. 2. Conventional Morality (adolescence to adulthood) = this phase is based on understanding and accepting social rules. a) Conformity: Places emphasis on the good boy and girl orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others. : I should not steal because stealing is wrong. b) Law and Order: maintains the social order in the highest regard : if everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those item would not be able to continue their business. 3. Post-conventional Morality (adulthood) = based on social norms which may conflict with laws. a) Social Contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good., with reasoning focused on individual rights. : Everyone has the right to live, businesses have a right to profit from their products b) Universal Human Ethics: reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles : It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom.

Theories of Identity Development: Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Stages: a healthy personality was associated with a successful resolution of each individual stage. However, if the person was unsuccessful in resolving issues related to any given stage, then s/he would experience a fixation on that particular stage. Because of their inability to successfully resolve these issues, the person would experience anxiety that would translate into neuroses, or mental disorders, and specific personality characteristics in adulthood. 1. Oral (0-1): we like to feel orally, like sucking, biting, putting things in our mouth. Fixation at this stage leads to excessive dependency later on. Smoking or sucking the thumb. 2. Anal (1-3): we like to feel anally, like defecating. Fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness. 3. Phallic (oedipal stage) (3-5): Males love mom and envy dad (Oedipal conflict). Females love dad and envy mom (Electra conflict). To resolve these conflicts, the child identifies with the same-sex parent and focuses energy on other things like school. 4. Latency: libido energy is largely sublimated during this stage 5. Genital: enters heterosexual relationship starting at puberty. Sexual traumas in early stages lead to homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

The limbic system is randomly active during sleep, mimicking incoming stimuli. Dreams are an attempt by the cerebral cortex to synthesize and interpret this activity in a logical way.

Neural Pathway: RF

The reticular formation of the brain stem stimulates the prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness. Loss of this function = Coma.

Approaches to PS: Trial and error

Try it out, test both or multiple options, and discover what works and what doesn't. This is only effective when there are relatively few available options.

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe. once this is developed we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us. Aware of judgements

semantics

deal with the meaning of language and involve issues about how meaning is changed as a function of the relationship among the words that are used. P

Theories of Identity Development: Gender

describes a persons appraisal of himself or herself on scales of masculinity and faminnity

divided attention

divided attention, we must split our attention among multiple tasks. You engage in divided attention when you do something like drive a car while engaging in a conversation with a passenger in the car.

Psychosoical development

focuses on how behaviors on social crises that must be conquered for optimal development.

Universal emotions

happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger,

Elaboration-Likelihood Model of Attitude Change

is a theory to explain how attitudes are formed and changed and is often discussed in the context of persuading someone to change their attitudes about a given situation. This particular model describes two different routes by which someone can be persuaded: the central route and the peripheral route. a) central route involves thoughtful consideration of information that is being presented. While the central route is more likely to result in lasting change in attitude, the person who is being persuaded must have an open-mind about the relevant issues and be interested enough to really think about the information that is being presented. b) peripheral route can be used when the person who is being persuaded has very little interest in the topic at hand. Here, the person is more affected by their early impressions of the person that is trying to persuade them and their own moods. The peripheral route can result in attitude change, but generally, such changes are much shorter-lived than those accomplished via the central route.

Base rate fallacies

occur when representativeness heuristics are used in error. In these situations, individuals fail to take into account general information when dealing with specific cases. For instance, when asked if an individual who is described as thin with horned-rimmed glasses and wearing a tweed coat with leather patches on the elbows is more likely a server at a restaurant or has a PhD in English history, most people would choose the latter. This occurs despite the fact that basic probability (i.e., a much smaller percentage of the population has a PhD in English history than those who are servers in restaurants) would dictate otherwise.

confirmation bias

occurs when one is seeking out information that agrees with our own perspective and paying less attention to or reject any information that might challenge our previously held beliefs. For instance, if someone believed that elderly individuals are bad drivers, they will take notice each time they encounter an elderly person who is driving recklessly. They will fail to notice the many examples of good driving exhibited by elderly people around them.

Pragmatics

refers to the ability to competently use language appropriately in any given social context.

syntax

refers to the rules that govern how words are ordered into meaningful sentences. Colloquially, we refer to syntax as the rules of grammar.

Overconfidence bias

this refers to the fact that we are convinced that we've arrived at the correct decision even when we are wrong

Cocktail party

the cocktail party effect is a specific instance in which we may suddenly shift our attention to something that was previously ignored because of some cue that draws our attention. This gets its name from the experience we have all had where we are at some gathering and we tune out the noise around us to focus on a conversation that we are having with someone nearby. However, if someone says our name, our attention is suddenly shifted to hear what is being said to or about us

Components of Emotion:

▪ Subjective Experience (a.k.a., Cognitive Response) = The subjective interpretation of the mood or feeling experienced by the individual. ▪ Physiological Response = Physiological changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin temperature observed in the individual experiencing the emotion. ▪ Behavioral Response = Facial expressions or body language that accompany the expression of emotion.