Psychology Midterm 2

state-dependent memory

Emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues. (memory involves retrieval cues based on emotions)

memory consolidation

Neural storage of long-term memories

Retrieval cues

serve as anchor points for pathways to memory suspended in webs of association that memories are stored in Ex: When you encode into memory the name of the person sitting next to you in class, you associate it with other bits of information about your surroundings, mood, seating position, and so on

Activated memory

short term memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten George Miller (b. 1920) proposed that we can hold 7 +/- 2 information bits (for example, a string of 5 to 9 letters). More recent research suggests that the average person, free from distraction, can hold about: 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words. Capacity varies by age and distractions at time of memory tasks

phonemes

smallest distinctive sound units in language. (vowels, consonants)

morphemes

smallest language units that carry meaning. (suffixes, prefixes)

belief perserverence

occurs when we cling to beliefs and ignore/reject evidence that proves these are wrong. vs confirmation bias, where we don't bother to seek out contradicting information

Flashbulb memories

refer to emotionally intense events that become "burned in" as a vivid-seeming* memory. *not as accurate as they feel.

peg word system

refers to the technique of visually associating new words with an existing list that is already memorized along with numbers.

iconic memory

sensory memory where picture- image memory of visual stimuli lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

sensory memory; Sound memory of auditory stimuli; can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

sensory memory

feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images of scenes or echoes of sounds. 2 types: iconic memory echoic memory

Effortful processing

how explicit memory is encoded Studying, rehearsing, thinking about, and then storing information in long-term memory

automatic processing

how implicit memory is encoded w/o awareness

Wernicke's Area

necessary for Language Comprehension damage generally results in aphasias that are more closely related to comprehension in the posterior part of the superior gyrus of the temporal lobe The individuals have difficulty understanding spoken or written language but they may have fluent speech, they scramble words so that their sentences make no sense.

Broca's Area

necessary for expressing words damage can cause expressive aphasias. in the frontal cortex

General Intelligence

"all branches of intellectual activity have in common one fundamental function" " Charles Spearman (1863−1945) believed that humans have one general intelligence that is at the heart of everything a person does. Mental abilities are like physical abilities in that they tend to cluster together. Intelligence involves distinct abilities, which correlate enough to define a small general intelligence factor. Spearman's work involved factor analysis, a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items. Butts against multiple intelligence theories

Serial Position Effect

(memory involves retrieval cues) When people viewed a list of items (words, names, dates, even odors) and immediately tried to recall them They briefly recalled the last items especially quickly and well--a recency effect But after a delay, when their attention was elsewhere, their recall was best for the first items--a primacy effect

recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple- choice test.

relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories. Ex: H.M. could learn new skills, procedures, locations of objects, and games, but had no memory of the lessons or the instructors. H.M. could still learn how to get places (automatic processing), could learn new skills (procedural memory), and acquire conditioned responses However, he could not remember any experiences which created these implicit memories.

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

Critical period in language development

Childhood seems to represent a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language before the language-learning window closes. by about age 7, those who have not been exposed to either a spoken or a signed language gradually lose their ability to master any language. ex: Natively deaf children who learn sign language after age 9 never learn it as well as those who lose their hearing at age 9 after learning a spoken language.

Spacing effect

Effect where encoding is more effective when it is spread over time. through distributed practice (vs massed practice)

chunking

Effortful Processing Strategy Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonic

Effortful Processing Strategy a memory "trick" that connects information to existing memory strengths such as imagery or structure.

Hierarchies

Effortful Processing Strategy organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

Divergent thinking

Expands the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

When do we forget?

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.

TOTAL RECALL exp

George Sperling (b. 1934) exposed people to a 1/20th of-a-second view of a grid of letters, followed by a tone which told them which row of letters to pull from iconic memory and recall. Without the tone, people recalled about 50 percent of the letters; with the tone, recall for any of the rows was typically 100 percent.

Excitement or stress triggers hormone production and provokes the amygdala (two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters) to engage memory. Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain's memory- forming areas. Emotional arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for irrelevant events that occur around the same time (Birnbaum et al., 2004; Brewin et al., 2007). Recall high-priority information.

How does excitement/stress affect memory?

Semantics

How we derive meaning from sounds

Syntax

How we order words into sentences

Implanted memory

In a study by Elizabeth Loftus "prepared a booklet for each participant containing one-paragraph stories about three events that had actually happened to him or her and one that had not. " "The lost-in-the-mall scenario included the following elements: lost for an extended period, crying, aid and comfort by an elderly woman and, finally, reunion with the family." Most people came to believe that the incident had actually happened; they had acquired an _________

Productive language

Infant ability to produce words begins around 10 months, when babbling starts to resemble the household language.

Receptive language

Infant ability to understand what is said to them begins around 4 months, when they start to recognize differences in speech sounds.

Where is info/memory stored?

Information is not stored in single, precise locations in the brain. Memories are brain-based, but the brain distributes the components of a memory across a network of locations in the brain. Some of the brain cells that fired when we experienced something fire again when we recall it. (more on where explicit and implicit memories are stored on other flashcards)

Context-dependent memory

Memory enhancement due to similarity between encoding and recall situations Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall (memory involves retrieval cues based on context)

concepts

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people help to simplify thinking through mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

intelligence tests

Method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores uses aptitude tests (predicts future performance) and achievement tests (test what has been learned)

Convergent thinking

Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Semantic memory

One of two conscious memory systems Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

Episodic memory

One of two conscious memory systems Explicit memory of personally experienced events.

emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Intelligence

The mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. a socially constructed concept: It is the qualities that enable success in one's own time and culture.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. In a bad mood, we may read someone's look as a glare and feel even worse. IN a good mood, we may encode the same look as interest and feel even better. Passions exaggerate.

Retroactive (backward-acting) interference

Type of retrieval failure Occurs when new learning disrupts recall of older information. In one study, students who studied right before eight hours of sleep had better recall than those who studied before eight hours of daily activities. • The daily activities retroactively interfered with the morning's learning.

Proactive (forward-acting) interference

Type of retrieval failure Occurs when prior learning disrupts recall of new information.

self-reference effect

We have especially good recall for information we can relate to ourselves-- New information is processed/remembered easily when it is meaningful or related to our experience. The amount of information remembered depends both on the time spent in learning it and on your making it meaningful for deep processing

1) Encoding failure-- we cannot remember what is not encoded Much of what we sense we never notice, and what we fail to encode, we will never remember. - Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline - Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure If we can't state exactly what a penny looks like, did we fail to retrieve the information? -Maybe we never paid attention to the penny details. -Even if we paid attention to it enough to get it into working memory, maybe we still didn't bother rehearsing it and encoding it into long term memory. 2) Storage decay Material encoded into long term memory will decay if the memory is never used, recalled, and re-stored Course of forgetting is initially rapid, and then levels off with time. 3) Retrieval failure Some stored memories seem just below the surface: "I know the name...it starts with a B maybe..." To prevent retrieval failure when storing and rehearsing memories, you can build retrieval cues: linking your memorized material to images, rhymes, categories, initials, lists. 4) Motivated forgetting (repression)

What are the scientific explanations for forgetting?

primacy effect

When people viewed a list of items (words, names, dates, even odors) and after a delay, when their attention was elsewhere, their recall was best for the first items

recency effect

When people viewed a list of items (words, names, dates, even odors) and immediately tried to recall them and they briefly recalled the last items especially quickly and wel

Prefrontal cortex and hippocampus The prefrontal cortex seems to be important for varied aspects of memory formation, working memory, and memory retrieval. The hippocampus registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories The hippocampus seems to be particularly important for the formation of episodic memories.

Where are explicit memory systems (semantic and episodic) stored

Cerebellum and basal ganglia The cerebellum plays important role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning. The basal ganglia, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills.

Where are implicit memory systems stored?

Sternberg's 3 intelligences

____'s 3 intelligences analytical (school cmarts), creative (novel ideas), practical (street smarts)

Gardner's 8 multiple intelligences

_____'s 8 multiple intelligences interpersonal linguistic visual-spatial intrapersonal naturalistic musical logical-mathematical bodily-kinesthetic Evidence of this is found in people with savant syndrome, many of whom also have autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Memory Models: Atkinson-Shiffrin model

______Memory Model 1.We record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory, the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information 2. We process information into short-term memory (activated memory that holds a few items briefly), where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Information moves into long-term memory, the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system of knowledge, skills, and experiences, for later retrieval.

Baddeley's (2002) model

____model for memory As you integrate these memory inputs with your existing long-term memory, your attention is focused -> focused processing is handled by a central executive.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the- blank test.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieve, are potentially altered before being stored again

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype; may impair attention, performance, learning Black students perform worse when reminded of their race before a test

heuristic

a simpler strategy that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error prone.

Motivated forgetting

aka repression of painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety. (Freud) Today's researchers think repression rarely, if ever, occurs. Forgetting is more likely when information is neutral, not emotional; we often have intrusive memories of the very same traumatic experiences we would most like to forget.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. can include reasoning, judgment, and assembling new information into knowledge also supports these other psychological processes: attention, emotion, consciousness, perception, learning, memory, language, mental health, and social interaction.

Misinformation effects

an effect where a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. Even repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories. Ex: wording effects

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. pros/cons: it's implicit knowledge. is usually adaptive, enabling quick reactions-- learned associations surface as gut feelings. flows from unconscious processing--complex decisions often benefit from letting our brain work on the problem without consciously thinking about it.

Aphasia

an impairment in the ability to produce or understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain

Source amnesia aka source misattribution

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about , read about, or imagined.

priming

awakens associations ex: After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word hair/hare as h-a-r-e

Information-processing model

compares human memory to computer operations to explain and describe mental processes. Involves three processes: encoding storage retrieval

infantile amnesia

conscious memory of first three years is blank b/c: - Command of language and well-developed hippocampus needed - Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature

Testing effect

effect that enables enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information does more than assess learning: it improves it

Implicit memory aka nondeclarative memory

etention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. encoded through automatic processing, w/o awareness

imagination inflation

false memories of events that people have not in fact experienced caused by presenting digitally altered photos or suggesting false information (misinformation effect)

Connectionism information-processing model

information-processing model - Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing, the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously - Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks.

Availability heuristics

likelihood based on memory availability. used when we estimate the likelihood of an event based on how much it stands out in our mind, that is, how much it's available as a mental reference Example: thinking that winning at a slot machine is likely because we vividly recall the times we've won before (thanks to bells, lights, and flowing coins) Explains our fear of unlikely events: 1. We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear. 2. We fear what we cannot control. 3. We fear what is immediate. 4. We fear what is most readily available in memory.

insight

not a strategy- based solution, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem.

Explicit memory aka declarative memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." encoded through effortful processing

conditioned associations

memory such as a smell that triggers thoughts of a favorite place

procedural/implicit memory

memory that includes things like knowing how to ride a bike, and well-practiced knowledge such as word meanings

prototype

mental images of the best example of a concept. After placing an item in a category, memory gradually shifts it toward a category ______ They fail us when... examples stretch our definitions, as in considering whether a stool is a chair. the boundary between concepts is fuzzy, as in judging blue-green colors or computer-blended faces. examples contradict our prototypes, such as considering whether a whale is a mammal, or a penguin is a bird.

retrieval

part of Information-processing model reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded

encoding

part of Information-processing model the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored

storage

part of Information-processing model the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved

Shallow processing

processing that encodes on a very basic level (word's letters) or a more intermediate level (word's sound) NOTE: Verbal information processed at different levels. The depth of processing affects long-term retention

Deep processing

processing that encodes semantically, based on word meaning NOTE: Verbal information processed at different levels. The depth of processing affects long-term retention

Distributed practice

produces better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Massed practice

produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence, but those who learn quickly also forget quickly. vs distributed practice

Fixation

such as mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution. Once we incorrectly represent a problem, it's hard to restructure how we approach it.

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. It requires divergent thinking. How to boost it: § Pursue an interest until you develop expertise. § Allow time for incubation ("sleeping on it") with your attention away from projects, during which unconscious connections can form. § Allow time for mental wandering and aimless daydreaming with no distractions. § Improve mental flexibility by experiencing other cultures and ways of thinking.

working memory

the part of short-term memory that is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing active processing to make sense of new input and link it to long term memories stresses the active processing occurring in the second memory stage. a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. In Baddeley's (2002) model, this focused processing is handled by a central executive.

Incubation

the power of taking a break from careful thinking, even to "sleep on it," to allow leaps in cognition.

grammar

the system of rules that enables humans to communicate with one another. Semantics: How we derive meaning from sounds Syntax: How we order words into sentences

Framing

the way we present an issue—sways our decisions and judgments

Robert Sternberg's Five Components of Creativity

§ Expertise: possessing a well-developed base of knowledge § Imaginative thinking: having the ability to see new perspectives, combinations, and connections § Venturesome personality: tending to seek out new experiences despite risk, ambiguity, and obstacles § Intrinsic motivation: enjoying the pursuit of interests and challenge, without needing external direction or rewards § Creative environment: having support, feedback, encouragement, and time and space to think