Psychology Ch. 1

Evolutionary theory

"Natural selection aids survival" -One of the major influences on functionalism was the work of the naturalist Charles Darwin. In 1859, -Darwin published his revolutionary book On the Origin of Species. This work introduced the world to evolutionary theory. -Darwin's ideas have deeply influenced science, philosophy, and society.

Psychology

"The study of mental activity and behavior, which are based on brain processes." -Mental activity lets us perceive the world; that is, we use our senses—sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch—to take in information from outside ourselves. -Behavior refers to all of our actions that result from sensing and interpreting information.

The following learning strategies are all based on psychological research

-The right goals lead to success -A little stress management goes a long way -Cramming is a crummy way to learn -Learning is an active endeavor -Explaining enhances understanding -There are many ways to learn -Self-quizzing improves learning

Three steps in becoming a skilled critical thinker

1. "What am I being asked to believe or accept?" 2. "What evidence is provided to support the claim?" 3. "What are the most reasonable conclusions?"

Self-report

A descriptive method that consists of obtaining self-reports from research participants. -Questionnaires or surveys can be used to gather data from a large number of people in a short time. -Self-report bias must be considered.

Control is necessary to determine causality

A properly performed experiment depends on rigorous control. Confound: Anything that affects a dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between the study's different experimental conditions.

Descriptive method

A research method that provides a systematic and objective description of what is occurring.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents the population by allowing each member of the population an equal chance of being included.

Observational study

A specific type of descriptive method involving systematically assessing and coding observable behavior. -Observational studies can be used either in the laboratory or in natural environments.

Case studies

Case studies involve intensive examination of a few unique people or organizations. -Case studies of people with psychological disorders are used frequently in psychology.

Operational definition

Detailed description of the variables.

Gestalt psychology

Experiencing the "whole" Gestalt psychology developed in opposition to structuralism. Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler.

Experimental psychology begins

Experimental psychology began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory.

Random assignment

Placing research participants in the conditions of an experiment such that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable.

How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?

Psychologists cannot answer questions based on beliefs, hearsay, rumor, or even expert opinions.

Correlational methods

Research methods that examine how variables are naturally related in the real world. -The researcher makes no attempt to alter the variables or assign causation between them. -Measure two factors and then determine the degree of association between the two variables.

Experimental methods

Research methods that test causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables.

A psychologist's career involves predicting behavior or understanding mental activity

Researchers who study the brain, the mind, and behavior may work in schools, businesses, universities, or clinics.

Gestalt theory

The idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its parts.

Dependent variable

The variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.

Independent variable

The variable that the experimenter manipulates to examine its impact on the dependent variable.

Titchener pioneered a school of thought that became known as structuralism

This school is based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into underlying parts.

Freud's goals

To understand how unconscious thoughts cause psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic theory

Unconscious conflicts; Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalytic theory. -To try to understand the connections between psychology and physical problems. -Freud used psychoanalysis to treat unconscious mental forces that conflicted with acceptable behavior and produced psychological disorders.

Why Is Psychology Important to You?

Understanding and applying the principles of psychology can affect us in critical ways. -Psychology can help us understand other people and ourselves. -Psychology can help us improve our lives.

Cognitive neuroscience is the interaction of

Cognitive psychologists Computer scientists Philosophers Brain researchers

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants.

Control group

In an experiment, a comparison group of participants who receive no intervention or receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated.

Experimental group

In an experiment, one or more treatment groups of participants who receive the intervention of the independent variable being investigated.

Academic success

Learning about psychology's major issues, theories, and controversies will help you succeed in your academic work.

Evaluating psychology in the news

Media reports seek to grab attention. Their claims may be based on psychological research, but they may be hype instead. Thinking critically about claims in psychology will help you in your daily life.

For research to be ethical, five main issues must be addressed

1.Privacy: Researchers must respect participants' privacy. 2.Confidentiality: Participants' information must be kept secret. 3.Informed consent: Informed consent means that people must be told about the research and can choose whether to participate. 4.Deception: Knowing a study's specific goals can sometimes alter participants' behavior, so deception may be permissible but must be revealed at the study's end. 5.Risks: Researchers cannot ask participants to endure unreasonable pain or discomfort.

Behaviorism

Stimuli and responses, John B. Watson "A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior Behaviorism dominated psychological research well into the early 1960s." Watson's views have been furthered by thousands of psychologists, including B. F. Skinner.

Professional success

Studying psychology will also prepare you for success in your professional life. Teachers and education professionals need to understand how people's thinking, social abilities, and behaviors develop over time. People in business, marketing, advertising, and sales need to know how attitudes are formed or changed and how well people's attitudes predict their behavior. Opportunities for people with graduate degrees in psychology are expected to grow by about 12 percent by 2022.

Critical thinking

Systematically evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions best supported by evidence.

Culture

The beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment and that are transmitted through learning from one generation to the next.

Scientific method:

A systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena (observable things) to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why. This process involves a dynamic interaction between theories, hypotheses, and research methods.

Structuralism

Components of the conscious mind; An early school of psychology that explored the structures of the mind through introspection.

William James argued that the mind was much more complex than its elements and could not be broken down.

The goal of functionalism was to describe how the conscious mind aids adaptation to an environment.

What Do Psychologists Investigate?

The goal of understanding human thought and behavior originated in the study of philosophy.

The beginnings of psychology

-Aristotle and Plato -Nature/nurture debate: Both nature and nurture influence our psychological development. -Mind/body problem: Are the mind and the body separate and distinct? -Descartes and dualism: The mind and the body are separate yet intertwined.

Cognitive psychology

-Mental activity -Miller and Neisser: Learning was not as simple as the behaviorists believed. "The study of how people think, learn, and remember."

Important abilities learned from psychology

Analyzing information by breaking it into pieces, evaluating ideas by drawing conclusions about them, and communicating about psychological concepts.

The purpose of the laboratory was to identify the basic parts, or structures, of the conscious mind

-Reaction time experiments -Introspection methods

Four levels of analysis used by psychologists

1. The biological level of analysis deals with how the physical body influences our thoughts and behavior. 2. The individual level of analysis focuses on individual differences in personality and mental processes that affect perception and understanding. 3. The social level of analysis involves investigating how groups affect people's interactions and people's influence on each other. 4. The cultural level of analysis explores how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are similar or different across cultures.

There are five steps in the scientific method

1.Theory: A model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. 2.Hypothesis: A specific prediction of what should be observed if a theory is correct. 3.Testing the hypothesis: Three main types of research methods to test your research question: descriptive, correlational, and experimental. 4.Analyze the data to see whether your hypothesis is supported: Summarize the raw data using descriptive statistics, then use inferential statistics to determine whether differences really exist. 5.Report results and embark on further inquiry.

Humanistic psychology

Focus on positives; "A school of psychology that investigates how people grow to become happier and more fulfilled and focuses on people's basic goodness." -Psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers focused on how people are free to choose activities that make them happy and bring them fulfillment -Positive psychology.

Functionalism

Purpose of the conscious mind; An early school of psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior.