Psychology Ch. 1
Wilhelm Wundt
German psychologist who established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany; structuralism: looking for structure of conscious experience; introspection: primary technique of structuralism, literally looking inward
social psychologists
primarily concerned with the nature and causes of individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations
replicate
repeat, reproduce, copy
applied research
research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems
pure research
research conducted without concern for immediate applications
experimental psychologists
specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion
case study
a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests
population
a complete group of organisms or events
independent variable
a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed
experimenter bias
a condition in which a researcher expects or desires a certain outcome in a research study, possibly affecting the outcome
theory
a formulation of relationships underlying observed events
ethnic group
a group characterized by common features such as cultural heritage, history, race, and language
Sigmund Freud
studied psychoanalysis; theory and therapy; behavior driven by unconscious, biological forces; psychodynamics, conflicts between unconscious forces
B. F. Skinner
studied reinforcement; positive outcomes increase preceding behavior
organizational psychologists
study the behavior of people in organizations such as businesses
consumer psychologists
study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior
Gestalt psychology
the school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
functionalism
the school of psychology that emphasizes the uses or functions of the mind and behavior rather than just the elements of experience
psychology
the science that studies behavior and mental processes
cognition
the use of mental processes to perceive and mentally represent the world, think, and engage in problem solving and decision making
correlational method
a mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases. For example, there is a correlation between intelligence test scores and grades in school
dependent variable
a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable
sociocultural perspective
the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes
survey
a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior
correlation coefficient
a number between +1.00 and -1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables
informed consent
a participant's agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments
negative correlation
a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases
positive correlation
a relationship between variables in which one variable increases as the other also increases
random sample
a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate
stratified sample
a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample
social-cognitive theory
a school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social-learning theory
empirical science
a science that obtains evidence by experience or experimentation
naturalistic observation
a scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments
experiment
a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables
volunteer bias
a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not
selection factor
a source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study
reinforcement
a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response
double-blind study
a study in which neither the participants nor the observers know who has received the treatment
Robert Williams
an African American who studied psycholinguistics and ebonics
Kenneth B. Clark
an African American whose contribution to psychology was of prejudice and discrimination; influenced 1954 Supreme Court decision rejecting segregation of races
scientific method
an approach to acquiring or confirming knowledge that is based on gathering measurable evidence through observation and experimentation; evidence is often obtained to test hypotheses
critical thinking
an approach to the examination of arguments based on skepticism, logical analysis, and insistence upon the importance of empirical evidence
correlation
an association or relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight or between study habits and school grades
instinctive
an inborn pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus
personality psychologists
focus on goals such as identifying and measuring human traits; determining influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior; and explaining psychological disorders; particularly concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, and gender roles
industrial psychologists
focus on the relationships between people and work
evolutionary perspective
the view that our behavior and mental processes have been shaped, at least in part, by natural selection as our ancestors strived to meet prehistoric and historic challenges
existentialism
the view that people are free and responsible for their own behavior
sample
part of a population
debrief
to elicit information about a completed procedure
generalize
to extend from the particular to the general; to apply observations based on a sample to a population
placebo
a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine
Gestalt school
Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler all studied perception, primarily visual; wholeness of experience greater than the sum of its parts
Aristotle
argued that science could rationally treat only information that was gathered by the senses; he numbered the so-called five senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch; he pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought; he explained how the imagination and dreams contained images based on experience; he outlined laws of associationism that have lain at the heart of learning theory for more than 2,000 years; also declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain
educational psychologists
attempt to facilitate learning but usually focus on course planning and instructional methods for a school system rather than on individual children; research issues such as how learning is affected by psychological factors such as motivation and intelligence, sociocultural factors such as poverty, and teachers
introspection
deliberate looking into one's own cognitive processes to examine one's thoughts and feelings and to gain self-knowledge
school psychologists
employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning
sport psychologists
help people improve their performance in sports
clinical psychologists
help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life
insight
in Gestalt psychology, the sudden reorganization of perceptions, allowing the sudden solution of a problem
blind
in experimental terminology, being unaware of whether one has received a treatment or not
treatment
in experiments, a condition received by participants so that its effects may be observed
control groups
in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant
experimental groups
in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment
human factors psychologists
make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user-friendly
ethical
moral; referring to one's system of deriving standards for determining what is moral
developmental psychologists
study the changes (physical, cognitive, social, and personality) that occur throughout the life span; conduct research on issues such as the effects of maternal use of drugs on the embryo, the outcomes of various patterns of child rearing, children's concepts of space and time, conflicts during adolescence, and problems of adjustment among older people
health psychologists
study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and cancer; guide clients towards healthier behavior patterns
environmental psychologists
study the ways that people and the environment influence one another
cognitive perspective
the approach to psychology that focuses on the nature of consciousness and on mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, problem solving, decision making, judgment, language, and intelligence
biological perspective
the approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures such as the functioning of the brain, the endocrine system, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other
gender
the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity
John B. Watson
the founder of American behaviorism; limited research to observable behavior
humanism
the philosophy and school of psychology that asserts that people are conscious, self-aware, and capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior
structuralism
the school of psychology that argues the mind consists of three basic elements (sensations, feelings, and images) that combine to form experience
psychoanalysis
the school of psychology that asserts that much of our behavior and mental processes is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that have their origins in childhood conflicts
behaviorism
the school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses
counseling psychologists
use interviews and tests to define their clients' problems; they help clients' clarify their goals and draw upon their strengths and resources to take action on their problems; work with individuals, couples and families, and organizations such as businesses, hospitals, and schools
hypothesis
within the science of psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research
Margaret Floy Washburn
woman whose contribution to psychology was animal learning, presaged behaviorism
Mary Whiton Calkins
woman whose contribution to psychology was memory research, paired-associates technique
Christine Ladd-Franklin
woman whose contribution to psychology was the theory of color vision
forensic psychologists
work with criminal justice agencies to apply psychological expertise to activities such as hostage negotiations, police assessment of threats, decision making as to the use of deadly force, and the interrogation of witnesses and offenders
William James
wrote "Principles of Psychology"; focused on the relation between conscious experience and behavior; argued that the stream of consciousness is fluid and continuous; functionalism: focused on importance of habit