Psychology Exam 3#

Ross Cheit

Ross Cheit (2007 suggested that repressing these memories created psychological distress in adulthood. The Recovered Memory Project - for victims, recall memories to heal.

Cannon-Bard Theory

psychological arousal/ emotional experience occurs simultaneously/ independently.

Suggestibility

the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories.

Engram

the group of neurons that serve as the "physical representation of memory."

Self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for info that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance.

cognitive-mediational theory

that asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. - This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and its immediate and often unconscious. - The Schachter-Singer model, the appraisal precedes a cognitive label.

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of info to be remembered, to move STM into LTM called memory consolidation.

Refractory period

period that follows an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm.

Hierarchy of needs

spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social.

Instinct

species - specific pattern of behavior that's not learned.

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

stimuli from the environment are processed in the first sensory memory.

Sensory memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as events, sights, sounds, tastes. It has a brief storage - up to a couple seconds. We cannot absorb all of it. Sensory info about sights, sounds, smells, textures. If we view something as valuable, the info will move into STM.

Arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories; weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories.

Galen

suggested that both diseases and personality differences could be explained by the imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits 1-4 temperaments. Theory was prevalent for 1,000 years and was popular through the Middle Ages.

Henry Murray

(1938) needs in domains; achievements and recognition/ dominance and aggression were recognized as needs under the domain of human power, and play was a recognized need in the domain of intrapersonal affection.

Abraham Maslow

(1943) proposed the hierarchy of needs, pyramid shaped. Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long process and that only a small % of people achieve self-actualized state. Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid. Proposed a self-transcendence level above self-actualization - to represent striving for meaning/ purpose beyond the concerns of oneself.

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

(1966) published a book detailing observation of 700 people - physiological responses during sexual behavior. Observed intercourse in various positions, masturbating, sex toys. Measured heart, rate, blood pressure, vaginal lube, penile tumescence? 10,000 sexual acts.

Chwalsz, Diener and Gallagher

(1988) conducted a study of the emotional experiences of people who had spinal cord injury. - Tendency for people with less awareness of autonomic arousal to experience less intense emotions.

Albert Bandura

(1994) - an individuals' sense of self-efficacy places a pivotal role in motivating behavior. Motivations derives from form expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviors, it's the appreciations of our capacity to enrage in a given behavior that will determine what we do and the future goals we set for ourselves.

Raineki, Cortex, Belnous, and Sullivan

(2012) demonstrated that rats, negative early life experiences could alter the function of the amygdala and result in adolescent patterns of behavior that mimic human mood disorders. 2 forms of abusive treatment: 1. Insufficient bedding 2. Pairing odors and electrical stimulus in the absence of the mother.

Storage

- Once the info has been encoded, we must somehow retain it in storage. Storage - the creation of a permanent record of info. - For memory to go into storage it must pass through 3 distinct stages: 1. Sensory memory 2. Short term memory 3. Long term memory

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

1. Intrinsic - arise from internal factors. a. Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated are performed to receive something from others (can change over time). 2. Extrinsic - arise from external factors.

3 types of encoding

1. Semantic encoding - encoding of words and their meaning. 2. Visual encoding - the encoding of images. 3. Acoustic encoding - encoding of sounds, and words. - Abstract words like level, truth, and value are low - imagery words. - High-imagery words are encoded both visually/semantically = stronger memory. - We encode the sounds the words make > teach children through song, rhyme and rhythm.

Study effectively

1. Use elaborative rehearsal - Craik/ Lockhart (1972) discussed their belief that info we process more deeply goes into LTM. 2. Apply the self-referenced effect - go through the process of elaborative rehersal, personally meaningful. 3. Don't forget the forgetting curve - study info again right before test time to increase memory retention. 4. Rehearse - review the material over time, in space/ organization study sessions. 5. Be aware of interference - study in a quiet time. 6. Keep moving - exercise. 7. Get enough sleep - sleep helps the brain organize info to be stored in LTM. 8. Nmonic devices - help us remember/ recall info.

3 errors of distortion

3 errors of distortion: misattribution, suggestibility, and bias. 1. Misattribution - when you confuse the source of the info. 2. Suggestibility - involves false memory, memory comes from someone else. 3. Bias - final distortion error.

Hippocrates

370 BCE, theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on 4 separate temperaments associated with 4 fluid (humors): 1. choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver) 2. melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys) 3. sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart) 4. phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lung).

Sexual response cycle

4 stages: 1. excitement 2. plateau 3. orgasm 4. resolution 1. Excitement - arousal phase of sexual response cycle > swelling of the vagina (expands) > penile erection. 2. Plateau - woman experience more swelling/ increased blood flow to the labia > full erection, precum. 3. Orgasm - woman have rhythmic contractions of the pelvis/ uterus, increased muscle tension > men, pelvic contractions, buildup of seminal fluid, forced out by contractions of genital muscles. 4. Resolution - rapid return to an unaroused state, decreased blood pressure, muscular relaxation.

Fear stimulus

A fear stimulus is processed by the brain through 1. from the thalamus 2. to the amygdala or thalamus through the cortex and then to the amygdala.

Amygdala

Amygdala - regulates emotions - fear/ aggression. Its influenced by stress hormones. - Created lesion in the hippocampi of rats, demonstrated memory impairment on various tasks > object recognition/ maze running. - Involved in memory, normal recognition memory and spatial memory. ----Project info to cortical regions that give memories meaning/ connect with other connected memories. ----Memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into LTM. - Could lose hippocampus and still create implicit memories. Research: 1. damaged the cerebellum of rabbits - not able to learn conditioned eye-blink response. 2. Used brain scans, PET to learn how people process/ retain info (prefrontal cortex). 3. Participants had 2 tasks: a. look for the letter "a" in (perceptual) words or categorizing a noun as either living/ non-living (semantic). ----Asked which words they had seen; recall was better for the semantic > perceptual task. PET scans, more associated with left frontal activity, retrieval of info was associated with right frontal region.

Automatic and effortful processing

Automatic Processing - or the encoding of =details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Done without conscious awareness. Effortful processing - lots of work/ attention on your part to encode that information.

Baddely and Hitch

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a model where STM has different forms. The type of STM depends on the type of info received. A central executive part of memory supervises/ controls the flow of information to/from the STM.

bariatric surgery

Bariatric surgery - type of surgery specifically aimed at weight reduction, modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten/ limited digested food that can be eaten/ limited digested food that can be absorbed. Bariatric surgery is moved more effectively than non-surgical treatment for obesity in 2+ years after the procedure (no L-T studies).

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa - engage in binge eating behavior that's followed by an attempt to compensate for the large amount of food consumed. Purging the food by inducing vomiting/ laxatives/ exercise. Kidney failure, heart failure, tooth decay.

BMI

CDC, an adult with a BMI 25-29.9 is overweight. 30+ is obese 40+ is morbid obesity. - Cardiovascular disease, stroke, Type 2 diabetes, liver disease, sleep apnea, colon cancer, breast cancer, infertility, and arthritis. - Overweight/ obese individuals are encouraged to try to reduce their weights through diet and exercise.

Elizabeth Loftus

Cognitive Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has conducted research on memory. Studied false memories/ recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse and misinformation effect paradigm. - An eyewitness's memory of an event is very flexible to the misinformation effect.

Amygdala - biological basis for emotion

Composed of sub nuclei: a. Basolateral complex - dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. - Critical for "CC" and for attached emotional value to learning process/ memory. b. Central nucleus - role of attention, connection with the hypothalamus/ various brainstem area to regulate the autonomic nervous/ endocrine system's activity.

Construction and reconstruction

Construction - formulation of new memories. Reconstruction - process of bringing up old memories. - As we retreat memories, alter/ modify them. LTM > STM is flexible. New events added, change what we think based on past events > inaccuracies/ distortions.

Alfred Kinsey

Dr. Alfred Kinsey initiated large-scale survey research on the topic. The results were published as "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female." (1948-1953)

Encoding

Encoding - which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or encode it. We organize the information with other similar information/ connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing/ effortful processing.

Eric Kandel

Eric Kandel spent decades working on synapse, the basic structure of the brain and its role in controlling the flow of info through neural circuits needed to store memories. Memory is in specific parts of the brain, neurons can be recognized for their involved in forming memories (Hippocampus, cerebellum, prefrontal cortex).

Gender identity and dysphoria

Gender identity - one's sense of being male or female. Gender dysphoria - that describes individuals who don't identify as the gender that most people would assume, they are. (must persist for 6+ months to meet DSM-5 criteria).

George Miller

George Miller (1956) in his research on the capacity of memory. 7 items in STM. 7+/- 2. Info in STM goes to LTM or its discarded.

Levels of processing

If we want to remember a piece of info, think more deeply/ link it to other info/ memories to make it meaningful.

Interference

Interference - info stored in our memory, but its inaccessible. a. Proactive interference - when old info hinders the recall of newly learned info. b. Retroactive interference - happens when info learned more recently hinders the recall of older info.

J.R. Stroop

J.R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon (1930); you'll name a color more easily if it appears printed in the color > Stroop effect.

John Briere and Jon Conte

John Briere / Jon Conte (1993) revealed that 59% of 450 m/w who received treatment for sexual abuse that had occurred before 18 yo had forgotten their experiences.

Joseph LeDoux

Joseph LeDoux asserts that some emotions occur separately from/ prior to our cognitive interpretation of them, such as feeling fear in response to unexpected loud sound.

Karl Lashley

Karl Lashley made lesions in the brain of animals (rats, monkeys), searched for evidence of the engram. He trained rats (1950) to find their way through a maze - soldering iron (cerebral cortex). Wanted to erase engram - still found a way.

Limbic system

Limbic system > hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus. 1. Hypothalamus - activation of the sympathetic nervous system > part of emotional reaction. 2. Thalamus - sensory relay center who's neurons project to both the amygdala and the higher cortical region for further processing. 3. Amygdala - processing emotional info and sending that info into cortical structures. 4. Hippocampus - integrates emotional experience with cognition.

Loftus and John Palmer

Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked 45 college students to estimate the speed of cars using different forms of questions. Demonstrated that a leading question encouraged them to not only remember the cars were going faster, but falsely remember that they saw broken glass.

Masao Yogo/ Shuji Fujihara

Masao Yogo/ Shuji Fujihara (2008) had participants write for 20-minute intervals several times per month. Wrote about traumatic experiences, best future selves, trivial topic. Increased memory for words 10%.

Memory

Memory - enhancing strategies - make sure info from STM to LTM. 1. Rehearsal - conscious repetition of info to be remembered. 2. Chunking - organizing info into manageable bits/ chunks. ----Useful when trying to remember info like dates/ phone numbers. 3. Elaborative rehearsal - you think about the meaning of new info/ relation to knowledge already stored in your memory. 4. Mnemonic devices - are memory aids that help us organize info for encoding. ----Useful when we want to recall larger bits of info: steps, stages, phases, parts of a system.

Moderate arousal

Moderate arousal is best, when low/ high, performance tends to suffer. Robert Yerkes and John Dodson discovered that the optimal arousal level depends on the complexity/ difficulty of the task to be performed.

Retrieval

Retrieval -the act of getting info out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. - Our ability to retrieve info from LTM is vital to our everyday functioning. - Retrieve info by: 1. Recall - access info without cues. 2. Recognition - identify info that one's previously learned after encountering it again (process of comparison). 3. Relearning - learning info that you previously learned.

Discrepancies in researchers findings may be understood by

Positive reinforcement Verbal reinforcement.

Procedural and Declarative memory

Procedural memory - implicit memory - stores info about how to do things. It's the memory for skilled actions. Declarative memory- has to do with the storage of facts/events we personally experienced. - Has 2 parts: a. Semantic memory - knowledge about words, concepts, and language> based on knowledge and facts. b. Episodic memory - info about events we've personally experienced. - Happenings places/ times. - Recollections of visual imagery and the feeling of familiarity.

Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving

Psychologist Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted a series of experiments; participants were given words along with questions about them > process the words at 1 of 3 levels > questions > given unexpected recall. Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered than those encoded visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involved a deeper level of processing than the shallower visual/ acoustic encoding. Craik /Tulving concluded that we process verbal info best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what's called the self- reference effect.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885), German, analyzed the process of memorization. First - memorized list of nonsense syllables. Second - measured how much he learned (retained) when he attempted to return each list. Third - tested himself over various times 20m-30 days. - Result - an average person will lose 50% of memorized info after 20 minutes. 70% of the info after 24 hours.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) - the model of human memory; based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.

Schacter

Schacter (2001) says that feelings/ views of the world can distort memory of past events. a. Stereotypical bias - racial and gender biases. b. Ego centric bias - involves enhancing our memories of the past. c. Hindsight bias - when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact "i knew it all along."

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Short-term memory (STM) a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; working memory. STM storage 20 sec. STM > info from sensory memory and connects that memory to something in LTM.

Social motives

Social motives, needs for achievement, affiliation, intimacy: a. Achievement - accomplishment/ performance b. Affiliation - positive interactions c. Intimacy - deep, intimacy relationships

intrinsic motivation

Studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so venerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements; verbal praise may increase intrinsic motivation.

William Bousfield

William Bousfield (1935) first demonstrated by him in an experiment in which he asked people to memorize words.

William James

William James (1842-1910) was an important contributor to early research into motivation, father of psychology in US, theorized that behavior was driven by a number of instincts.

Emotions

a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. - Emotion - subjective, response; consciously experienced/ intentional. - Mood - prolonged, less intense, affective state that doesn't occur in response to something we experience.

Metabolic rate

amount of energy that's expelled in a given period, there's tremendous individual variability in our metabolic rates.

Flashbulb memroy

an exceptionally clear recollection of notable events.

Sexual orientation

an individual's emotional/ erotic attractions to same-sex individuals (homosexual), opposite-sexed (heterosexual), both (bisexual).

Set-point theory

asserts that everyone has an ideal body weight/ set point, which is resistant to change. This set-point is genetically predetermined/ efforts to move our weight significantly form the set point are resistant by compensatory changes in energy intake/ expenditures.

Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

considers both physiological arousal/ emotional experiences. Emotions are composed of 2 factors: 1. Physiological 2. Cognitive Believed that physiological arousal is similar across different types of emotions > the cognitive appraisal of the situation is critical to the actual emotional experience

Long-Term Memory

continuous storage of information has no limits; encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all the things that you can remember that happened before. - Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. - Long-term memory is divided into: 1. Explicit memories - we consciously try to remember and recall. 2. Implicit memories - not part of our consciousness. Memories formed from behaviors, (non-declarative memory).

Cultural display rule

culture standards that govern the types/ frequencies of displays of emotions

Components of emotions

emotional states are combos of physical arousal, psychological appraisal subjective experiences. - Informed by experiences, backgrounds, culture.

James-Lange Theory

emotions arise form physiological arousal.

Gut feelings

experience an instantaneous and unexplainable like/ dislike for someone.

body language

expression of emotion in terms of body position/ movement.

facial feedback hypothesis

facial expression are capable of influencing emotions.

Satiation

fullness/ satisfaction and their eating behavior stops. As blood glucose levels increase, the pancreas/ liver sends signals to shut off hunger/ eating. Provides important satiety signals and fat cells release leptin, a satiety hormone. Our body weight is affected by several factors: gene-environment interactions, number of calories vs number of calories burned.

misinformation effect paradigm

holds that after exposer to incorrect info, a person may misremember the original event.

Equipotentiality hypothesis

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function.

Over-justification effect

intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. - This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation/ creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance.

Anorexia nervosa

is an eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below average through starvation/ exercise.

Self-efficacy

is an individual's belief in her own capability to complete a task.

Polygraph

lie detector test; measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of questions. Validity is questionable, no evidence that lying is associated with any pattern of physiological arousal.

Personality

long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel and behave in specific ways. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long term characteristics and a way they interact with other individuals and the world around them. Latin > persona.

Transgender Hormone Therapy

make their bodies look more like the opposite sex, alter appearances of their external genitalia to resemble their identify.

Transcendence

memories can fade over time.

Absentmindedness

memory error. These lapses in memory are caused by breaks in attention/ focus being somewhere else.

Tangible rewards

more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than intangible rewards.

Drive theory

of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. Direct behavior to meet the need, bring the system back to homeostasis.

Habit

pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in the behavior whenever faced with that drive in the future.

False memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories. Recovered memories of childhood abuse years after it occurred > so traumatizing/ distressing that they repressed memories, recalled through hypothesis.

Binge eating disorder

recognizing, APA; followed by distress, including feelings of guilt/ embarrassment. The resulting psychological distress distinguishes binge eating disorder from overeating.

Amnesia

the loss of LTM that occurs because of disease/ physical trauma/ psychological trauma. 1. Anterograde amnesia - cannot remember latest info although you can remember info/ events that happened prior to the injury. a. The hippocampus is affected > inability to transfer info from STM to LTM; the inability to consolidate memories > procedural memory. 2. Retrograde amnesia of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. a. Cannot remember some events in the past > episodic memory.

Forgetting

the loss of info from LTM.

Distorted body image

type of body dysmorphia.

Motivation

wants/ needs that direct behavior towards a goal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

which holds that simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high/ complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.

Self-reference effect

write notes in your own words.