Psychology Exam 2
Why do the targets of frequent prejudice experience attributional ambiguity?
Attributional ambiguity: Uncertainty about whether an experience is a result of prejudice. Ex: Would the state trooper have pulled me over if I were white? Members of stigmatized groups live in a less certain world, not knowing whether to attribute positive feedback to their own skill or to others condescension and not knowing whether to attribute negative feedback to their own error or to others prejudice.
Biases based on physical attractive ness is based on ___ cognitive processes
Automatic
Which facial features are associated with submissiveness, trustworthiness?
Baby-faced features
Why is social evolution theory of aggression controversial?
Because it focuses mainly on males.
Bobo doll (Bandura)
Bobo doll as target of aggression Children watched film of adult attacking Bobo doll in specific ways Three different versions of film ending No consequences Rewarded/praised Punished/criticized
Burger (2009) study that replicated Milgrams study up to 150 volts
Burger noticed that after administering 150 V of electric shock, there was the most % of disobedience. It was a critical moment that seemed to be a now-or-never situation, 4/5 of Milgram's participants who did not stop at this point, never stopped at all. So, Burger replicated Milgram's study, but instead of 450 V, he only asked participants to go up to 150V (but could go further) He found that 70% of his participants were willing to deliver the next level of shock (165 V) after hearing the learner protest. (Compared to 82% of Milgram's participants) Results: People react to pressure the same way they did more than 50 years ago.
Cognitive approach to understanding prejudice, cognitive processes that make humans prone to stereotyping and prejudice?
Cognitive prospective traces the origin of stereotyping to the same cognitive processes that enable people to categorize, say, items of furniture into distinct classes of chairs, couches, and tables
Define malevolent authroity
Commanding people to do something wrong, harmful
How is conscious/controlled/explicit prejudice diff. from unconscious/automatic/implicit prejudice?
Controlled/conscious/explicit: Can suppress stereotype if you tried to Automatic/unconscious/implicit prejudice: Stereotypes are automatic
When is deindividuation likely?
Crowds (concerts, street crowds), darkness, alcohol use, uniforms (ex: KKK robes)
Catharsis
Definition: Process of releasing and relieving repressed emotions. Hypothesis: If given aggressive outlet, people will be less aggressive afterwards. NOT supported by most research.
Dehumanization and prejudice, dehumanization of outgroups (3) and opponents in conflicts (2)
Dehumanization of outgroups: can increase prejudice. Start to think: - Not unique individuals - Less than human (Like animals- lacking rationality, morality. Like machines- lacking warmth, emotion. - Promotes hatred and/or disregard of outgroup suffering, removes empathy Dehumanization of opponents in conflicts: - Dehumanizing by using derogatory names for opponents: This is caused by dehumanization AND promotes dehumanization - Dehumanizing by using negative images of opponent in conflicts
How does dehumanization of the target affect aggression? Why?
Dehumanization of victim increases aggression. Easier to justify harming them if: Victim is perceived as less than human Distance from victim Can be the cause AND result of aggression
How does deindividuation affect aggressive behavior? Why? (4)
Deindividuation makes aggression more likely because they experience: Decreased self-awareness Increased feelings of anonymity Temporarily lose sense of individual identity Promotes automatic processing
Proactive instrumental aggression
Deliberate, calculated. Use controlled cognitive processes. Example: Bullying to steal money
How does illusory correlation based on salience cause a "spotlight effect" on target of prejudice?
Discomfort with negative behavior of a member of own (minority) group: Puts the group "In the spotlight"
How are displacing aggression onto an outgroup and scapegoating an outgroup similar? Different?
Displacing aggression onto outgroup vs. Scapegoating an outgroup: Similarities: Both induce prejudice rooted in frustration. Group that will be scapegoat and displaced aggression is toward disliked group Differences: Scapegoating involves conscious blame for individual or social problems. In displaced aggression source of frustration may be ambiguous.
Study of physical attractiveness & salaries
Each 1 point increase in physical attractiveness is worth up to about $2,000 in additional annual salary. In other words, men who are better-than-average looking can expect up to earn nearly a quarter of a million dollars more during their careers than their less attractive counterparts.
Stereotype threat research on the performance of Black vs. White students on a difficult exam—effects of beliefs about the exam, effects of indicating race on the exam (Steele & Arsonson) Textbook only
Effects of beliefs about the exam: Participants were told either: Test could measure intellectual ability OR Investigators were in early stages of developing the test, and nothing could be learned about their intellectual ability White students: No effect on performance Black students: Did just as well as white when they thought the test was being tested, but did much worse than white when they thought their intellectual ability was being tested Effects of indicating race on exam: Caused AA students performance to be worse than in control condition in which they did not indicate their race
How do emotions and motivations influence prejudice?
Emotions: Motivations: Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination serve motivational purposes, like helping people boost or maintain their self-esteem. People readily reward their own and penalize outsiders.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnic/cultural ingroup favoritism. Ingroup members are "real" people. Can into dislike of outgroups due to socail learning or cultural misunderstandings.
Effects of media violence on aggression, reasons for these effects
Experiments and longitudinal studies show that TV violence does cause SOME people to behave more aggressively. Imitation of admired characters is common, or if violence seen on TV is rewarded or used as successful solution.
How does routinization affect obedience?
Focus on details and procedure rather than meaning. Distractions from considering moral issues.
Reactive hostile aggression
"Gut level" reaction. Use automatic cognitive processes. Example: Lashing out when frustrated
What is the out group homogeneity? Why does it occur?
"They all think, act and look alike. We, on the other hand, are a remarkably varied lot." This occurs because we typically have much more contact with fellow members of an ingroup than with outgroup members, so we have more opportunity to encounter evidence of divergent opinions and habits among ingroup members. If we think they're all alike, we're more inclined to behave toward them in a certain way, thereby eliciting the same kind of behavior from them all.
What is the relationship between social dominance orientation and prejudice? Why?
- once a group has a power, they are motivated to keep it - "people should stay in their place" - groups that are slightly above or below are highly motivated to retain this power
Social dominance theory of prejudice
- people make up prejudices in their head to keep their own social power -utilizing your position in the majority to keep your own social power over minorities - ex: slavery
How does group membership contribute to social identity and self-esteem?
- prejudice to bolster self-esteem - feeling part of a "superior" group
How is prejudice perpetuated by biased information processing and biased memory?
- utilizing past experiences or knowledge to pass judgement that might not be necessarily accurate -ex: Kenzie had expensive purse when I first met her, I am going to assume she is wealthy
Study about detecting anger in facial expressions of Black vs. White men (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen)
-participants responded sooner that there was anger in the black face compared to a white face - greater readiness to perceive anger in black face is correlated with implicit attitudes NOT explicit European American participants detected the offset (Study 1) or onset (Study 2) of facial anger in both Black and White targets. Higher implicit (but not explicit) prejudice was associated with a greater readiness to perceive anger in Black faces, but neither explicit nor implicit prejudice predicted anger perceptions regarding similar White faces. This pattern indicates that European Americans high in implicit racial prejudice are biased to perceive threatening affect in Black but not White faces, suggesting that the harmful effects of stereotypes may take hold extremely early in social interaction.
Which types of out-groups are most likely to be the target of displaced aggression?
1. Disliked group 2. Envied/resented minority group
Internal rewards for aggression
1. Feeling of power, control 2. "Rush" 3. Self-expression
Why are judgements of others so strongly influenced by their physical attractiveness?
1. First impressions influence later impressions and interactions: the first thing that is noticed is appearance. It creates initial expectations, and expectations influences interpretations of the person behavior and what future interactions with the person will be like. 2. Halo effect: Assume that physically attractive person has desirable traits. This is an unconscious/implicit association. It is party based on cultural learning. 3. Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expectation create reality. Example: Attractive person --> Better treatment Unattractive person --> Worse treatment Result: Attractive person may be more friendly, personable, even intelligent because they are getting treated better. A person that got worse treatment would obviously be more rude, etc. 4. Social profit: Association with attractive others enhances your own image. Physical attractiveness is influenced by associating with attractive vs. unattractive individuals.
How to measure unconscious/implicit prejudice?
1. IAT 2. Startle eye blink responses - Reaction to Black or White face 3. Reaction to ambiguous stimuli - Shooter task: Gun vs. Wallet -Associating Black vs. White children with Guns vs. Tools - Detecting anger in Black vs. White faces
How do emotions and motivations influence prejudice?
1. scapegoating 2. anger 3. displaced aggression 4. attempt to repair damaged self-esteem
What percentage of particpants were fully obedient in Milgrams original study?
2/3 of participants gave 450 volts. However, most protested or argued with experimenter, and most were concerned about the victim.
Jane Goodall and colleagues' research on dominance hierarchies among female chimps Handout only
22 years of data from Jane Goodall's research in Tanzania Strong female dominance hierarchies Higher rank among females = Better access to food Earlier maturity More offspring
Exception to contrast effect?
A man with an extremely attractive woman. Assume he is more likeable, friendly, self-confident.
Why do people have unconscious/automatic/implicit prejudice or bias?
Activation of stereotypes is typically an automatic process. Stereotypes can be triggered even if we don't want them to be. For example, even a non-prejudice person will associate blacks and criminality, because that association is present in our culture.
Social Cognitive theory of aggression
Aggression is learned from observing others. 1. Imitation: Copying others (peers, media, parents) 2. Observational learning: Notice consequences of others aggression
Evolutionary psychology theory of aggression (6)
Aggressive behavior evolved because it aided survival and reproduction in the past 1. Self-defense 2. Competing for limited resources 3. Males competing with one another for mates, 4. Impressing potential mates 5. Defending offspring 6. Pass on genes for aggressive behavior to future generations
Study of accuracy in identifying corrupt politicians based on faces (Lin et al., 2018)
Asked participants to rate photos of politicians, they were either asked to rate 'corrupt' or 'clean' (no convictions) politicians. Corrupt politicians were rated as more corruptible, dishonest, selfish, aggressive, less trustworthy and less generous. FACIAL WIDTH accounted for these ratings, and partly accounted for participants accuracy.
Freud's, Skinner's, Rousseau's views of aggression-- how well is each supported by research?
Freud: Death instinct (thanatos) --> Hostility, destructiveness Rousseau: Born good and harmless, but society causes aggression Skinner: Environment is most important - Experience with rewards and punishments Some evidence for each.
Emotions and motivations can fuel prejudice?
Frustration --> Scapegoating Frustration --> Displaced Anger Attempt to repair damaged self-esteem Sometimes leaders deliberately promote prejudice
Adolf Eichmann
German Nazi. One of the major organizers of the Holocaust. Transported a ton of jews to execution camps. He claimed that he was innocent and was just following rules.
Study examining effects of lowered self-esteem on English-Canadians' attitudes toward French-Canadians (Meindl & Lerner, 1984)
Had English-Canadian participants either spill a lot of important papers from getting a chair or did not spill papers. The spilling of papers was meant to be a way to lower the English-Canadians self-esteem. Their attitudes towards French-Americans were then measured. Those who began to have lower self-esteem showed more prejudice towards French Americans. This explains: Prejudice sometimes happens in attempt to repair self-esteem, with prejudice.
Attractiveness and self-fulfilling prophecy Snyder, Tanke & Berscheid (1977)
Had male and female undergraduates arrive in separate rooms, they did not see each-other. Males were given either a photo of an unattractive woman or attractive woman, the women in this study were not aware of this. Women did not receive photos. Results: Independent raters listened to either a mans part of the conversation, or a womans. Men who thought they were talking to attractive women were friendlier. Raters rated attractive women as confident, warm and attractive personality. Opposite was heard for unattractive women. Afterwards, the women were interviewed. Attractive women thought it went well and unattractive thought the interaction did not go well. Most were not unattractive, and not used to that treatment.
Study about child "Hannah" with ambiguous test performance (Darley & Gross)
Had students watch either: A video of Hannah with parents that were professionals, playing in an upper-middle-class environment. OR A video of Hannah with working parents and playing in a rundown environment. Then, they watched a video of Hannah answering test questions. She did well on hard questions but got distracted easily. After they had them predict Hannahs level of academic performance. Upper-middle-class Hannah = More academically successful than Hannah with working parents Whenever the direct evidence about a person or object is unclear (ex: Video of Hannah answering questions), we rely on BG knowledge. In this case, the stereotype was that working-class people are less academically able than middle-class children.
What was the role of Lt. William Calley?
He ordered soldiers to kill 500 unarmed Vietnamese civilians during My Lai.
What characterizes high self-monitors? Low self-monitors? What are the pros and cons of each?
High self monitors: Tailor behavior to make good impression, seek social success Pros: Better at lying, detecting lies Cons: More influenced by physical attractiveness Low self monitors: Behave more consistently across situations, express same beliefs and preferences. More comfortable with being themselves. Pros: Less influenced by physical attractiveness
Research on self-monitoring and product labels and image-oriented ads
High self-monitors react more favorably to image-oriented advertisements and were willing to pay more for products advertised by images. Low self-monitors reacted more favorable to product-quality oriented ads, and were willing to pay more for products that had a quality based advertisement. (Debono & Snyder, 1985)
How does conformity to obedient peers affect obedience?
If no other individuals resist authority, conformity to obedient peers will be more common.
According to social cognitive theory, what types of media violence will promote aggression?
Imitation-- copying others—peers, media, parents, etc. Observational learning-- notice consequences of others' aggression TV, movies, family members, peers Also: Toys can provide aggressive cues
How accurate are judgments based on "thin slices" of behavior?
Impressions based on thin slices (10 seconds) of behavior and appearance are more accurate than chance.
How does gradual escalation affect obedience?
In Milgram study: Once participants started to give shocks, it was hard to stop. The increments were so small that if a certain level of shock seemed like too much, why wouldn't the previous level also have been too much?
In a culture of honor, in what types of situations would you be especially likely to find aggression? Why?
In a culture of honor, social status is based on individual and family honor. So, if honor is threatned, men are expected to use violence to preserve or restore honor.
Self-monitoring and online dating (Hall et al.)
In online dating, high self-monitors are more likely to misrepresent themselves online than low self-monitors are, because high self-monitors are more sensitive to the desires of others. (Hall, Park, Song, Cody, 2010)
Studies of self-esteem threat and prejudice against "J.A.P." (Fein & Spencer)
Independent variable: Exposure to member of a less liked group. Self image enhanced vs. threatened. Dependent variable: Evaluation of member Researchers threatened the self esteem of half of the participants by telling them they had just performed poorly on an intelligence test, the other half were told they had done well. Participants then watched a job applicant, half of them were told the candidate was jewish but not to the other half. Participants later rated the candidate. Participants whose self-esteem had been threatened rated the candidate negatively, those whose self-esteem was not threatened did not. Participants whose self-esteem had been threatened and had "taken it out" on Jewish candidate experienced an increase in their self-esteem. Study showed that criticizing members of out-groups can bolster self-esteem.
How is emotional empathy linked to aggression? Why?
Individuals that have low emotional empthaty are mostly aggressive. They show less empathy for victims pain or distress. Their less able to make accurate attributions of intent.
Milgram's obedience study
Inspired by interrogation of Adolf Eichmann Interested in answering, "how do normal people react to malevolent authority? Would most people to do what Eichmann did, if in the same situation? (Answer is yes)" The authority/experimenter orders 'Teacher' to shock 'Learner' - Shocks varied from 15-400 volts - Shocks seemed real and painful. Teacher was told that even though the shocks can be extremely painful, they are not dangerous. Teacher got a sample shock prior to starting experiment. - Learner is not visible. Learners reactions were standardized: 75 volts: Moan 150: Asks to be let out 180: "I cant stand the pain" Screams get louder 300: Refuses to answer Later: Complete silence
How does uncertainty affect obedience?
It lowers confidence, prone to look to authority for interpretation of situation
Why does stereotype threat occur?
It occurs because the person fears that they will confirm the stereotypes others have about their won group. Impairs their performance.
What are the effects of categorization on perceptions of objects?
Items in different different groups seem more different from each other than when not categorized.
How does time pressure affect obedience?
Lacks of time for individual judgements, often leads to automatic cognitive processing, disobedience requires more conscious, controlled processing.
Stanford Prison Study What ethical issues were raised by the prison study? How does the study illustrate the power of the situation? the power of social roles in influencing behavior? How does this study explain why prison guards sometimes behave aggressively toward prisoners?
Less than 36 hours into the experiment, Prisoner #8612 began suffering from acute emotional disturbance, disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying, and rage. Dehumanized the prisoners greatly. Punished them and stripped them. The situation made participants much less joyful compared to the first few days of the study. When the participants were given the roles to be guards, they began to actually think they had authority. Prisoners began be submissive. They begin to adopt their role as prison guards - be tough and strict. When prisoners rebel against them, they begin to think the prisoners are after them and therefore they become a threat.
What is the relationship between self-esteem & aggression? Why? Low self-esteem and externalizing aggression: Narcissistic aggression: Controversy in research on self-esteem and aggression:
Low self-esteem and externalizing aggression: People with low self-esteem tend to have difficulty handling frustration. They have poor social skills. As they show repeated aggression, they experience social rejection. Social exclusion leads to more aggression. Narcissistic aggression: Aggressive towards source of threat to ego or self-esteem. They are defensive when they're criticized, insulted, not getting respect "deserved." Defensive high SE = Linked to bullying Stable high SE = Linked to defending others against bullies Controversy in research on self-esteem and aggression: Low SE people most likely to be target of aggression. Low SE less likely to self-justify aggression. Unstable HIGH SE more strongly associated (than low SE) with aggression
Archival study of lynchings in the US South & the economy (Hovland & Sears)
Lynchings 1882-1930 Price of cotton as indicator of economic frustration, correlated with number of lynchings per month Lowered price of cotton = More lynchings per month Example of displaced aggression and prejudice. (Which is prejudice rooted in frustration)
Which facial features are assosciated with competence, dominance?
Masculine features, like strong jaw = More dominant. Competent = More mature features: Squared jaws, sharper features.
Minimal group effect
Most well known as a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups
What behaviors are linked to implicit bias?
Non-prejudiced people that have implicit/unconscious negative attitudes will reject negative attitudes and embrace egalitarian (believing all people are equal) attitudes. People that believe in egaltarian attitudes will feel guilt and discomfort from unconscious prejudice.
How does punishment threatened for disobedience affect obedience?
Obviously less disobedience if there is punishment involved. This was not present in Milgram's study, therefore it shows that threats are not necessary to induce obedience.
Contrast effect
Occurs if there is a big gap in the perceived level of attractiveness Example: If you take a pic with a bunch of models you will be perceived as less attractive
Assimilation effect
Occurs if you are with people who are of a slightly different level of perceived attractiveness and it changes your level of perceived attractiveness. Example: You will be perceived as more physically attractive if you are with other people who are more attractive.
Studies using "shooter task" in which Black vs. White men held guns vs. other objects (Correll)
Participants watched a video game in which, at unpredictable moments, a target individual - sometimes white, sometimes African American pooped up either holding a gun or other object. Participants were instructed to 'shoot' if the person was holding a gun and to press a different response key if he was not. Results showed that: For whites: Participants equally made mistake of shooting unarmed white and not shooting armed white. For blacks: Participants made the mistake of shooting if the target was unarmed more than making the mistake of not shooting an armed target.
Hair braiding studies about precarious manhood and aggression (Bosson et al., 2009)
Participants were told it was a motor coordination task and they would be filmed and it would be shown to others who would rate them - Either braided rope or hair - Then given a boxing glove and punched something that measured the impact of that punch - Braiding hair may threaten self-concept of being a man - Participants punched harder in the braiding hair vs. rope condition
"What is beautiful is good" (Dion, Bershein & Walster)
People are more likely to associate attractive people with good qualities, EXCEPT for being good parents
Deindividuation and imitation in riots
People become swept up in action of group in riots, one persons aggression may trigger group. People are surprised at own behavior.
How does race influence the accuracy of facial recognition? Why does the own race effect occur?
People recognized people of their own race more accurately You can more easily distinguish between people of your own race
Why is prejudice resistant to change? Why does exposure to counter-stereotypical information often have little impact on prejudice?
People treat evidence that supports a stereotype differently from evidence that refutes it. People accept supportive evidence, but often critically analyze and discount contradictory evidence. (Subtyping) Attributes behavior consistent with stereotype to disposition of people involved, and inconsistent behavior to external causes.
Research on identifying CEO faces, CEO facial features (Graham et )
People with - Squared haws - Sharper features - Appeared more mature Were thought to be more like a CEO, and judged to be more competent. If they were an outside hire, they'd have a higher salary. However, they actually did not perform better as CEOs.
Biases based on facial features. How quickly do they happen? How accurate are they?
Personality judgements happen very quick (0.1 seconds). They are moderately accurate.
Research on copycat suicides (Phillips, 1986)
Philips identified 35 suicides reported in the U.S. media from 1947-1968. In 26 of the 35 widely reported suicides, the suicide rate rose substantially more in the month following the suicide than in the 2 comparison months. There was also a strong correlation between newspaper coverage of suicides and suicide rate. More newspaper space = Increase in copycat suicides "Hearing about a suicide seems to make those who are vulnerable feel they have permission to do it,'' Dr. Phillips said. He cited studies that showed that people were more likely to engage in dangerous deviant behavior, such as drug taking, if someone else had set the example first.
What are several ways in which unconscious/implicit prejudice be measured?
Pioneering researchers: Banaji & Greenwald Speed Example: Implicit Association Test (IAT) Study about creating implicit attitudes toward Pokemon characters (Olson & Fazio, 2001) Startle eye blink responses Example: Reaction to appearance of Black or White face Reactions to ambiguous stimuli Example: "Shooter task"-- gun vs. wallet or phone Example: Associating Black vs. White children with guns vs. tools Example: Detecting anger in Black vs. White faces (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003)
External rewards that reinforce aggression (4)
Potential positive consequences for aggression: 1. Attention 2. Respect from peers 3. Control over others 4. Money, candy, toys, etc. External rewards (and observational learning) are important in explaining proactive aggression in kids.
Scapegoating and prejudice, role of frustration
Prejudiced scapegoating is prejudice rooted in frustration. (Frustration --> Scapegoating). Unfairly blame a group for individual or social problems. Scapegoating involves conscious blame --> Blame leads to hatred, violence
Biases based on physical attractiveness starts in early as..
Preschool or infancy
Frustration-aggression theory
Prevented from reaching goal --> Frustration --> Aggression Example: Drink gets stuck in machine --> Kick pop machine Strong evidence that frustration increases likelihood of aggression
Results of Milgrams study when conducted in other nations
Reality TV replication produced in France 2010: 64/80 were obedient
Stanford Prison Study How were participants recruited? How did the researchers determine who would be a prisoner and who would be a guard? How was the prison study conducted?
Recruited volunteers that had answered a newspaper ad for the study of psychological effects of prison life. More than 70 applicants answered the ad and were given diagnostic interviews and personality tests to eliminate candidates with psychological problems, medical disabilities, or a history of crime or drug abuse. Ultimately left with a sample of 24 college students from the U.S. and Canada who happened to be in the Stanford area and wanted to earn $15/day by participating in a study. (Participants were male, young adults who were psychologically normal). Split into two groups by a flip of a coin. One group was assigned to be guards, the other prisoners. They were randomly assigned to be a prisoner or guard. Researchers made a realistic setting. Established roles through clothing and routines. Prison was constructed by boarding up each end of a corridor in the basement of Stanford's Psychology Department building. That corridor was "The Yard" and was the only outside place where prisoners were allowed to walk, eat, or exercise, except to go to the toilet down the hallway (which prisoners did blindfolded so as not to know the way out of the prison). To create prison cells, doors were taken off some laboratory rooms and replaced them with specially made doors with steel bars and cell numbers.
Study examining implicit association of Black faces with weapons and with sports equipment (Payne) Textbook only
Researchers had participants (Who were all white) decide as quickly as possible whether an object depicted in a photo was a handgun or hand tool. Each photograph was shown after an image of either an African American or a white face. Participants were faster to identify a weapon as a weapon when it was preceded by an African American face and a hand tool by a white face. This appeared to be due to automatic stereotyping. Stereotypical association with AA and handguns exerts its effect even on people who are not prejudice.
Study in which researchers created positive or negative attitudes toward Pokemon characters (Olson & Fazio)
Researchers paired unknown stimulus with known stimulus. Unknown = Pokemon character Known = Good vs. Bad word Research showed that implicit attitudes can be formed by pairing
Study of emails sent to landlords advertising apartments online (Carpusor & Loges)
Researchers sent 1100 identical emails to landlords that advertised aparmtnets online. By random assignment, the emails were signed one of 3 names: Patrick McDougall (89% positive) Said Al-Rahman (66% positive) Tyrell Jackson (56% positive) % of positive replied varied by name
Study by UI social psychologists examining implicit association of Black boys with weapons (Todd et al., 2016)
Results consistently revealed that participants had less difficulty (i.e., faster response times, fewer errors) identifying threatening stimuli and more difficulty identifying nonthreatening stimuli after seeing Black faces than after seeing White faces, and this racial bias was equally strong following adult and child faces. Conclusion: Age did not matter.
What are the effects of categorization on perceptions of people?
See those that are not ingroup as all alike. But see ingroup as NOT all alike. (AKA outgroup homogeneity effect)
Review of research on effects of media violence (Anderson et al., 2003)—short-term effects, long-term effects, beliefs about aggression, desensitization
Short term effects: Priming aggressive thoughts Increasing physiological arousal Imitation (especially kids) Long term effects: Aggressive scripts form Belief that aggression is appropriate behavior Desensitization: - Decreased hatred of violence - Decreased sympathy for victims
Effects of discomfort on aggression
Situations that cause aggression: Discomfort • Physical pain • Crowding • Heat (air temperature) Heat and aggression example: Heat --> Hostile feelings --> Aggressive thoughts
Two explanations for ingroup favoritism: 1. Social evolution theory 2. Social identity theory
Social evolution: Ingroup favoritism promoted survival and reproduction. Need ingroups for security. Social identity: Ingroup favoritism is part of positive self-image. Need ingroups for identity.
How does aggression affect damaged mood? Short-term? Long-term? Chester et al., 2017
Some people aggress because they believe it will improve their mood. Aggression does temporarily improve damaged mood. However, aggression causes more negative mood later. Chester research: Participants were either rejected from a cyberball game or got negative feedback about their essay. They were then allowed to stick pins into a real or virtual voodoo doll, or give noise blasts to relieve their aggression.
Why does displaced aggression occur? Likely targets of displaced aggression
Sometimes can't aggress cause of frustration. Displace aggressive behavior toward someone "convenient" or with lower status/power.
Self-fulfilling prophecy and the perpetuation of prejudice: 1974 Interview Study, Word et al.
Stereotypes can endure because they benefit from self-fulfilling prophecies. Ex: Thinking that members of a particular group is hostile, a person might act toward them in a guarded manner, eliciting a coldness that's seen as proof. Interview Study: White undergraduates interviewed both black and white men pretending to be job applicants. The white interviewers treated the black and white applicants differently. When interviewing with black applicant, interviewer sat further away and ended interview earlier compared to white applicant. Second phase: Trained interviewers to treat new white applicants the way that either the white or black applicants had been treated earlier. Applicants who had been interviewed in the way black applicants had been interviewed earlier did worse in their interview. Result: How applicants were treated affected their performance during interview.
Intervention to reduce aggression in narcissistic 6th & 7th graders (Thomaes et al., 2009)
Students narcissism and state self-esteem measured Some students randomly assigned to self-affirmation intervention: 15 minutes writing about three personal values/strengths, other students were part of control and did not have an intervention. Peers rated aggression one week later High narcissism, low state self-esteem students: Very aggressive in control condition Much less aggressive in intervention condition
Research of Halo effect Karen Dion
Studied adult perception of grade school children. They were shown pictures of an attractive child vs. unattractive child. Results: More blame was given to unattractive children. For 6th graders: Students and teachers rated attractive children as more intelligent. For preschool students: Attractive kids were liked better than unattractive.
Gender differences in emphasis on physical attractiveness: Results of self report? Problems with self-report? Results when study was non-self reported?
Study of attraction to person of other sex (Sprecher, 1989) - Self-report results: Men were more influenced by physical attractiveness - Actual ratings of overall attraction: M = F. Men and females are equally influenced by attractiveness. Speed dating study (Eastwick): Again showed that men are more influenced by physical attractiveness when reports were self-reported. But the actual ratings and interest showed that men and women showed equal amount of interest in physical attractiveness.
How is prejudice maintained by biased attributions for the behavior of out-group members and members of negatively stereotyped groups?
Subtyping: Anyone who acts at variance with the stereotype is simply walled off into a category of "exceptions." Ex: Racists who maintain that AA can't excel outside of sports and entertainment are likely to remain untroubled by the likes of Barack Obama. They will say "He's half white." To the racist mind, they are merely "exceptions to prove the rule."
Minimal group studies by Tajfel
Tajfel created groups on meaningless criteria and then examined how the members of these "minimal groups" behaved towards one another. Example: Participants were asked to estimate # of dots projected on a screen. Some participants were told they were in "overestimators", others were in the "underestimators". In reality, they were randomly assigned. They don't know who else is in there group and who is in the other group. They were then asked to assign points (redeemable for money) to other participants - they only knew their code # and what group they were in. Participants are more interested in maximizing the relative (NOT ABSOLUTE) gain for members of their ingroup rather than outgroup.
Displaced aggression
Taking it out on someone else.
Research on "basking in reflected glory" after sporting events (Cialdini) Textbook only
Tendency to identify with a winning team. Investigated this tendency by recording how often students wore their school colors to class after their football team had just won or lost. Also recorded students use of "we" won, vs. "they" lost.
Self-monitoring
Tendency to regulate your social behavior to meet at the demands of the situation
Research on anger and aggressive cues (Berkowitz) Textbook only
The current review addresses what is currently understood about the relationship between three theoretically relevant situational variables (the presence of weapons, alcohol cues, and exposure to media violence) and aggressive behavior
Possible benefits of hierarchy?
Theory is that groups with hierarchies were more likely to survive emergencies and conflicts.
Stanford Prison Study How did the simulation affect the prisoners' behavior? How did the simulation affect the guards' behavior? How did participants later feel about the study?
They were uncooperative first. They rebelled, then became passive. Guards became tougher and psychologically brutal. "the guards saw the prisoners as troublemakers who were out to get them, who might really cause them some harm. In response to this threat, the guards began stepping up their control, surveillance, and aggression" Prisoner 416: "I began to feel that I was losing my identity. it still is a prison to me. I don't regard it as an experiment or a simulation because it was a prison run by psychologists instead of run by the state. I began to feel that that identity, the person that I was that had decided to go to prison was distant from me - was remote until finally I wasn't that, I was 416. I was really my number." Guard: "While I was doing it, I didn't feel any regret, guilt. It was only after when I began to reflect on my behavior. I did not know I could act in the way that I did."
What happens when people are divided into minimal groups? What do minimal group studies indicate about prejudice and intergroup conflict?
Us-and-them thinking emerges. Minimal group studies indicate that people are more prejudice towards outgroups, which can create conflict between the two.
Follow up obedience/defiance of peers study (Milgram)
Used 2 confederates posing as participants. When peers (confederates) were obedient: Participant was 90% obedient When peers were defiant: Particpant was only 10% obedient
How does dehumanization affect obedience?
Victim viewed as not fully human. Esier to harm, more likely to obey orders to harm.
Effects of violent video games on aggression, reasons for these effects
Violent video games increase aggression in children, young adults, males and females. Exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal, increases aggressive thoughts and feelings, decreases prosocial behavior. Link to violent CRIME is not supported.
How can illusory correlation based on salience (called "paired distinctiveness in the textbook) explain stereotypes, especially negative stereotypes of minority outgroups?
We attend more closely to distinctive events, so we're likely to remember them better and as a result they may become overrepresented in our memory. Minority groups are distinctive to most members of the majority, so minority members stand out. Negative behaviors (such as robbing) is less common than positive behaviors. Therefore, its doubly distinctive when minority group member show negative behavior. And because positive behavior by the minority is not as memorable, negative actions by the minority seem more common than they actually are. Overestimate minority + Negative = Illusory Correlation based on Salience
How does distance of authority affect obedience?
When the authority was more distant there was less obedience. (In Milgram, when experimenter was not in the room, and only gave directions through a phone, there was only 20% obedience from participants . However, there was high obedience if experimenter gave orders in person, but then left.)
How does distance of victims affect obedience?
When the victim was closer, there was less obedience from participants. When they were visible: 40% were obedient. When participants had to force victims hand onto shock plate, 30% obedient. Milgram: Original study (could not see learner): 65% obedience Learner visible: 40% obedience 'Teacher' had to force learners hand to shock plate: 30%
Classic (1940's) study using a sketch of two men on a subway (Allport & Postman)
White and Black Americans participated in the study. White participants were shown a picture of an argument between a well-dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man holding a cut throat razor. White participants were asked to describe the picture to another white participant who in turn described it to someone else. This method was repeated with black participants. Results: White participants: After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the aggressor, holding the knife. Black Participants: Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There were more correct observations from the black participants in relation to the picture showed to them. Conclusions: This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we expect (based on stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and process into our memory.
Research on honor-related aggression in the US North and South (studies by Nisbett & Cohen)
White males. Participants were University of Michigan students who grew up in the North or South. In 3 experiments, they were insulted by a confederate who bumped into the participant and called him an a**hole. Compared with northerners—who were relatively unaffected by the insult—southerners were: (a) more likely to think their masculine reputation was threatened (b) more upset (as shown by a rise in cortisol levels) (c) more physiologically primed for aggression (as shown by a rise in testosterone levels) (d) more cognitively primed for aggression (e) more likely to engage in aggressive and dominant behavior. Findings highlight the insult-aggression cycle in cultures of honor, in which insults diminish a man's reputation and he tries to restore his status by aggressive or violent behavior.
social dominance orientation
a measure of an individual's preference for hierarchy within any social system and the domination over lower-status groups
Effects of aggressive cues
anger-related thoughts of blame and revenge, as well as patterns of fight-or-flight response, make people more likely to respond aggressively when prompted by cues(reminders), such as the presence of weapons
Why does prejudice sometimes lead to hatred?
dehumanization promotes hatred we use prejudices for scapegoats - "us and them" thinking - prejudice > anger > biases for the outgroup
What are the likely effects of catharsis-based exercises sometimes used in counseling? Why?
empty chair - pretend someone is in the chair and talk write letter - write a fake letter to someone throw darts punch pillow - pretend its someone tear up photo - of someone soft bats ****last 4 bad for aggression, Aggressive acts often lead to increased aggressiveness and arousal
Stephen Beckerman's research on Waorani warriors—aggression and number of children
frequently engage in raids on other villages less aggressive people had more kids survive putting themselves in less dangerous situations no revenge the women prefer the less aggressive guys
Zimbardo's deindividuation and aggression study fake aggression study
group of participants, people were choosing level of shock two conditions individuated lights on, see face, regular clothes deindividuated lights dimmed, no names, mask, uniform found that the intensity of shocks were higher when they were deindividuated
Thanatos /death instinct
hostility, destructiveness
Research on hot weather and violent crime (Anderson)
hot weather increases violent crime because it causes discomfort and frustration
illusory correlation (2 types: based on salience, based on expectations)
illusory correlation: when people see a relationship between two things but the correlation doesn't actually exist salience: produces negative stereotypes of minority groups expectations: Perceive expected group-behavior link, even if no actual link
Effects of publicized executions on homicide rate-- London study
observational learning Had a steady baseline of homicides per week. Week of public executions = Less homicides. Week after = Homicides went up. Then it leveled off back to baseline. more publicity = greater drop
Turk survey of social dominance orientation in "alt-right" individuals (Forscher & Kteily, 2017)
online survey of people who identify as alt right (in favor of hierarchies - whites at the top), had fill out questionnaire shows if you're in favor of hierarchies -found those people were much higher in social dominance than others -doesnt show every white male thinks it
Effects of anger on prejudice, intergroup bias
prejudice > anger > biases for the outgroup - take anger out on a less powerful person/group (outgroup or disliked group) - intergroup bias: favoring members of one's own ingroup over an outgroup
intergroup anxiety
the ambiguous feelings of discomfort or anxiety when interacting with members of other groups
Reasons why aggressive acts tend to lead to greater aggression-- overcome inhibitions, self-justification, blaming victim, pleasurable feeling of power, etc.
the initial act reduces inhibitions against aggression once you start, it's easier to kill the next one - canardo simpson about My Lai cognitive dissonance, self-justification believe aggression is more acceptable deviate from victim blame victim dehumanize victim belief in catharsis → more agression (bushman et al, 2001)
Attributions of hostile intent
the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign
