Psychology 3101 quiz 1-6

Mischel's original argument was that the correlations between personality and behavior, or between behavior in one situation and behavior in another situation, seldom exceeded .20. .30. .50. .80.

.30. FEEDBACK: Another prominent situationist later revised this estimate to .40. The implication in both cases was that such correlations were small and that personality traits are therefore unimportant.

Personality psychology can be organized into __________ basic approaches. 3 4 5 10

5 FEEDBACK: The five basic approaches are trait, biological, psychoanalytic, phenomenological, and learning/cognitive.

The idea that persons and situations constantly work together to produce behavior is called the person-situation debate the trait approach situationism interactionism

EEDBACK: Persons and situations interact in three major ways: The effect of a personality variable may depend on the situation (or vice versa); certain people find themselves in certain situations; and people change situations by virtue of what they do in them.

Young men who were depressed at age 18 were more likely to have been labeled at age 7 or age 3 with all the following characteristics EXCEPT? unsocialized socially awkward aggressive undercontrolled

FEEDBACK: The study that examined this question was a longitudinal study conducted by the Blocks, whose work on Q-sorts is discussed in this chapter.

The Binomial Effect Size Display (BESD) is a way to think about the size of Type II errors. scatter plots. correlation coefficients. case studies.

correlation coefficients. FEEDBACK: The BESD provides another way to think about the size of correlation coefficients. It is a concrete display of what a correlation means in terms of specific outcomes.

Often a scale is used to predict behavior, diagnosis, or category membership in new samples of participants. This process is referred to as factor analysis. cross-validation. commonality. significance.

cross-validation. FEEDBACK: If cross-validation of a scale succeeds, the scale is deemed ready to use.

Projective tests face the same drawbacks as other B-data tests, including that informants' judgments can be subject to random errors, such as forgetting or nonobserving. sometimes participants will not, or cannot, tell researchers about themselves. the data are easy to obtain, so researchers may rely on them too heavily. the answer and the validity of the answer depend critically on the test interpreter.

the answer and the validity of the answer depend critically on the test interpreter. FEEDBACK: The fundamental difficulty with projective tests is that a psychologist cannot really be sure what a participant's answers mean; two different interpreters of the same response might come to different conclusions about it. (An additional drawback to projective tests is that, like other B-data tests, gathering data is relatively expensive.) Answer a is a disadvantage of I-data testing, and answers b and c are each disadvantages of S-data tests.

Both experimental and correlational methods assess the relationship between variables. The two methods are different in that the correlational method can assess a large number of variables at once, while the experimental method can only examine the effect of one variable upon one other variable. the variable that is thought to be causal is manipulated in the experimental method, whereas it is measured without being manipulated in the correlational method. experimental methods are more highly prone to extraneous influences affecting the participants. correlational methods allow psychologists to take measurements without their subjects knowing that they are participating in a study.

the variable that is thought to be causal is manipulated in the experimental method, whereas it is measured without being manipulated in the correlational method. FEEDBACK: Experimental methods, correlational methods, and case studies each have different strengths and weakness

Which of the following sentences describes a Type I error in significance testing? A Type I error involves deciding that one variable has a relationship with another, when really it does not. A Type I error involves misinterpreting a nonsignificant result to mean "no result." A Type I error involves deciding that one variable does not have a relationship with another, when really it does. A Type I error involves misinterpreting a significant result (i.e., one that did not occur by chance) for one that is strong or important.

A Type I error involves deciding that one variable has a relationship with another, when really it does not. FEEDBACK: A Type I error involves deciding that one variable has a relationship with another when really it does not. A Type II error involves deciding that one variable does not have an effect on another variable when really it does.

Which of the following sentences describes a Type II error in significance testing? A Type II error involves deciding that one variable has a relationship with another when really it does not. A Type II error involves misinterpreting a nonsignificant result to mean "no result." A Type II error involves deciding that one variable does not have a relationship with another when really it does. A Type II error involves misinterpreting a significant result (i.e., one that did not occur by chance) for one that is strong or important.

A Type II error involves deciding that one variable does not have a relationship with another when really it does. FEEDBACK: A Type II error involves deciding that one variable does not have a relationship with another when really it does. A Type I error involves deciding that one variable has a relationship with another, when really it does not.

__________, a hybrid of S data and B data, consist(s) of participant reports of what they think they would do under various circumstances. Face validity Self-verification Research methods A behavioroid

A behavioroid FEEDBACK: One example of a behavioroid is the question, "If someone tried to rob you at gunpoint, what would you do?"

In the context of psychological research, what does the word "significant" mean? A significant result is one that has implications generalizable to most of humanity. A significant result is one that has a correlational coefficient of .5 or above. A significant result is one that is reliable and valid. A significant result is one that is unlikely to occur by chance.

A significant result is one that is unlikely to occur by chance. FEEDBACK: A "significant" result, in the research parlance, is one that is unlikely to result if everything were due to chance.

Why might adults tend to be more stable when it comes to personality and decision making, whereas adolescents and children tend to be more erratic and fluctuating? Adults tend to be more consistent than younger people because they have undertaken adult responsibilities and have established consistent identities. Adults make fewer judgments about other people's decisions and actions, thus making their personalities more consistent. Younger people enjoy living in the moment, while adults strive to predict the outcome of a given situation. Adolescents tend to have more social relationships and are therefore driven by the need for affiliation more so than adults are.

Adults tend to be more consistent than younger people because they have undertaken adult responsibilities and have established consistent identities. FEEDBACK: People differ from each other in the degree to which they developed a consistent personality for themselves.

According to the text, why might older people be more inclined to believe that individuals generally possess consistent personality traits? Statistical analysis reveals that people tend to grow more conservative with age; therefore, older persons are more likely to take a more static view of trait personality. Younger individuals benefit from keeping an open mind about the various possibilities in store for them as they develop into adults. As people age, they develop consistent personalities for themselves through embarking on a career track, starting families, and undertaking roles and responsibilities. Younger people themselves are more consistent than older ones.

As people age, they develop consistent personalities for themselves through embarking on a career track, starting families, and undertaking roles and responsibilities. FEEDBACK: Research shows that the stability of people increases with age; students, who are still financially dependent on their parents and have not yet embarked on career paths or started families, may, for example, find it more reasonable to believe that individuals' personalities depend largely upon their present situations.

Experiments and personality tests such as the Rorschach test are ways to collect S data. I data. L data. B data.

B data. FEEDBACK: In B-data personality tests and experiments, psychologists are not interested in a participant's specific responses to a question, but rather in the way in which she answers the question.

In the end, which is more important for determining what people do, the individual's personality or the situation? The individual's personality is more important. The situation is more important. Behavior is usually inconsistent. Both factors are important to any individual's behavior.

Both factors are important to any individual's behavior. FEEDBACK: Although the person-situation debate ranged widely over the history of psychology, in reality neither view is complete without the other.

What is the basic assumption of the empirical method of test creation? The basic assumption is that it will let us compare different personality tests. Without great numbers of participants, the data that psychologists collect is statistically unreliable. Certain kinds of people have distinctive ways of answering certain questions on personality inventories. Personality tests are more effective if they include items that seem contrary or even absurd.

Certain kinds of people have distinctive ways of answering certain questions on personality inventories. FEEDBACK: In an empirically derived personality test, groups of participants are independently divided into the groups that psychologists wish to study.

How do clinical psychology and personality psychology overlap? Clinical psychologists and personality psychologists do not overlap because clinical psychologists are not interested in personality. Clinical and personality psychology do not overlap because personality psychologists have never had clinical training. Clinical and personality psychology share a common responsibility to understand every feature of an individual, not just single aspects about them. Clinical and personality psychology are the same thing.

Clinical and personality psychology share a common responsibility to understand every feature of an individual, not just single aspects about them. FEEDBACK: Personality psychology and clinical psychology are not the same, but they do overlap.

Two opposing philosophical points of view have important implications for psychological research into the accuracy of personality judgments. __________ argues that all interpretations are simply social constructions, and therefore there is no way to regard one interpretation as more or less accurate than another. __________ holds that although all interpretations of reality are fallible, not all interpretations are equally correct. Critical realism; Convergent validation Constructivism; Behavioral prediction Critical realism; Constructivism Constructivism; Critical realism

Constructivism; Critical realism FEEDBACK: Constructivism argues that all interpretations are simply social constructions, and therefore there is no way to regard one interpretation as more or less accurate than another, but only a series of human constructions. Critical realism holds that although all interpretations of reality are fallible, not all interpretations are equally correct.

What is the most important advantage of the Q-sorting method? It forces a judge to compare all of the test items directly against each other within one individual. It doesn't restrict the judge to identifying only a few items as those most important to characterizing a particular individual. It allows a judge to identify the ways in which a person is all good or all bad. It improves the accuracy of personality assessment.

It forces a judge to compare all of the test items directly against each other within one individual. FEEDBACK: Q-sorting establishes nuanced individual psychological portraits, because nobody can be described as either all good or all bad (there's simply not enough room to put all of the traits in one category or another) and because judges are forced to select which are the most central traits of an individual's personality.

Which is not an advantage of the case study method? Sometimes the method is absolutely necessary. It can be a source for new ideas. It is not controlled. It describes the whole phenomenon.

It is not controlled. FEEDBACK: The idea that the case study is not controlled is a disadvantage of this method. Each case contains numerous specific facts and variables.

Personality psychology emphasizes individual differences. How does this focus serve as one of the discipline's strengths? It allows personality psychologists to conduct experiments in which people have no idea they are being observed, revealing their true personality patterns. Pigeonholing people has no advantages and, in fact, is a great weakness of personality psychology. It creates valid labels for individuals so clinicians can better diagnose their difficulties and prescribe treatment plans. It leads personality psychologists to be extremely sensitive to the fact that people really are different from each other.

It leads personality psychologists to be extremely sensitive to the fact that people really are different from each other. FEEDBACK: Depending on your point of view, the categorizing and codification of knowledge inherent in psychology could be a matter of pigeonholing or it might be a matter of appreciating individual differences.

One disadvantage of creating "One Big Theory" of personality psychology is that Psychologists would no longer investigate multiple approaches. It would oversimplify human behavior. It would explain some parts of behavior well and other parts not as well. It would nullify the definition of personality.

It would explain some parts of behavior well and other parts not as well. FEEDBACK: A theory that accounts for certain things extremely well will probably not explain everything else so well. And a theory that tries to explain almost everything would probably not provide the best explanation for any one thing.

Why do objective tests typically have so many test items or questions? Objective tests are the work of numerous psychologists working together, and each group contributes questions to the final test. A high volume of test items helps break down participants' confidence that they can deceive the test givers. One way to make a test more reliable is simply to make it longer. Long tests wear down the resistance some people have to giving honest answers.

One way to make a test more reliable is simply to make it longer. FEEDBACK: Single answers tend to be unreliable (reliability being taken in the statistical sense). If a group of similar questions is asked, then aggregating their answers ought to be much more stable, or reliable, because random fluctuations tend to cancel each other out.

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of self-report data? It is easy to collect. It is cost-effective. Participants always provide accurate accounts of their personalities. The person being questioned is the best expert on their own behavior.

Participants always provide accurate accounts of their personalities. FEEDBACK: Participants in self-reports may choose not to, or be unable to, provide accurate accounts of their behavior and feelings.

According to the text, what is the central principle behind the use of S data? People are generally honest about describing their behavior. People are often unfamiliar with self-questionnaires so they will usually provide reliable responses. Questionnaires can trick people into revealing private information about themselves. People are the best experts on their own opinions and behaviors.

People are the best experts on their own opinions and behaviors. FEEDBACK: S data doesn't reveal everything about a person's behavior and personality, but it can reflect complex aspects of a person's character that no other data source can access

Research has shown that a person's musical taste correlates with personality traits. Which of the following research findings are true? People who enjoy New Age music tend to be inventive and imaginative. People who listen to pop music are unfriendly. People who enjoy heavy metal music are more likely to be cautious. People who listen to New Age music are not interested in abstract ideas.

People who enjoy New Age music tend to be inventive and imaginative. FEEDBACK: Recent studies have shown that very specific correlations often exist between people's tastes in music and their personalities.

Which of the four sentences is NOT one of the three main facets of interactionism; that is, the way in which persons and situations produce behavior together? The effect of a personality variable may depend on the situation, or vice versa. People's personality traits are often in opposition of the situation. Situations tend to be self-selected; in other words, certain types of people tend to find themselves in certain types of situations. People change situations by virtue of the actions they take in them.

People's personality traits are often in opposition of the situation. FEEDBACK: The person and the situation are not in opposition; both are important to predicting behavior.

Most personality tests provide what kind of data? S data B data I data L data

S data FEEDBACK: Most tests ask you about what you are like, so the score you receive amounts to a summary of how you have described yourself. Most tests yield S data, although many others yield B data.

In the end, what might be a good way of understanding the relationship between situational variables and personality traits? Situational variables tell us about how people will act in general; personality traits tell us about how people act under specific circumstances. Personality traits tell us about how people will act in general; situational variables are not as statistically relevant to predicting behavior. Because of the ongoing debate between the situationist and trait approaches, it remains difficult to determine which factor is more important in determining behavior. Situational variables tell us about how people will act under certain circumstances; personality traits tell us about how people act in general.

Situational variables tell us about how people will act under certain circumstances; personality traits tell us about how people act in general. FEEDBACK: People are psychologically different from one another, but the conditions surrounding a particular moment in time also play a role in an individual's behavior. Thus, situational variables tell us about how people will act under certain circumstances, while personality traits give us information about how people will act in general.

The pro-personality response to the situationist argument hinged on three points. Which of the following was NOT among their counterarguments? If research methods were improved, they could yield higher correlation coefficients. Mischel's review of personality research did not present a fair representative sample of the aggregated literature. Situationists overemphasize the level of consistency in people's behavior. A correlation of .40 is not small.

Situationists overemphasize the level of consistency in people's behavior. FEEDBACK: The pro-personality aims to show that situationists underemphasize the consistency of people's behavioral responses. The other three choices are true.

Three of the following four sentences about effect size are true. Which is FALSE? The BESD is a concrete display of what the correlation coefficient means in terms of specific outcomes. Squaring the correlation coefficient shows what percentage of the data can be explained by the correlation between variables; for example, a coefficient of .4 shows us that 16 percent of the data can be explained by the correlation (a rather strong effect size). To interpret a correlation coefficient, it is enough to just use statistical significance. The BESD shows how much of an outcome we can predict from an individual measurement of difference.

The BESD shows how much of an outcome we can predict from an individual measurement of difference. FEEDBACK: The BESD provides an alternative way to examine effect size. Squaring the correlation coefficient provides a tenuous and unreliable measure of effect size.

Correlation coefficients are measured between a range of +1 and −1. Which of the following is true regarding correlation coefficients? The closer the number is to zero, the more closely the two variables are associated. A number below zero shows a negative correlation, meaning that the two variables are not related to each other. The further the number is from zero in either direction, the stronger is the effect. The further the number is from zero in either direction, the more measurement error is present in the experiment.

The further the number is from zero in either direction, the stronger is the effect. FEEDBACK: If two variables are unrelated, the correlation between them will be close to zero. If two variables are positively associated, then the correlation coefficient will be greater than zero. If two variables are negatively associated, then the correlation coefficient will be less than zero. The further the number is from zero in either direction, the stronger is the effect.

In Funder and Ozer's reanalysis of several famous studies of cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, and obedience, what did their algebraic comparison reveal? The sizes of the effects of personality and of the situation in predicting behavior were much more similar than many had assumed. Neither personality variables nor situational variables have much of an effect on behavior. There is cause to doubt the influence of the situational variables even in these crucial social psychology experiments. Personality variables were the important determinants of behavior in these experiments.

The sizes of the effects of personality and of the situation in predicting behavior were much more similar than many had assumed. FEEDBACK: Situational variables are important determinants of behavior, but so are personality variables.

For any rationally constructed, S-data personality test to work, four conditions must hold. Which of the answers below is NOT one of these vital conditions? Each item must have the same meaning to the test taker as it does to the psychologist who wrote the test. All the items on the test must be valid indicators of what the tester is trying to measure. The person who completes the test must be willing to report his self-assessment accurately. The tests must be applicable to participants of any gender, race, age, or linguistic group.

The tests must be applicable to participants of any gender, race, age, or linguistic group. FEEDBACK: For a rationally constructed test to measure accurately an attribute of personality, all of the conditions in answers presented must be met, but in fact, most rationally constructed tests fail to meet one or more of these criteria.

Which of the following is a disadvantage of I data? They are not based on a large amount of information. They are simply counts and mathematical combinations of the behaviors the informant has seen. Their accuracy is limited because individuals often behave differently in different contexts. They expose a person's private, inner life without his or her consent.

Their accuracy is limited because individuals often behave differently in different contexts. FEEDBACK: People tend to behave somewhat differently depending on who they are interacting with; for example, you might allow yourself to use different language in front of your roommate than you would in front of your grandmother! For this reason, it is unlikely that an informant will have the whole picture on a participant's pattern of behavior.

Situationists have claimed that situations are important and yet do not measure the effects that situations have on behavior. Which of these choices is a likely reaction from a pro-personality psychologist to this claim? This is understandable because until recent advances in statistics, the effects of situations were thought to be too difficult to test. This is understandable because testing the effects of situations falls into a different discipline of psychology (social psychology) and is not the business of personality psychologists. This is difficult to understand because personality traits do not determine behavior, situations do. This is difficult to understand because there is already a large body of research dedicated to calculating the effects of situations on behavior.

This is difficult to understand because there is already a large body of research dedicated to calculating the effects of situations on behavior. FEEDBACK: One prominent function of social psychology is studying the effects of situations on individual behavior. (In the parlance of that discipline, the situations involved in studies are referred to as conditions.) Although social psychologists have historically been more concerned with studying the statistical significance of situations rather than the size of the effects, their results can be converted algebraically to reveal the effect size of a condition. With this data, it is then easy to compare the effect size of traits and situations upon behavior.

The person-situation debate focuses on which question? Are people inherently good or evil? What is the correct number of personality traits? Which is more important for determining what people do, the person or the situation? Which approach should receive more scientific funding, the person or the situation?

Which is more important for determining what people do, the person or the situation? FEEDBACK: The person-situation debate was triggered by the publication in 1968 of a book by Walter Mischel entitled Personality and Assessment.

Is "stubbornness" a good personality trait to have? No, being resistant to change is always a weakness. Yes, being resolute is always a strength. Yes and no; it can be a strength in some situations and a weakness in others. It is not necessarily scientific or relevant to look at traits as being good or bad.

Yes and no; it can be a strength in some situations and a weakness in others. FEEDBACK: Funder's First Law: Great strengths are usually great weaknesses, and, surprisingly, often the opposite is true as well.

Validity can most simply be defined as the degree to which a measurement actually reflects what it is supposed to be measuring. a test gives us the same results each time we measure it. extraneous errors in an experiment undermine its reliability. a test applies equally well to both men and women.

a measurement actually reflects what it is supposed to be measuring. FEEDBACK: Validity is the degree to which a measurement actually reflects what it is supposed to be measuring.

In psychological research, what is something that affects the relationship between two variables? a variable interjudge a constructive reality a moderator variable a trait construct

a moderator variable FEEDBACK: In psychological parlance, a moderator variable is one that affects the relationship between two other variables.

A researcher shows you various cards with pictures on them and asks you to tell a story about the scene and people in the pictures. What kind of test is this? an objective personality test a projective personality test an empirical personality test a simple form personality test

a projective personality test FEEDBACK: Personality tests in which a participant is presented with ambiguous stimuli, designed to let her answer freely with open-ended responses, are projection tests.

The trait approach to personality psychology best describes what situation? a psychologist studying the ways in which people alter their behaviors because of rewards or punishments a psychologist focusing on ways that people differ from one another in behavior and disposition, and how these differences might be measured a psychologist trying to understand personality in terms of anatomy, physiology, inheritance, and evolution a psychologist studying the role of gene expression in babies, children, and young adults

a psychologist focusing on ways that people differ from one another in behavior and disposition, and how these differences might be measured FEEDBACK: Trait psychology focuses on measuring the degree to which (and ways in which) people differ from each other.

Which of the Big Five personality traits is associated with a tendency to be cooperative? agreeableness extraversion conscientiousness neuroticism openness

agreeableness FEEDBACK: Agreeableness may reflect how important it is for people to get along and work together.

If a test consists of a list of questions that can be answered yes or no, true or false, or on a numeric scale, and especially if the test uses a computer-scored answer sheet, then it is what kind of test? an objective test an empirical test a projective test a cognitive abilities test

an objective test FEEDBACK: The term "objective test" comes from the idea that the questions making up the test seem more objective and less open to interpretation than the pictures and blots used in projective tests; it is not clear, however, if the term "objective" is really justified.

Generalizability allows us to do what? draw the conclusion that some future attempt to exactly replicate an experiment will yield the same results write hypotheses for two separate experiments from different theories apply our results to populations or situations outside of an experiment make a summary of the results of an experiment

apply our results to populations or situations outside of an experiment FEEDBACK: Validity and reliability are intertwined aspects of the single, broader concept of generalizability.

In Snyder's study on social expectancies, the results indicated that if a male participant saw an __________ photograph, the female participant was __________ likely to have behaved in a manner that was rated as warm, poised, and humorous. attractive; more attractive; less unattractive; more unattractive; equally

attractive; more FEEDBACK: Snyder interpreted this effect as another form of self-fulfilling prophecy: Attractive females are expected to be warm and friendly, and those considered attractive are treated in such a manner that they indeed respond that way.

A psychologist who is concerned primarily with how a person's genes, physiology, and brain anatomy are related to his or her personality follows the __________ approach. biological. humanitarian psychoanalytical behavioral

biological FEEDBACK: Biological psychology is an exploration of genetics, brain structure, neurotransmitters, and other aspects of human physiology, and how they relate to behavior.

In Rosenthal's four-factor theory of expectancy effects, __________ refers to the way that teachers project a warmer emotional attitude toward the students they expect to do well. feedback input climate output

climate FEEDBACK: "Climate" refers to the way that teachers project a warmer emotional attitude toward the students they expect to do well.

When patterns of behavior are extreme, unusual, and problematic, personality psychology overlaps with cognitive psychology. clinical psychology. social psychology. biological psychology.

clinical psychology. FEEDBACK: Personality psychology and clinical psychology are not the same, but they do overlap. Both disciplines share the obligation to try to understand whole personals, not just parts of persons, one individual at a time.

The different approaches to studying personality __________ rather than __________ each other. compete with; complement complement; compete with prove; disprove research; investigate

complement; compete with FEEDBACK: The approaches complement rather than compete with each other because each addresses a different set of questions about human psychology.

The greater the amount of diverse information that points to the same conclusion, the more valid a test is likely to be. To put it another way, if something walks like a duck, swims like a duck, and sounds like a duck, then it is very probably a duck. This method of assessing test validity is called interjudge agreement. convergent validation. critical realism. predictive validity.

convergent validation. FEEDBACK: Convergent validation is achieved by assembling diverse pieces of information that "converge" on a common conclusion.

In studies on the amount of information needed to make accurate personality judgments, when more information was given, the level of consensus or agreement among judges in their personality judgment__________ across time. However, the level of accuracy__________. did not change; decreased stayed the same; did not change did not change; increased changed; did not change

did not change; increased FEEDBACK: Consensus was almost as good in the beginning as it became by the end. However, the level of accuracy increased. The cause seems to be that the judges agreed with each other so well because their impressions were based on superficial stereotypes and other misleading cues. After observing the target, judges began to dismiss those stereotypes and see the person as he or she really was.

In a previous study, the use of certainty words (such as "exactly" or "absolutely") was NOT found to be associated with which of the following characteristics? high intellectual capacity verbal fluency straightforwardness and candor emotional instability

emotional instability FEEDBACK: Funder (2008) used a computer program called the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC; Pennebaker, Francis, & Booth, 2001) to score the natural language of participants.

If you wish to compare how two groups of people answer differently on a personality test, which method of test construction would be ideal? empirical projective I-data rational

empirical FEEDBACK: The basic assumption behind the empirical approach is that certain kinds of people have distinctive ways of answering certain questions on personality inventories.

What method of research examines which traits are the most important? single-trait approach many-trait approach essential-trait approach typological approach

essential-trait approach FEEDBACK: The single-trait approach examines the link between personality and behavior by asking, What do people like that do? The many-trait approach asks, Who does that? The essential-trait approach asks, What traits are the most essential? The typological approach asks, Does it really make sense to array everybody in the world along the various trait scales that psychologists have adopted?

Humanistic psychology pursues how conscious awareness can produce uniquely human attributes such as existential anxiety, creativity, and free will. eating, drinking, and sleeping. thoughts, feelings, and biology. id, ego, and superego.

existential anxiety, creativity, and free will. FEEDBACK: This is part of the phenomenological approach of personality psychology, which focuses on people's conscious experience of their world

"Self-fulfilling prophecies" in the realm of psychology are referred to as opportunity costs. judicial concerns. moderators of accuracy. expectancy effects.

expectancy effects. FEEDBACK: One of the main topics of Chapter 5 is expectancy effects and the different ways in which they relate to our lives.

Which of the Big Five Personality traits relate to being popular, sensitive to rewards, and happy? extraversion agreeableness neuroticism openness conscientiousness

extraversion FEEDBACK: Extraverts are more likely to embody a wide scope of positive emotions. Furthermore, their high levels of positive energy and sociability tend to make them more popular. Finally, their positive emotions enable them to be more sensitive to rewards.

Which personality trait is related to happiness, attractiveness, and leadership? agreeableness neuroticism openness extraversion

extraversion FEEDBACK: Personality traits are related to individual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal outcomes.

What are the Big Five personality traits that were derived from the factor analytic method? anger, fear, generosity, love, and creativity extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness extraversion, introversion, integrity, open-mindedness, and courage strength, toughness, wisdom, intelligence, and perception

extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness FEEDBACK: The Big Five personality traits are extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness. These represent the traits that most psychologists agree are the fundamental traits of the human personality.

What are the Big Five personality traits? anger, greed, generosity, love, and creativity extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness introversion, avarice, integrity, open-mindedness, and courage strength, toughness, wisdom, intelligence, and perception

extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness FEEDBACK: The Big Five personality traits are extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness. These represent the traits that most psychologists agree are the fundamental traits of the human personality.

In Rosenthal's four-factor theory of expectancy effects, __________ refers to the way that teachers give feedback that is more differentiated for their high-expectancy students; that is, it varies according to the correctness or incorrectness of the students' responses. feedback input climate output

feedback FEEDBACK: "Feedback" refers to the way that teachers give feedback that is more differentiated for their high-expectancy students; that is, it varies according to the correctness or incorrectness of the students' responses.

Openness is related to forgiveness, political liberalism, and artistic interests. religious beliefs, family satisfaction, and political conservatism. psychological health, peer acceptance, and job attainment. poor coping, poor family relations, and criminal behavior.

forgiveness, political liberalism, and artistic interests. FEEDBACK: Personality traits are related to individual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal outcomes.

The fact that women are more likely than men to sign up for a study affects the __________ of the study. generalizability validity reliability psychometrics

generalizability FEEDBACK: It is perilous to turn a blind eye to differences in gender, age, culture, and other factors in interpreting data.

The distinction between reliability and validity is not always easy. To better distinguish between the two notions, we now tend to view them as aspects of a single broader concept called generalizability. objectivity. trait specificity. multideterminism.

generalizability. FEEDBACK: Psychometricians have started to regard validity and reliability as aspects of this single, broader concept.

The concept of self-monitoring states that some individuals have very different "inner" and "outer" selves. __________ are individuals who really do vary in their inner and outer selves and who modulate their personalities greatly depending on their setting; __________ are largely the same outside as they are inside and do not vary much from one setting to another. high self-monitors; low self-monitors low self-monitors; high self-monitors self-monitors; situation-monitors situation-monitors; self-monitors

high self-monitors; low self-monitors FEEDBACK: High self-monitors survey every situation, looking for cues as to the appropriate way to act; low self-monitors tend to be more consistent regardless of the situation.

According to psychologist Jonathan Haidt, conservatives are likely to strongly value in-group loyalty self-monitoring agreeableness openness to experience

in-group loyalty FEEDBACK: Haidt argues that both liberals and conservatives are likely to endorse values such as harm/care and fairness/reciprocity, while conservatives are likely to value in-group loyalty, authority/respect, and purity.

Of the four types of data, which ones call for individuals to directly answer questions about themselves or other people? informant reports and life outcomes behavioral observations and self-reports life outcomes and behavioral observations informant reports and self-reports

informant reports and self-reports FEEDBACK: Both self-report data and informant reports rely on questionnaires, interviews, and surveys.

According to Jack and Jeanne Block's theory of personality as based on ego resilience and ego control, overcontrolled people tend to __________, while undercontrolled individuals are more prone to__________. speak up; remain quiet inhibit impulses; act on them immediately be aggressive; become passive be liberal; be conservative

inhibit impulses; act on them immediately FEEDBACK: Overcontrolled people are high in the ego-control dimension, while undercontrolled people are low in the ego-control dimension.

In Rosenthal's four-factor theory of expectancy effects, __________ refers to the way in which teachers attempt to teach more material and more difficult material to their high-expectancy students. output input feedback climate

input FEEDBACK: "Input" refers to the way that teachers attempt to teach more material and more difficult material to their high-expectancy students.

Which of the following is an example of a construct? intelligence the brain a laboratory a personality psychologist

intelligence FEEDBACK: A construct is something that cannot be directly seen or touched, but that affects and helps to explain many different things that are visible. Nobody has ever seen or touched intelligence, but it affects many aspects of behavior and performance, including test scores and achievements in real life.

In regard to personality judgments, two primary converging criteria are interjudge agreement and behavioral prediction reliability and validity the good judge and the good target physical appearance and voice recordings

interjudge agreement and behavioral prediction FEEDBACK: Psychological research can evaluate the accuracy of personality judgments by asking two questions: (a) Do the judgments agree with each other? and (b) Can they predict behavior?

The biggest disadvantage of L data is that they are usually more related to social psychology than to personality psychology. it is extremely difficult to establish connections between personality and life outcomes because life outcomes can have so many causes. it is extremely difficult to establish connections between personality and life outcomes because life-outcome data in themselves are very subjective and unreliable. people are able to lie when providing this data

it is extremely difficult to establish connections between personality and life outcomes because life outcomes can have so many causes. FEEDBACK: One of the biggest disadvantages of L data is multi-determination. L data have many causes, so trying to establish direct connections between specific attributes of personality and life outcomes can be difficult.

Informant-report data can best be defined as judgments by knowledgeable human informants of general attributes of the individual's personality made through observation. concrete statistics about real-life outcomes based upon verifiable records. information given by a participant about how he is feeling at some given point in the day. data provided by other psychologists working on similar studies.

judgments by knowledgeable human informants of general attributes of the individual's personality made through observation. FEEDBACK: I data are judgments by knowledgeable informants about general attributes of the individual's personality.

Behaviorism, social learning theory, and cognitive personality psychology comprise which of the following approaches to psychology? learning and cognitive approach social learning approach trait approach Biological approach

learning and cognitive approach FEEDBACK: The learning approach focuses on how people .change their behavior as a result of rewards, punishments, and other experiences in life. The cognitive approach focuses on studying perception, memory, and thought

The __________ is the idea that the important aspects of human life will be labeled with words, and that if something is truly important and universal, many words for it will exist in all languages. single-trait approach cross-sectional study lexical hypothesis essential-trait approach

lexical hypothesis FEEDBACK: This hypothesis provides a unique route for finding which personality traits are the most important.

People who score high on the openness to experience/intellect trait are likely to play a musical instrument likely to be involved in religious activities likely to be on time to appointments likely to be successful in the workplace

likely to play a musical instrument FEEDBACK: People who score high on openness are viewed by others as creative, imaginative, open-minded, and liberal.

Recent studies have shown that expectation effects are stronger when more than one important person in someone's life holds the expectation for a __________ time; however, it seems that this appears to be especially true for __________ expectations. short time; negative long time; negative short time; positive long time; positive

long time; negative FEEDBACK: Recent studies have indeed shown that expectation effects are stronger when more than one important person in someone's life holds the expectation for a long time; however, it seems that this appears to be especially true for negative expectations: When parents think that their children have bad habits, for example, the children's patterns of poor behavior tend to get worse.

Reliability is important to successful research, but every measurement involves a certain amount of error. Which of the following lists describes some factors that commonly undermine reliability? deception, informed consent, blind studies negative correlational values, low significance, Type I errors, Type II errors low precision, variation in the participant and environment, state of the experimenter lack of clarity in the conceptualization of a variable, long scales, random sampling

low precision, variation in the participant and environment, state of the experimenter FEEDBACK: Low precision, variation in the participant and the environment, and the state of the experimenter are all factors that can be counteracted using thoughtful experimental design. However, there are techniques to improve reliability such as care with research procedure, standardized research protocol, measuring something important, and aggregation.

Research on narcissism has discovered a long list of negative behaviors associated with people who score high on narcissism. Which of the following is NOT one of those behaviors? not handling failure well driving aggressively swearing a lot maintaining long-term relationships

maintaining long-term relationships FEEDBACK: All these research findings are associated with people who score high on the trait of narcissism.

What method of research seeks to explain the pattern of correlation between certain traits and specific behaviors? single-trait approach many-trait approach essential-trait approach typological approach

many-trait approach FEEDBACK: The single-trait approach examines the link between personality and behavior by asking, What do people like that do? The many-trait approach asks, Who does that? The essential-trait approach asks, What traits are the most essential? The typological approach asks, Does it really make sense to array everybody in the world along the various trait scales that psychologists have adopted?

Which traits are easier to judge accurately? less visible traits (e.g., cognitive style) more visible traits (e.g., extraversion) highly important traits (e.g., honesty) people-oriented traits (e.g., intelligence)

more visible traits (e.g., extraversion) FEEDBACK: As you might expect, more easily observed traits, such as talkativeness, sociability, and other traits related to extraversion, are judged with much higher levels of interjudge agreement than less visible traits.

The principle behind the Spearman-Brown formula in psychometrics states that because random errors tend to cancel one another out, the __________ errors your measurements have, the __________ of them you need. more; more more; less less; less less; more

more; more FEEDBACK: This is a basic and powerful principle of measurement. If you have doubts about the precision of your measurement, you should take as many measurements as you can and average them.

Because any piece of L data can have many different causes, it is extremely difficult to directly connect life outcomes with specific personality traits. This key disadvantage to L data is referred to as causal force. error. intrinsic importance. multidetermination.

multidetermination. FEEDBACK: L data are related to countless factors, some of which have nothing to do with personality whatsoever.

Which trait refers to excess self-love? depression narcissism self-monitoring extraversion

narcissism FEEDBACK: The term "narcissism" refers to excessive self-love, which can be so extreme as to be classified as a personality disorder.

Unhappiness, poor family relations, and occupational dissatisfaction characterize which of the Big Five personality traits? neuroticism extraversion introversion agreeableness

neuroticism FEEDBACK: In this first introduction to the Big Five personality traits, the important thing to take away is that personality traits can, in a broad sense, easily be linked to specific life outcomes. We will return to the Big Five and other elements of the essential-trait approach in Chapter 6.

Which personality trait is associated with poor coping, criminal behavior, and poor family relations? conscientiousness the id extraversion neuroticism

neuroticism FEEDBACK: Personality matters on more than just theoretical grounds: It affects life outcomes that matter to people.

The three parts of the psychological triad are not related to one another. not always consistent at all times. always consistent with one another. called the id, the ego, and the superego.

not always consistent at all times. FEEDBACK: The psychological triad (the combination of how people think, feel, and behave) is not always a harmonious structure, but neither is it always a chaotic one.

Let's say that when you are at work, your office is always spotless. The papers are always filed, no folders are lying around, and everything is neat and tidy. But when you are at home, your bedroom is a mess, clothes are all over the floor, and dirty dishes are all over the room. This is an example of the concept that people tend to be confused when in different contexts. are more likely to try and impress their boss than someone at home. often vary their actions and behavior depending on the situation. have a tendency to be deceptive about their true personalities.

often vary their actions and behavior depending on the situation. FEEDBACK: People often vary their actions and behavior depending on the situation.

In Rosenthal's four-factor theory of expectancy effects, __________ refers to the way that teachers give their high-expectation students extra opportunities to show what they have learned. output input feedback climate

output FEEDBACK: "Output" refers to the way that teachers give their high-expectation students extra opportunities to show what they have learned.

When defining personality, we could say that personality is best described as how people interact in a social setting combined with how they reason and solve complex problems. how people express their emotions through verbal and nonverbal communication. people's characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior together with the psychological mechanisms, hidden or not, behind those patterns. people's behavioral patterns only.

people's characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior together with the psychological mechanisms, hidden or not, behind those patterns. FEEDBACK: This is essentially the meaning of the psychological triad.

A psychologist who is concerned primarily with a person's conscious experiences follows the __________ approach. phenomenological superego learning-cognitive psychoanalytic

phenomenological FEEDBACK: The phenomenological approach to psychology is invested in a person's immediate, conscious self.

My judgment that you are conscientious converges with the subsequent empirical fact that you arrive on time for all your class meetings. This is an example of interjudge agreement predictive validity the RAM model construct validity

predictive validity FEEDBACK: Predictive validity is the degree to which one measure can be used to predict another.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is an example of which type of test? factor analytic empirical projective rational

projective FEEDBACK: The TAT asks clients to tell stories about a set of drawings of people and ambiguous events.

Which answer below represents the proper sequence in which the four conditions of personality judgment must be met according to the Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM)? relevance, availability, detection, utilization detection, relevance, availability, utilization availability, relevance, detection, utilization detection, utilization, availability, relevance

relevance, availability, detection, utilization FEEDBACK: First, the person being judged must do something relevant to the trait being judged; second, this information must be available to a judge; third, the judge must detect this information; and fourth, the judge must utilize this information correctly

A personality psychologist who is concerned primarily with people's unconscious mind and internal conflict follows what approach? trait approach biological approach social approach psychoanalytic approach

psychoanalytic approach FEEDBACK: Psychologists who use the psychoanalytic approach focus on the unconscious mind and the nature and resolution of internal mental conflict.

Correlational methods do all of the following except the correlational method can assess a large number of variables at once, while the experimental method can only examine the effect of one variable upon one other variable. the variable that is thought to be causal is manipulated in the experimental method, whereas it is measured without being manipulated in the correlational method. experimental methods are more highly prone to extraneous influences affecting the participants. correlational methods allow psychologists to take measurements without their subjects knowing that they are participating in a study.

show which variable caused the other. FEEDBACK: Correlational studies are informative, but they raise the possibility that both of two correlated variables were caused by an unmeasured third variable, that either of them might have caused the other, or even that both of them cause each other.

What method of research examines the behavior patterns of certain types of individuals? single-trait approach many-trait approach essential-trait approach typological approach

single-trait approach FEEDBACK: The single-trait approach examines the link between personality and behavior by asking, What do people like that do? The many-trait approach asks, Who does that? The essential-trait approach asks, What traits are the most essential? The typological approach asks, Does it really make sense to array everybody in the world along the various trait scales that psychologists have adopted?

The __________ says that under the right circumstances, anybody could be rich, popular, and successful. The __________ says that some people possess characteristics that make bad outcomes relatively likely. trait approach; situationist view situationist view; trait approach nature view; nurture view nurture view; nature view

situationist view; trait approach FEEDBACK: The situationist view is, on the surface, appealing, but it can also somewhat paradoxically be deployed to absolve individuals of behaving poorly in the face of "powerful situations."

High self-monitors are likely to be described as touchy and irritable. skilled in social techniques. perfectionists. independent.

skilled in social techniques. FEEDBACK: High self-monitors are likely to be described as skilled in social techniques of imaginative play, pretending, and humor. Low self-monitors are likely to be described as touchy or irritable, perfectionists, and independent.

The main difference between state and trait reliability is that states are consistent, giving reliable measurements across time and situations, whereas traits lack consistency and are unreliable across time and situations. traits are generally more valid measurements, whereas states are more reliable. states and traits have both the same measures of reliability and validity when measuring across time and situations. states lack consistency across time and situations, whereas traits produce reliable measures across time and situations.

states lack consistency across time and situations, whereas traits produce reliable measures across time and situations. FEEDBACK: When trying to measure a stable attribute of personality (a trait rather than a state), the question of reliability reduces to: Can you get the same result more than once? A state, on the other hand, depends primarily on the individual's situation.

The factor analytic method of test construction is an example of a psychological tool based on psychoanalysis. statistics. dreams. inkblots.

statistics. FEEDBACK: The factor analytic method of test construction is an example of a psychological tool based on statistics.

A systematic, self-imposed limitation of observations, patterns, and ways of thinking about these patterns is called the trait approach. personality. the basic approach. the psychological triad.

the basic approach FEEDBACK: Another term for the basic approach is a paradigm. Personality psychology is organized around several different basic approaches, including trait and biological.

One branch of the phenomenological approach focuses on how conscious awareness produces uniquely human attributes and the other branch focuses on biological mechanisms. the degree to which the experience of reality may be different in different cultures. the conflict of the unconscious mind. how people change their behavior based on rewards, punishment, and learning.

the degree to which the experience of reality may be different in different cultures. FEEDBACK: Interest in this topic has led to an explosion of cross-cultural research.

Personality is the baggage you carry with you. It affects life outcomes in __________, but not always in__________. the past; the future the long run; the short run some situations; other situations relationships; the workplace

the long run; the short run FEEDBACK: Personality variables matter because they comprise the psychological aspects of a person that he or she carries along throughout life, from one relationship, job, and situation to the next.

What are the "factors" that the factor analytic method is designed to identify? the properties that make groups of things seem to be alike the precise statistical relationships between personality traits the accuracy of a psychologist's theory of personality the number of ways in which people can differ

the properties that make groups of things seem to be alike FEEDBACK: Factor analysis is designed to identify groups of things, such as test items, that seem to be alike. The property that makes these things alike is called a factor.

Which of the following is an example of a basic approach, or paradigm, of personality psychology? the psychoanalytic approach cases where one theory must be used to explain a certain aspect of another theory cases where two theories overlap each other Funder's First Law FEEDBACK: Different paradigms of psychology can seem to conflict with one another, but it may be less a matter of having different answers to the same psychological puzzles and more a matter of posing different questions about the mind and behavior.

the psychoanalytic approach FEEDBACK: Different paradigms of psychology can seem to conflict with one another, but it may be less a matter of having different answers to the same psychological puzzles and more a matter of posing different questions about the mind and behavior.

How people feel, think, and behave are parts of the study of social-person cognition. psychological conflict. the psychological triad. the sensation-perception-cognition triad.

the psychological triad. FEEDBACK: The psychological triad encompasses, in a sense, all the things that make a person a person.

Personality psychology's biggest advantage over other areas of psychology is that it employs a diverse set of research methods. the psychology of whole persons is taken into account. it does not need to rely on scientific evidence as much. You Answered the information it uses to construct theories is easier to collect.

the psychology of whole persons is taken into account. FEEDBACK: However, not only is taking the whole person into account an advantage of personality psychology, it is also a disadvantage.

Which of the following answers is NOT one of the primary moderator variables on which research on personality judgment accuracy has focused? the situation surrounding the judgment the target (the person who is being judged) the judge of the trait the trait in question

the situation surrounding the judgment FEEDBACK: Research on accuracy has focused primarily on four basic moderators: properties of the judge, properties of either the target or the trait that is being judged, and properties of the information on which the judgment is based.

What is the purpose of institutional review boards (IRBs) at research universities? to review and edit psychologists' research paper submissions prior to publication to analyze and make modifications to the ethical guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA) to review the procedures of all research experiments and ensure that they comply with ethical guidelines set by the federal government or the APA to interpret and analyze data for researchers after data collection has ended

to review the procedures of all research experiments and ensure that they comply with ethical guidelines set by the federal government or the APA FEEDBACK: The American Psychological Association has developed a detailed set of ethical guidelines that psychological researchers are supposed to follow. Research universities also all have institutional review boards (IRBs) that review the ethics of procedures conducted with human participants. Ask yourself if Stanley Milgram's experiments would be allowed at research institutions today.

The trait approach to personality psychology can best be described as the categorization of personality types to help clinicians diagnose disorders. pigeonholing individuals into categories. translating the natural, informal language of personality and processing it quantitatively to predict and explain human behavior. analyzing dreams and other indicators of unconscious psychic activity.

translating the natural, informal language of personality and processing it quantitatively to predict and explain human behavior. FEEDBACK: The trait approach takes the informal language of personality, applies a quantitative framework, and extracts data that help predict and explain behavior.

What method of research focuses on the patterns of traits that characterize whole persons, rather than focusing on the traits directly? single-trait approach many-trait approach essential-trait approach typological approach

typological approach FEEDBACK: The single-trait approach examines the link between personality and behavior by asking, What do people like that do? The many-trait approach asks, Who does that? The essential-trait approach asks, What traits are the most essential? The typological approach asks, Does it really make sense to array everybody in the world along the various trait scales that psychologists have adopted?

Beyond simply pigeonholing individuals into convenient categories, measuring personality traits can be thought of as having two larger purposes. One is to predict behavior. Another is to understand behavior. control behavior. intercept dangerous behavior. manipulate behavior

understand behavior. FEEDBACK: The trait approach is built on the twin assumptions that the best way to test the accuracy of a psychological understanding of an individual's personality is to use it to (try to) predict what he or she will do, and that learning which traits predict a behavior can lead to insights as to why the person behaves in that way.

Research finds that by looking at someone's face, we can discern a number of personality traits, such as courage, agreeableness, and emotional stability, with surprising accuracy. the snap judgments we make about his or her personality have no real validity whatsoever. we detect with some accuracy the difference between extremes of certain personality traits such as extraversion and agreeableness. we detect with some accuracy the difference between extremes of certain personality traits such as openness and neuroticism.

we detect with some accuracy the difference between extremes of certain personality traits such as extraversion and agreeableness. FEEDBACK: Research supports the idea that we are somewhat able to accurately detect certain traits, such as agreeableness and extraversion, from people's faces; data about accurate discrimination in nonextreme cases is less conclusive.

It tends to be more informative to observe a person in a __________situation, in which people do different things, than in a __________situation, in which social norms or other expectations restrict what people do. individual; socialized independent; gestalt strong; weak weak; strong

weak; strong FEEDBACK: It can be more informative to observe someone in a weak situation, in which people do different things, than in a strong situation, in which social norms or other expectations restrict what people do.

Using the typological approach, research has focused on which three personality types? appreciated, underappreciated, and overappreciated well-adjusted, overcontrolling, and undercontrolling extraverted, introverted, and agreeable political orientation, narcissism, and depressed

well-adjusted, overcontrolling, and undercontrolling FEEDBACK: Across seven different studies with diverse participants all over the world, three personality types showed up again and again: well-adjusted, maladjusted undercontrolling, and maladjusted overcontrolling.

The idea that people are psychologically different and that it is important and interesting to note these differences is made evident by words arising to describe individual differences. making mistakes when judging personality traits. observing people in naturalistic situations. comparing situations to personality traits.

words arising to describe individual differences. FEEDBACK: Language is an important part of personality traits. Words arose to describe differences in people, which make us more sensitive to the differences and that make it possible to talk about them.

One of the consequences of everyday personality judgment is interjudge agreement. predictive validity. your reputation. accuracy in determining traits.

your reputation. FEEDBACK: Your reputation among those who know you matters because it affects both opportunities and expectancies.