Psychology Chapter 5

what are the broad categories of drugs?

depressants, stimulants, narcotics, hallucinogens, and marijuana.

What is the altered state of consciousness and what affects can it have?

a form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and mind. can be accompanied by changes in thinking, disturbances in sense of time, feeling of the loss of control, changes in emotional expression, alterations in body image and sense of self, perceptual distortions, and changes in meaning or significance

repression

a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts from consciousness and keeps them in the unconscious. without it, we would act on the secret thoughts

circadian rhythem

a naturally occurring 24-hour cycle of sleeping and waking.

how do researchers describe consciousness?

based on its properties, its levels, and its contents

why are narcotics especially alluring?

because they are external mimics of the brains own internal system of relaxation and well-being

how is consciousness studied?

by examining it directly (trying to understand what its like and how it compares with unconscious processes), and examining its altered states

what happens in the brain when we dream?

certain brain areas show changes in the brain activation during REM sleep and that these changes correspond clearly with certain alterations of consciousness that occur in dreaming.

how does consciousness have levels?

consciousness ranges from full consciousness to self-consciousness, which are not a matter of degree of overall brain activity, but instead involve different qualities of awareness of the world and of the self

what happens during the five stages of sleep?

In the first stage of sleep, the EEG moves to frequency patterns even lower than alpha waves (theta waves). In the second stage, the patterns are interrupted by sleep spindles and K complexes (short bursts of activity). The deepest stages of sleep are in stages three and four, known as slow-wave sleep, in which the EEG patterns show activity called delta waves. REM sleep occurs during the fifth stage

How much sleep do people need?

It depends on age. Newborns need 16+ hrs, over 6-8 times a day, eventually sleeping through the night at 9-18 months old chidden need 11-12 hours of sleep adults need 7-7.5 hrs of sleep

Why do we need sleep when other insects don't, and other animals need a lot more or a lot less sleep?

It may be the restoration that happens during the unconsciousness of sleep, and the benefits must be significant to account for sleeps preservation throughout the course of evolution, even though it makes organisms very vulnerable. Theories of sleep have not yet been determined why the brain and body have evolved to need these reoccurring episodes of unconsciousness.

what experiment was conducted to show the theory of expectancy

in a study, some participants are given alcohol and others are given a substitute liquid, some people in each group are led to believe they have alcohol and some aren't. these experiments show that the belief one had had alcohol can influence behavior as strongly as the ingestion of alcohol itself.

who experiences nightmares the most?

nightmares are frightening dreams that can wake up the dreamer. the average student has 24 per year. children have more nightmares than adults, as well as people who have experienced traumatic events

are all recreational drugs additive?

no, caffeine and alcohol are not considered addictive. societies views of drugs are constantly changing from acceptable to unacceptable, i.e. prohibition, and societies react differently at different times

do most animals appear self-conscious?

no, chimps, orangoutangs, dolphins, and elephants sometimes do.

what is nREM?

non-REM stages of sleep

what does Freuds book suggest?

not so much that the dynamic unconsciousness produces errors, but that Freud himself was a master at finding meaning in errors that might otherwise seem random

withdrawal symptoms

occur when drug use is abruptly discontinued

minimal consciousness

occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior. a kind of sensory awareness and responsiveness. something that registers in your mind but you may not think at all about having had the experience

experience sampling technique

people are asked to report their conscious experiences at particular times

what makes someone easy to hypnotize?

people can be very influenced or not affected, one of the best indicators is their judgement. people who have vivid imaginations or are easily absorbed into activities like watching a movie may be easily hypnotizable.

why isn't sleep expendable/what is the relationship between sleeping and learning?

people do not remember learning a perceptual task if they do not sleep (all nighters don't work). sleep following learning seems to be essential for memory consolidation

how do people become addicted to drugs?

people don't usually get addicted the first time, they might try it a few times, then find that their tendency to use it increases over time due to factors including drug tolerance

what is the allure of altered states of consciousness?

people have been attracted to altered states of consciousness throughout history, even when there are costs.

why does alcohol illustrate many contradictions when compared to normal depressants?

people react in many different ways: loud and aggressive, emotional and weepy, sullen, or giddy, or a combination of any of these

cocktail party phenomenon

people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby

what problems can arise from drug withdrawal?

physical dependence and psychological dependence

in what ways can sleep loss be fatal

physically necessary for bodily functions, reduce mental acuity and reaction time, increase irritability and depression, and increase the risk of accidents and injury

what are the effects of being deprived of slow wave sleep (stages 3 and 4)?

primarily physical effects, leading to fatigue and hypersensitive uncle and bone pain

cocaine

produces exhilaration and euphoria and is seriously addictive. withdrawal takes the form of a crash, cravings are common, and antisocial affects like those generated by amphetamines (aggression and paranoia) are frequent with long term use

alcohol

proposes that alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situation. recognizes that life is filled with complicated pushes and pulls, and our behavior is often a balancing act, easily affected by alcohol as fine judgement is impaired and leads to an inappropriate response to the extreme

activation-synthesis model (of the theory of dreaming)

proposes that dreams are produced when the mind attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs in the brain during sleep. During the day, the mind is constantly processing external information form the senses. Since the dream state doesn't have external sensations, it processes info from neural activations that occur with the continuity provided by the reception of reality so the brains interpretive mechanisms can run free.

ironic processes of metal control

proposes that the opposite outcome of the thought suppression may occur because the mental process that monitors error can itself produce them. in attempt not to think of something, the mind is searching for that something

what happens during waking?

these changes involve alternations between beta waves (high frequency activity) and alpha waves (low frequency activity) during relaxation, but the largest changes occur during sleep in 5 stages

what is the effect of other depressants compared to alcohol

they are much less popular but still widely used and abused. dependence on these drugs is possible since withdrawal from long term use can produce severe symptoms including convulsions and psychological dependence is common

what do both expectancy and myopia have in common?

they both suggest that people using alcohol will often go to extremes, making drinking a major contributing factor to social problems that can result from extreme behavior

what are the four basic properties of consciousness?

1. consciousness has intentionality, which is the quality of being directed toward an object. consciousness is always about something 2. consciousness always has unity, or resistance to division (can't really multitask) 3. Conciousness has selectivity, the capacity to include some objects but not others (cocktail party phenomenon) 4. consciousness has transience, or tendency to change. it wanders incessantly. since our minds have a limited capacity, our focus of attention keeps changing to prevent information from being lost

what are the five major characteristics of dream consciousness that distinguish it from the waking state?

1. we intensely feel emotion 2. dream thought is illogical: the continuities of time, place, and person don't apply3. sensation is fully formed and meaningful: visual sensation is predominant and you may also deeply experience sound, touch, and movement (although pain is very uncommon) 4. dreams occur with uncritical acceptance- as thought the things we dream are normal 5. we have difficulty remembering the dream after it is over

consciousness

A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind.

why do the eyes move rapidly side to side while dreaming even though the rest of the body remains still?

During REM sleep, the motor cortex is activated but spinal neurons running through the brain stem inhibit the expression of the motor activation. this keeps us from hurting ourselves

what does the lack of activity in the prefrontal cortex cause during dreams?

During REM sleep, the prefrontal cortex shows relatively less arousal than it usually does drink waking consciousness, which explains the illogical, unplanned, rambling nature of dreams

what is the active ingredient in marijuana

THC, which has receptors in the brain that respond to it. these receptors would normally respond to a naturally produced neurotransmitter called anandamide which is involved in the regulation of mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception and has been found temporarily to stimulate overeating.

disinhibitor

a chemical that lets transmission occur that otherwise would be held in check

factor analysis

a computational technique used to examine the comparisons of deferent mental capacities

narcolepsy

a disordder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities. involves the intrusion of a dreaming state of sleep into waking and is often accompanied by unrelenting excessive sleepiness and uncontrollable sleep attacks lasting from 30 seconds to 30 minutes.

sleep apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep. they usually snore, as it involves an involuntary obstruction of the breathing passage. when the episodes last more than ten seconds and are reoccurring, they may cause sleep loss or insomnia. occurs most often in middle age over weight men.

what characterizes REM sleep and what EEG patterns are observed in this stage?

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and high level of brain activity. EEG patterns become high frequency saw tooth waves, similar to beta waves, suggesting that the mind is as active at this time as it is during waking.

psychological dependence

a strong desire to return to the drug even when the physical withdrawal symptoms are gone.

night terrors

abrupt awakenings with intense emotional arousal and panic. happen most often in NREM sleep early in the sleep cycle and happen most in boys age 3-7

Why is REM sleep also important?

after repeated awakening during REM memory problems and excessive aggression occur. REM deprivation causes a rebound of REM sleep the next night

what is the most commonly used depressant?

alcohol, the king of depressants, available in almost all cultures, socially acceptable. results in euphoria and reduced anxiety, then reduces effectiveness of thought and action.

dynamic unconscious

an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the persons deepest instincts and desires, and the persons inner struggle to control these forces. might contain secret thoughts

hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestion ability and the feeling that ones actions are occurring involuntarily

ecstasy

an amphetamine derivative also known as MDMA, "X", or "e". known for making users feel empathetic an close to those around them but interferes with regulation of the body temp, making users highly susceptible to heatstroke and exhaustion. can lead to dependence and impurities found in street pills are dangerous. is toxic to seratonin-activated neurons in the brain

what are barbiturates?

another depressant described as sleep aids before anesthetics before surgery, such as Seconal or Nembutal

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that influence consciousness or behavior by altering the brains chemical message system. they can be used for entertainment, treatment, or other reasons, and they exert their influence either by increasing the activity of a neurotransmitter (the agonists) or decreasing its activity (the antagonists). can cause altered states of consciousness

what are some examples of psychoactive drugs?

cocaine, alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, caffeine, opiates (like morphine and herroin), nicotine, phencylidine (PCP), MDMA (ecstacy), and THC (tetrahydrocannabinol, the active ingredient in marijuana)

Narcotics/opiates

come from the poppy seed, includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine, as well as prescription drugs Demerol and OxyContin. these are drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. they induce a feeling of well being and relaxation. is very addictive and long term use produces both tolerance and dependence. often introduce danger of HIV because are injected with a needle

what is marijuana and what are the side affects?

derived from the leaves and buds of the hemp plant. when smoked or eaten, produces an intoxication that is mildly halucigenic, euphoric, with heightened sense of sound and sight, and the perception of rush idea affects judgment and short term memory and impairs motor skills and coordination. addiction not strong, because tolerance doesn't developm and physical withdrawal symptoms are minimal. psychological dependence is possible and people do become chronic users

insomnia

difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. distress caused even by the perception of insomnia can be significant

what are some problems that stem from drug tolerance?

difficulty of medical personal when prescribing drugs, withdrawal, and the psychological and social problems stemming from drug use

nicotine

don't get started, nothing appealing except relief from withdrawal

why are dreams considered and altered state of consciousness?

dream consciousness involves a transformation of experience that is so radical and often fits the descriptions of the changes that occur in the altered state of consciousness.

What happens to the body during the REM stage?

dreams (waking during dream is more common). the pulse quickens, blood pressure rises, and there are telltale signs of sexual arousal, but there is no muscle movement except for rapid side to side movement of the eyes

hallucinogens

drugs that produce the most extreme alterations of consciousness. drugs that alter sensation and perception, often causing hallucinations. includes LSD (lysergic acid diethyl amide), or acid, mescaline, psilocybin PCB (phencyclidine), and ketamine (an animal anesthetic). some are derived from plants (shrooms). they produce a profound change in perception, sensation may see unusually intense, objects may seem to move or change, patterns or colors may appear, and these perceptions may be accompanied by exaggerated emotions. the affects are dramatic and unpredictable. unlikely to be addictive, and don't induce significant tolerance or dependence

Describe the timeline of a typical night of sleep

during the first hour, you fall all the way from waking into the fourth and deepest stage of sleep marked by delta waves, indicating a general synchronization of neural firing, as though the brain is doing one thing at a time rather than many you then return to lighter sleep stages, eventually reaching REM and dreamland, and cycling between REM and slow wave sleep stages about every 90 minutes for the rest of the night. Fro the first half, the sleep alternates between REM and deeper slow wave stages 3 and 4, then the periods of REM getting longer as the night goes on, and about halfway through the night, the light sleep stages become the alternate instead of the the deep slow wave stages

why do some argue that hypnosis is indeed a different state of consciousness?

evidence for pain control supports the idea that hypnosis is a different state of consciousness and not fake.

what do we often dream about?

fears, day residue, current conscious concerns, and images from the recent past. dreams often come without clear plots or storyline, so they may not make a lot of sense.

what what can current concerns do to consciousness?

get the upper hand, causing thoughts and daydreams to turn into rumination and worry

how can we learn what people are thinking about?

have them think aloud

phenomenology

how things seem to the conscious person (in their understanding of mind and behavior)

what are some of the causes of insomnia?

there are many causes, including anxiety associated with stressful events

how do freudian theory and the activation-synthesis theory differ?

in the significance they place on the meaning of dreams. In Freuds theory, dreams begin with meaning, whereas in the activation-synthesis model, dreams begin randomly, but meaning can be added as the mind lends interpretations in the process of dreaming

cognitive unconsciousness

includes all mental processes that are not experienced by a person but that give rise to the persons thoughts, choices emotions, and behavior

what do stimulants do in the body?

increase the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, thereby inducing higher levels of activity in the brain circuits that depend on these neurotransmitters, increasing energy and alertness of the user, often producing a euphoric sense of confidence and a kind of agitated motivation to get things done. stimulants provide physical and psychological dependence and withdrawal symptoms include depressive effects such as fatigue and negative emotions

how is narcolepsy treated

it appears to be genetic, and can be treated effectively with meds

why would someone meditate?

it can be restful and revitalizing, and enhance psychological well being. produces temporarily altered states of brain activation. influences EEG recordings of brain waves, usually producing patterns called alpha waves, that are associated with relaxation and low levels of activation in the posterior superior parietal lobe, which is associated with judging physical space and orienting oneself in space

what effects can hypnosis have?

it can make people do weird things, perform great feats. cannot help recall memories

why is it difficult to study psychology?

it is hard to understand and observe individuals subjective experiences/perspectives

what should we consider when determining if drugs are a problem?

it is important to consider the costs and benefits to such use and to establish ways to help people choose behaviors that are informed by this knowledge.

is sleepwalking bad?

it isn't linked to any additional problems and is only problematic in that sleepwalkers can accidentally hurt themselves, as they tend to be clumsy. It is safe to wake them or lead them back to bed.

how does the ironic monitor process of the mind work in relation to consciousness?

it works outside consciousness, making us sensitive to all things we don't want to think, feel, or do so that we can notice and consciously take steps to regain control if these things come back to mind, unfortunatlyincreasing the persons sensitivity to the unwanted thought

sigmund freud

made the psychoanalytic theory, studied the unconscious mind. described a dynamic unconscious, which he said could be help back by repression. he looked for evidence of the unconscious mind in speech errors and lapses of consciousness, or "Freudian slips". believed errors had meaning stemming from the intelligent unconsciousness. wrote the psychopathology of everyday life

how are modern psychologist views similar and different from Freud?

many share his interest in the impact of unconscious mental processes on consciousness and behavior, nut instead of seeing the unconscious as wild urges and repressed thoughts, they see it as the factory that builds products of conscious thought and behavior.

what are benzodiazepines?

meds like Valium or Xanax, prescribed as antianxiety drugs

what side of the the mind/body problem do most psychologist take today and why?

most psychologist assume that mental agents are caused by particular patterns of neural connections and activations in the brain. some evidence shows that the brains activity precedes the activities of the conscious mind

day residue

mundane topics that reflect prior waking experiences, don't usually include episodic memories, but single out sensory experiences or objects from the days experience. the content of the dream s take snapshots from the day rather than retelling the stories of what you have done or have seen.

what are some methods of treatment of insomnia and their disadvantages?

sleeping pills are addictive and the dosage may have to be increased over time in order to have the same effect. sedatives can interfere with the normal sleep cycle and while they promote sleep, they reduce the proportion of time spent in REM and deep sleep stages, reducing sleep quality and may be accompanied by side affects such as grogginess and irritability during the day, and stopping treatment may produce insomnia that is worse than before

somnambulism

sleepwalking, occurs when a person arises and walks around while sleeping. more common in children, peaks around age 12, occurs early in the night during slow wave sleep

what may members of religious grouse do when they feel an altered state of consciousness?

speak in tongues, go into trances, report seeing visions, feel as if they're possessed by spirits

what is one indication of the cognitive unconsciousness at work?

subliminal perception

what worries were caused by the idea of subliminal perception?

subliminal persuasion- the idea of influencing behavior outside of consciousness. not real

what are stimulantes

substances that excite the CNS, heightening arousal and activity levels. includes caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine, modafinil, and ecstasy (MDMA). they sometimes have a pharmaceutical purpose

depressants

substances that reduce the activity of the CNS. have a sedative or calming effect, tend to induce sleep in high doses, and can arrest breathing in extremely high doses. can produce both psychological and physical dependence

expectancy theory

suggests that alcohol effects are produced by peoples expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations

what is the essence of hypnosis

that certain things will happen to them that are outside their conscious will

what does Freud propose about dreams?

that they are confusing and obscure because the dynamic unconscious created them precisely to be that way. He theorized that dreams represent wishes, and some of these wishes are so unacceptable, taboo, and anxiety producing that the mind can only express them in disguised form

mental control

the attempt to change the conscious states of mind. used when thought keep returning and come to dominate consciousness. Instead, they engage in thought suppression

what do the themes of worry and fear, and the lack of auditory and tactile sensations, and the lack of smells and tastes in dreams indicate about the activate areas of the brain while dreaming?

the brain areas responsible for fear or emotion somehow work overtime in dreams, which is visible in fMRI scans. the amygdala is involved in responses to threatening or stressful events and is quite active during REM sleep. The areas of the brain responsible for visual perception are not activated, whereas the visual association areas in the occipital lobe responsible for visual imagery do show activation. During REM sleep, the prefrontal cortex shows relatively less arousal than it usually does during waking consciousness

how do narcotics function in the brain?

the brain produces endorphins or endogenous opioids, neurotransmitters that are closely related to opiates. endorphins play a role is how the brain copes internally with pain and stress and reduce the feeling of pain. when people use narcotics, the brains endorphin receptors are artificially flooded, however, reducing receptor effectiveness and possibly also depressing the production of endorphins, so withdrawal occurs when external administration of the narcotic stops

thought suppression

the conscious avoidance of a thought. can eliminate worry and allow the person to move on, but some might experience the rebound effect of thought suppression

how do depressants like alcohol work?

the drug increases activity of the neurotransmitter GABA, which normally inhibits the transmission of neural impulses, so one affect of alcohol is as a disinhibit or.

what experiment was conducted that suggested that the brains activity precedes the activities of the conscious mind?

the electrical activity in the brains of volunteers were measured using sensors placed on their scalps as they repeatedly decided to do an action and reporting the position of a dot moving rapidly around the face of a clock at the point of the decision. the brain began to show activity half a second before a voluntary action, and that electrical activity in the brain started before the persons conscious decision to do the action

sleep paralysis

the experience of waking up unable to move, sometimes associated with narcolepsy

what is "the problem of other minds" and why is it a problem?

the fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others. they have to tell you, and their words may not be accurate or true, we lack the ability to perceive consciousness of others (as illustrated by anesthesiologists), and you can't tell if other peoples experiences are anything like yours

what dominates consciousness? what is the next most prominent thing?

the immediate environment: what is seen, felt, heard, tasted, and smelled. beyond this orientation to the environment, consciousness turns to the peoples current concerns, or what a person is thinking about repeatedly

What is the "the mind/body problem" and why is it a problem?

the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and the body (is ind a separate entity from the brain, or is it more that the mind is what the brain does?)

full concsiousness

the level of awareness in which you know and are able to report your mental state. being aware of the experiences you are having

self consciousness

the level of consciousness in which the persons attention is drawn to the self as an object. happens upon self reflection, when embarrassed, are the focus of a group.

meditation

the practice of intentional contemplation. techniques of meditation associated with a variety of religious traditions and outside religious context. some call for attempts to clear the mind of thought, other involve focusing on a single object/thing like a flame or breathing

what are the great mysteries of consciousness?

the problem of other minds and the mind/body problem

hypnotic analgesia

the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are hypnotically susceptible.

what do EEG recording indicate about how psychological processes occur during sleep?

the sleep cycle is more than an on-off routine, there is a regular pattern of changes in electrical activity in the brain accompanying the circadian cycle.

drug tolerance

the tendency for larger drug doses to be required over time to achieve the same effect

rebound effect of thought supression

the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression. shows trying to steer consciousness may lead to opposite effect

how do unconscious and conscious minds compare when it comes to choice?

the unconscious mind seems better able than conscious minds to sort out complex info and arrive at the best choice (going with gut > agonizing over it)

what is the problem with Freuds approach?

there are an infinite number of potential interpretations of any dream and finding the correct one is a matter of guess work. although they may not represent elaborately hidden wishes, evidence suggests they do represent supressed thoughts

where can altered states of consciousness come from besides hypnosis, drugs, or other external aids?

they can occur through natural practices such as meditation, which can provide some of the best moments in life- special states of mind in which you feel fully alive and glad to be human, which can come from the beauty of nature or personal creativity or meditative or religious experiences

what is the relationship between religious fervor and epilepsy?

they show similar brain activation patterns and symptoms (including visions, lapses of consciousness, and speech arrest)

why do people experience being drunk differently?

two theories have been offered to account for these variable affects: expectancy theory and alcohol myopia

what are some therapies for sleep apnea

weight loss, drugs, or external sleeping aids

physical dependence

when pain, convulsions, hallucinations, or other unpleasant symptoms accompany withdrawal

subliminal perception

when thought or behavior is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving.

do people who are in an environment without an indication of the time of day (mine without clock, underground buildings etc) follow the same circadian rhythem

yes, they still follow it, and tend to have a rest-activity cycle of 25.1 hrs