PY 361 TEST 3

OL Applications -OL and excessive gambling -College student study

-A bad example of reinforcement. -Why do some people become compulsive gamblers while others do not? -Variations in reinforcement schedule (keep performing a behavior for a long amount of time, sometimes how a lot of addictions form) -Big wins cause a big dopamine release and then in actuality near misses cause an even larger dopamine release -If you do not have the availability of alternative reinforcers then you may just keep going this behavior. College student study -Play computerized version of slot machine -1/2 time students got near misses (75% of the time) -Other 1/2 students got near misses (only 15% of the time) -The group that got more near % of misses (30-50%) gambled much longer when no longer winning than those who had a smaller percent of near misses -Who's to blame? Casino or individual?

Learning to Remember: 3. Use prompts -Memorandum, retrieval cues

-A cue that evokes behavior. Memorandum: Making a grocery list or note on your calendar Retrieval cues: Thinking about the first time you met a person to remember their name

Types of Memory: The Temporary 1. Short-Term Memory (brief and limited)

-A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness

Measuring Forgetting: 4. Recognition

-A participant has to identify the material learned previously. Present them with previously learned material and then new things maybe they may have not seen before (distractors). Have material in front of you and told to select the correct one. Examples: Student must pick out which words were on a list that they had previously seen. Multiple choice exams! Choose the right answer, has distractors in there.

The Limits of Learning 4. Critical periods for animals, sensitive periods for humans -Harlow study -The development of social behavior must occur in critical periods for some animal species. -The ability to form language.

-A period in the development of an organism during which it is especially likely to learn a particular kind of behavior. (When an animal or person is expected to learn something.) Example: Attachment in animals: Imprinting is the tendency of some animals to follow the first moving object they see after birth. -Soon after birth an animal has to form an attachment to its mother. If mother is not around, animal attaches to any moving object. -Example: Duck and Dog: The duck saw the dog first, so the duck follows the dog around Critical Periods in Animal Species: -The development of social behavior must occur in critical periods for some animal species. Example: Dogs as pets -> Certain amount of contact puppy must have with people between 3 and 12 weeks in order for them to make good pets. Harlow Study!!! -Monkeys taken from mother, formed attachment to cloth mothers which provided them comfort than the mother that just fed them. Sensitive periods in humans (NOT critical periods in humans): -Critical periods sound a bit aggressive (Parents think child HAS to form an attachment or else the baby is doomed.) -A SENSITIVE PERIOD is a biologically determined time period when specific skills develop most easily. (A certain amount of time where a skill is learned best.) Example: Language development: -Genie: The inability to form language (13 when people first started interacting with her), so language development really needs to happen way younger than that because you see in her case she did not retain a lot of the verbal things she learned when she was about 13 or 14 years old (12 years old and younger).

Types of Memory: The Temporary 2. Working Memory s.i.i.

-An active processing system that keeps different types of information available for current use (e.g. sounds, images, ideas)

Learning to Remember: 2. Use mnemonics and mnemonic systems

-Any device for aiding recall. Rhyme: Use 'i' before 'e' except before 'c' Sentence: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally, My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nine Pies Acronym: Roy G. Biv Mnemonic systems: Are more complex devices for aiding recall. -The method of loci involves placing each item to be recalled in a distinctive spot in an imagined scene. Ron White: Uses visual imagery to help him remember things -> Turning numbers into pictures or objects 'memory maps'

Learning to Remember: 6. Distribute your learning

-DO NOT procrastinate! Do not try and cram it all into one day! -Spaced practice is definitely more effective! Example: College students studied 50 English and Spanish synonyms in 7 practice sessions: -Some had all 7 the same day -Some had a session a day for a week -Some had a session a month for 7 months -Then they were tested 8 years later after their first session, those who studied once a month nearly recalled twice as much more words than those once a day and those once a day recalled more than those who did it all in one day. Distribute your learning, practice a little bit at a time!

Kinds of memory: 3) Declarative/Explicit Memory -Semantic memory -Episodic memory

-Deals with information that can be declared or expressed, usually in words (conscious memory). -Semantic memory: The memory for knowledge about the world. Things everybody could technically know. -Alabama's head coach is Nick Saban. -Episodic memory: Memory of one's personal past experiences. 'An episode of your life.' -I remember being at the 2013 UA national championship.

Learning to Remember: 8. Take a Problem-Solving Approach -Emit prompts and cues to evoke behavior related to solution. -Make acronyms or relate things together.

-Emit prompts, cues that may evoke behavior related to the solution. Example: Make acronyms, relate things like proactive vs. retroactive interference! What you're trying to remember - is it old or is it new material? Link these things together!

The Limits of Learning 2. Nonheritability of Learned Behavior & The Heredity of Learning Ability Learned behavior is NOT passed on. Just because a parent and their parents learned Latin, that will not make Latin any easier for their offspring.

-Learned behavior is not passed along from one generation to the next. Do have genetics involved in learning ability. Example: Parents are not able to pass along the learned behavior of walking to their children. -Just because you learned how to crochet does not mean your kid will be born being able to do it, they would have to learn it too. ____________________________________________________________________________ -There are genetic differences among species in the capacity of learning (Learning Ability) -Distinction between learned behavior and learning ability (something you CAN pass on) -1980s dogs and wolves compared in problem-solving ability, placed on side of a barrier with the other side of the barrier containing food. All animal had to do was go around the area to get food. Counted number of errors between the dogs and wolves. Dogs and wolves are almost genetically identical, but dogs and wolves performed differently. -Despite being almost genetically identical, wolves did much better at solving the problem and getting the food than dogs. Dogs are no longer naturally selected for intelligence because they are domesticated and humans take care of them (no worry about food because humans provide it), but wolves do (so learning ability does matter and the better you learn, the better you eat, the better you are to pass your genetics and survive in the wild) -There are also differences in learning ability within a given species. -Rat Breeding Study! -Rats running mazes, their errors were counted, then best performers and worst performers were bred together (best of best and worst of worst) -> After 18 generations, average number of errors got further and further apart, with the better rats kept getting better and the worse rats kept getting worse. -There are differences in learning ability between species -Chimps vs. dogs study! -Chimps (group not interested in socializing with humans) vs. dogs (group that is) Chaser: Border collie, different in ways different species interact with people -> Remember hundreds of words and what they represent -> Taught to herd sheep but not sheep (about 1,000 toys) taught names to Chaser -> Chaser remembered the name of every object in the pile. -Chimps top linguists capable to learn sign language, very slowly, but dogs perform much better than apes on the simple task: Following where the human points. -In 12-18 months the human baby knows where to look or go where human points. (Acquire language). -Despite this, chimps could not look where humans pointed and acquire the language. (Do not pay attention to humans, dogs do much better - ability to socialize different views of humans than chimps) -Even though bigger brains and more intelligent similar to our own, but dogs social intelligence is more like our own -> Why they perform the task much better than chimps

Alternatives to Punishment 6) Differential reinforcement of zero responding (DR0) ALTERNATIVES TO PUNISHMENT TAKEAWAY: -Focus on strengthening desirable behaviors rather than suppressing undesirable ones (Avoid problems of punishment) Increase good behaviors to take place of bad behaviors.

-Occurs when reinforcement is contingent on the complete absence of a behavior for a period of time -A teacher would praise a child only if he goes a whole hour without cursing -Then expand to 2, 3 ... hours all the way until it has completely stopped (24 hours)

Learning to Remember: 7. Test yourself! Roediger and Karpicke, 2006 study! -14, no test -1, 3 tests

-Periodic testing improves retention -R&K Study: This study suggests more effective in remembering than just studying by itself (actually providing feedback - getting things right and getting things wrong) - Studying exams like the GRE -Some students studied a passage for 4-5 minute sessions, read average of 14 times -Some other students studied passage only 5 minutes but took 3 tests on it afterward (only read passage a few times) -Test 1 week later: Test group almost remembered 4x as much.

Learning to Remember: 5. Practice with feedback PRACTICE WITHOUT FEEDBACK IS OF LIMITED VALUE PARTICULARLY IN THE EARLY STAGES OF LEARNING

-Positive or negative (BOTH important - focus on what you got wrong and relearn at least a little bit the things you got right, especially if you had to guess on them [like a practice exam]) -Flash cards: Practice without feedback is of limited value, especially in the stages of early learning -> If you can get feedback, through somebody telling you which you got wrong (Put those into a pule and go through them again).

The Limits of Learning 3. Neurological damage and learning The environment and how it affects learning ability (not just heredity, genes)

-Prenatal exposure to alcohol and other drugs. Neurotoxins: Substances that damage nerve tissues. Example: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome -Neurotoxins in early childhood Example: Lead paint -Head injury Example: Child abuse -Disease and malnutrition -EACH OF THESE IMPACTS LEARNING ABILITY AND INFLUENCES HOW A CHILD LEARNS.

The Limits of Learning 1. Physical characteristics

-Set limits on what individuals can learn. There is a certain amount we can learn and based on different things for different people. Example: Humans cannot learn to breathe underwater. Chumps cannot learn to speak. -KOKO the Gorilla: Learned to sign (ASL): However, we do have physical limitations. -Skinner taught pigeons to play ping-pong, but of course he could not teach them to hold paddles, they had to play a variation of ping-pong as a result.

Measuring Forgetting: 5. Delayed Matching to Sample

-Show them something, then distract them with a task (a distractor task: doing something else), and must then choose the correct one they were shown after they get done doing the distractor task. Most commonly used in animals, especially pigeons. -The opportunity to match a sample follows a retention interval. Example: Pigeon is shown a red disk and must then choose the red disk after a retention interval.

The Limits of Learning 5. Preparedness and learning -Autoshaping -Instinctive drift -Continuum of preparedness : SELIGMAN -Contra-prepared

-Species of animals might learn very easily in one situation, but may find learning more difficult in other situations. -Autoshaping: Rats to press a lever. Getting an animal to do what it was already going to do naturally anyway. Getting dog to speak, to bark, to sit, to stand, when he was designed to do these things, but getting my dog to meow will not happen because he was not designed for that. So he would be contra-prepared. Pigeons: Skinner and Epstein: Pigeons would peck a lit disk if the lit disk gave them food even without them pecking -ID: Is the tendency of an animal to revert to a modal action pattern. An animal always kind of goes back to what it is designed to do. Example: Raccoon trying to put coin in box, can pick up and carry coin but not drop it in a box, so the raccoon would rub it between its hands, something it would do in the wild. -Continuum of preparedness: To learn some things and not others Example: Autoshaping vs. contra-preparedness: -Contra-prepared: You are unprepared! You cannot do that! If anything conflicts with your MAP, an animal will have a lot of difficulty to learn that. -Dogs evolved from wolves [EVOLUTION -> SELECTION] (somehow during domestication to read human's social cues in order to survive with us) -Even in wolves that were raised with humans since birth, still cannot make any sudden movements (violent play fights with humans - violent social life) -New toy never seen or heard before: 7 toys + Darwin (never heard Darwin) -Inference? Found toys she already knew, "Find Darwin". It took longer for her because she had to think of which one Darwin was, but SHE DID MAKE THE RIGHT CHOICE (from inference: the new name to one toy she didn't recognize, now remember that connection) -CTNND2 - selective breeding for this gene (Border Collie)

Types of Discrimination Training 3. Match to sample discrimination training Problems: 1. Oddity matching AKA mismatching

-Task is to select from 2 or more alternatives, that match the sample (the stimulus you were given) -Green sample disk shown first. Show pigeon the green disk and he has a green and a red disk available, selects the green disk to get food, if he selects the red disk does not get food, as it did not match the sample.

Types of Discrimination Training 2. Successive Discrimination Training

-The discriminative stimuli (CS + and CS -, or S + and S-) alternate, usually randomly. -Green light = food, red light = no food (Green light alternates with red light). Press lever on green light, get food. Press lever on red light, get no food. -Horses: Learned to press a lever with their lips -> Larger circle projected and press lever = food, Smaller circle and press lever = no food, circles alternated -Circles projected one at a time

Problems with punishment 5) Imitation of the punisher -Adults who were punished as children... -Is self-punishment possible? We are pretty forgiving in the way we punish ourselves.

-Those who are punished tend to imitate those who punish them. (Be aggressive and take it out on other people.) -An adult who was heavily punished as a child is likely to use punishment on their own children.

Learning to Remember: 4. Use context clues -Study in same place as you will take the exam or multiple places

-We remember better when cues present during learning are present during recall. Example: Studying for exam here [in the apartment](study in same place you will take the exam) If in classroom, spread out learning and studying because you probably will not be able to study in classroom after hours. Study in a lot of different locations!

Kinds of memory: 2. Long-Term Memory (LTM) -Names of family members

-Memory for events following a retention period longer than 1 minute. -Remembering the names of your family and friends.

Generalization: -What is generalization also called? -What is it? With examples from each type of learning (CC, OL, OBS L) Imitation of the punisher (OL + OBS L) -Kinds of generalization -Ways to increase generalization -When you would want generalization (service dogs, problem-solving in classes with diff. scenarios -When generalization could be an issue (LH, crime on TV, bears, implicit bias)

-The tendency for behavior to occur in situations different from one in which the behavior was learned. -Tendency to respond in a situation that is similar, but not identical. Take something you learned and apply it to a lot of scenarios. EX: Classical conditioning: Little Albert - Generalized fear to all white, furry things (like cats, Santa Claus, rabbits), not just the white rat Operant learning: Receiving rewards for efforts - take something you were punished or reinforced for and apply it to similar scenarios. -Put in a lot of effort in a paper and you get a good grade, you then might generalize that and put in more effort for other assignments in that same class. Observational learning: Aggression studies - If a kid watches a video of an adult being really aggressive with the clown doll, they might not only act aggressively to the doll, but to the other children in the room with them Imitation of the Punisher -> Combination of operant learning and observational learning -> If you have a parent who is really heavily in punishment you might see kids imitating that behavior and doing it to other children. -Sometimes generalization is called Transfer: See the transfer of learning from one scenario to the next. 1) Across people (observational learning) -> Vicarious generalization 2) Across time -> Response maintenance (Remembering something across time, generalizing it across time) -> Opposite of forgetting? 3) Across behaviors -> Response generalization (Change in one behavior to spread to other behaviors: Pressing a lever with a foot vs. a chin vs. your back foot) 4) Across situations -> Stimulus generalization (Our focus) The tendency to respond to stimuli not present during training -One way to increase the tendency to generalize is to provide training in a wide variety of settings EX: Teaching concepts in class: You might have someone give you a lot of different concepts, a lot of different examples and scenarios so that you will be able to generalize the information to the questions you might see on a test. -Provide links in memory and brain to hopefully remember that for the exam, Giving a lot of examples vs. just hearing the definition and thinking of only 1-2 scenarios where this could happen) EX: Service dogs - Do not want your service dog just to stop when you tell him to stop in the living room alone, you want him to stop whenever you say stop, in a variety of different situations some maybe very important (like stop before he walks out into traffic). Do not want dog to pick up something just when its a certain shape or when a certain person asks him to or when thats in a certain surrounding -> Want the dog to respond in a lot of different scenarios, so should train him in a lot of different scenarios. -Generalization of behavior does not always happen. -A failure to generalize is sometimes a good thing. EX: Telling dirty jokes - Don't want to generalize in every situation. Might be nice and fun to share a dirty joke with your friends, but not to your grandma (would not get laughs). Even though something worked in one situation, may not always work in another. -A lack of generalization: Thorndike's cats continued to paw at the same area where a latch prevoiusly was instead of applying that to the latch being moved. They did not generalize and that was an issue. -When generalizing is an issue: 1) Generalization to give up (Learned helplessness: Failure in one area of your life that then spreads to other areas.) 2) Aggressive acts generalized by kids (See on TV and try in the real world.) 3) Bears generalized and attacking people (Might see people are predators or other bears.) 4) Generalization in implicit bias (We take a group and stereotype that group, we add that and apply to all of its members.)

-Observational learning: A change in ___ due to the ____ of ___ ___. -Asocial, social (a peer group/a demonstrator) observational learning -Thorndike

-A change in behavior due to the experience of observing models. (Watching people and doing what they do (If you expect reinforcement after they receive reinforcement for the same action) or not what they do (if they experience punishment)) -Observing events and consequences 1) You watch a problem magically get solved without a model 2) A person demonstrating (a peer group) solving a problem (cats for cats, people for people, monkeys for monkeys) -Thorndike tried observational learning with cats and it was a failure. Had cats observe other cats who know how to solve the puzzle box, no difference in amount of learning, so he assumed it was not a real thing. BUT there are studies of observational learning with cats, monkeys, children watching an adult (a model) do something, etc.

Forgetting: -Skinner -Increase in behavior... -Accidents, age, drugs, strokes

-A deterioration in learned behavior following a period without practice. (We talk about memory so we can measure forgetting.) -When Skinner put birds back into a chamber where they had been previously trained, the disk was not illuminated and the bird did not peck (Birds did not peck because they were trained to peck when the disk was lit up). -When the disk illuminated, they pecked. -They remembered that even though it had been 4 years! -But there were differences (not a complete recall), the behavior when he stopped reinforcing it went extinct much faster after 4 years than it had previously. -If forgetting is a change in behavior due to experience, and learning is a change in behavior dud to experience... Is forgetting learning? It could be. -Sometimes forgetting means a behavior becomes more likely to occur. -If you punished a behavior in the past (shocked rat for pressing a lever) he may forget and behavior may become more likely to happen. Not always a decrease in behavior, it is sometimes an increase in behavior (depending on what the learning experience was)! -And similar to learning, not deterioration in learned behavior following an interval is due to forgetting (Dog becoming too old to do a certain trick, he didn't forget, he just might not have the physical capability to do it anymore. Same with accidents, strokes, drugs, some things that sometimes impact behavior that we consider not to be learning.)

Problems with punishment 2) Aggression -Is it always directed at the source?

-A likely result of punishment, especially when escape is impossible. -A child who is bullied in school may vandalize school property. -Aggression is not always directed at the source of the punishment. -A rat who has been shocked may attack a neighboring rat even if much larger than it. Or bite the levers giving them shock too. -A teen slams door to her room after being grounded by her parents.

Alternatives to Punishment (Ways to decrease behaviors without using punishment) 1) Response prevention

-Altering the environment to prevent unwanted behaviors from occurring. -Moving the china out of reach of a child. -Locking your cell phones so that your child cannot call random people. -Separating desks of kids who get in trouble when together. -If my dog likes to get in my food and I walk out of room, then I put food somewhere he could not get it. -Shield designed to prevent puppies from jumping on you (the behavior becomes impossible to do because of the altered surroundings). -Failure: Anthony did not move blanket to chair where Sniper could not get it. Sniper got the blanket, a behavior he was not supposed to do, because he could reach it (the surroundings were left unaltered).

Observational Learning Applications -Exercise

-Another example of healthy behavior, like eating fruit. -Were people more likely to climb the straits when they saw someone else do it? Yes. Escalator vs. Stairs Study at airport: -Confederates (people who said LET'S TAKE THE STAIRS IT'S FASTER!) or natural models (just automatically took stairs) -Natural models got better results and mount of women who climbed the stairs increased by 68%, men doubled. -Better results if added art and better music to stairs (use of stairs went up by 60%) (Made scenery and sound better) -But no reinforcement ... people stopped using the stairs

Measuring Forgetting: 7. Gradient Degradation -Practice: 1. Circus pig G trained to retrieve large hate that are distributed to people in audience. If trainer shows G a sombrero, G runs to person who holds a sombrero in his lap, and grabs it, and brings it back to the trainer. As part of the act, trainer shows a beret, puts it under a basket so G can no longer see it, and then has him do other tricks. At the end of the act, trainer announces it is time for G to retrieve the kind of hat under the basket. Taps basket and says 'Get the hat!' - G runs to person in audience who has beret and retrieves it. 2. Dr. P trains rats to press lever for food, then puts them in home cages. Next day he puts half of rats in chamber with lever but provides no food for lever pressing. These rats are put in the chamber every day for 10 days, during which they receive food for lever pressing. 6 months later, Dr. P repeats procedure with remaining rats. He then compare the decline in lever pressing of the 2 groups of rats. 3. Mr. C had guinea pigs run a maze until they could do it with very few errors. After a retention interval of 3 months, he had them run the maze again. This time they made many errors. However, C found that the animals reached their formal level of expertise with fewer trials than they required originally. 4. Students in a stats class are asked to calculate a correlation coefficient without being provided the mathematical formula. 5. Danielle met her boyfriend's relatives (20 people in all) over Thanksgiving and managed to learn all of their names. Tomorrow, she will meet them all again at Christmas dinner. As she is greeting each one, she must try to remember his or her name. 6. A robbery victim is shown a photo lineup of 5 people, one of whom is the robber. The victim is asked if he sees the person who robbed him. 7. Susan gets a job as a wine tester at a winery. AS part of her training, she must learn to distinguish one vintage of Bordeaux from another. She gradually does so but after this takes 2 weeks of vacation. When she returns, she tests her previous skill and finds that one tastes pretty much like another. FINAL WORD ON FORGETTING. -Forgetting serves a very function purpose. We keep what we need (Do not need to remember all the things that happened in our lives, especially the bad things). -Why should we forget? We would have an overload of learning (too much information). -The woman who couldn't forget. Sometimes forgetting is actually a good thing. Jill Price - live and feel constant regret of past (area associated in brain with OCD: brain enlargement: Hoard thoughts like you could hoard objects)

-Behaviors tested for generalization before and after a retention interval. -A flattening of the gradient, generalization indicates forgetting. -Graph on top: High level of discrimination (tell things apart) -Graph on bottom: Generalization (respond to more things that look similar) -The flatter the curve, the more one would say that he has forgotten 1. Delayed matching to sample 2. Extinction 3. Relearning model 4. Free recall 5. Prompted/cued (faces = hints, no distractors) 6. Recognition (four other distractors in lineup) 7. Gradient degradation

Measuring Forgetting: 6. Extinction Method

-Measures forgetting by comparing the rate of extinction after a retention interval with rate of extinction immediately after training. Example: A rat is trained to press a lever and this behavior is then put on extinction after a retention interval. If extinction occurs more rapidly after retention interval then forgetting has occurred. (Animal not reinforced, animal learns not to do the behavior and forgetting the behavior - the behavior is not performed often because there is not opportunity to perform it.) -Comparison between how fast the behavior went extinct the first time you stopped reinforcing your dog for sitting and then you trained him again and stopped reinforcing it again and you are how fast he stopped doing the behavior a second time (faster the second time - we would say he has forgotten.)

Generalization: -Generalization gradients (in CC and OL) -Generalization in situations that look similar following extinction and punishment -Reynolds study -Semantic generalization -Rarzan, Staats studies

-CC: You are most likely to respond to the exact CS, may have some response to similar stimuli, but the level of response goes down the further you get away (still generalizing). -EX: Little Albert might have been most afraid of the rat, but other furry things showed a response, but maybe not as afraid as he was with the rat. -Learned behavior is most likely to appear in situations that closely resemble the training situation. If you've only had the one experience, like Albert only having to hear this really loud noise when he sees the rat, and it wasn't 'Here's a white rabbit, a white dog.' it was just the white rat, then that will definitely most likely happen in a similar situation, although he did generalize. -Classical Conditioning Gradients: -Tones: If you shock rats to a certain tone they are most likely to be afraid of that particular tone, but things like it are also going to scare them. -Operant Learning Gradients: -Colored disks: If pigeons are reinforced for pecking a certain disk they will obviously peck the colors most similar to them. __________________________________________________________________________ -If you have a behavior that is punished and a pigeon is shocked for pecking a certain disk, hearing a certain tone for rats, then also those behaviors decline (see most decline in tones that sound most similar to the tone they were punished for) -Changes in behavior produced by extinction and punishment generalize beyond the training situation. -Not just reinforcement! (When it goes away due to extinction.) EX: Extinction through color reinforced for pecking all of the other areas you generalized will also show a decline. EX: Extinction, tones: No longer reinforced for pressing lever when you hear a tone then that behavior and behaviors similar to it decrease too. EX: Punishment, colored disks: If punished for colored disk peck, the color most similar to the disk will see the sharpest decrease in behavior. EXTINCTION AND PUNISHMENT: -Rats trained to press a horizontal lever. Put on extinction, also translated to vertical lever (transferred to all levers, responses to similar things). REYNOLDS, 1968: -Disk pecking punished when it was a certain color. The amount of pecking varied with how similar other disks were to the punished color. Shocked for pressing a blue disk, start avoiding not just blue, but disks and other objects that looked similar to it too. SEMANTIC GENERALIZATION: Generalization based on an abstract, as opposed to a physical, property of a stimulus. RARZAN STUDY!!!!! Participants in a classical conditioning study, conditioned to these 4 words and measured salivation by putting cotton balls in their mouths: UCS: Food UCR: Salivation CS: Urn, freeze, style, surf CR: Salivation The heavier the ball, the stronger the CR (more drool). Would there be generalization to words that sounded like your CS words OR would it translate if they were similar in meaning? Homophones (Words that sounded the same such as EARN, FRIEZE, STILE, SERF) VS. Synonyms (Words that meant the same such as VASE, CHILL, FASHION, WAVE) Answer: Although generalization (some CR to both homophones and synonyms) was evident in both conditions, there was more generalization to words that were closer in meaning (Concept -> Generalization of a concept and not just the sound of a word!) -Generalization can apply to ALL FORMS OF LEARNING! STAATS STUDY!!!!! US citizens of Japanese descent treated terribly during WW2 (Discrimination). Higher-order conditioning: UCS Dirty, sneaky, cruel, enemy (Words) UCR Negative emotional reactions CS Japanese CR Negative emotional reactions -Could this CS translate and generalize to other similar words (Synonyms)? Yes, it did generalize to other words like Asian and Oriental. and to the people themselves. (Showing images of person of Japanese descent; would it cause a negative response? YES!) Application to Implicit Bias -> How these stereotypes about certain groups can have negative meanings applied to the whole group and generalize to all things similar -> Everyone within that group.

Observational Learning Applications -Animals -Chimps (2) -Dolphins -Dogs

-Chimps: 1) Leaf-sponging: Fold and chew leaves in mouth use as water sources or collect honey - observational learning from alpha chimp: For alternatives of leaf sponge, social learning played role (moss-sponge, leave-sponge reuse: social learning played less role) 2) Learned to suck juice through a straw by straw-sucking or dipping: Dippers watched straw-suckers and saw it as more effective. Changed their behavior by modeling the straw-suckers. -Dolphins: mimicking pool maters in training sessions. Not trained to back dive, but observer other who is learning that behavior -Dogs: Push pedal with nose, obtain treats, other dogs observed and did same thing. Did see variation in performance (some pushed with paw)

Variables affecting Observational Learning 6) Difficulty of the task -Which would happen more smoothly during a difficult task learning; model or no model?

-Complex tasks are not as readily picked up through observation as simpler tasks -Complicated football play when you have never played football in your life (Having a model is most helpful when the task is hard.) -Asocial would not happen as smoothly if the task is difficult, model most likely to be helpful when the task is difficult.

Variables affecting Observational Learning 7) Consequences of the model's behavior -Referring again to the Rosekrans and Hartup Study: What does this variable sound like?

-Consistent reinforcement or punishment of a model's behavior gets better results than inconsistent consequences. Rosekrans and Hartup Study -3 groups, one consistently reinforced, one consistency punished, and 1 50/50 (half reinforced, half punished). -Kids watch the adult praised, they would definitely play aggressively with the doll. If the kid saw the adult get punished, then they were definitely less aggressive. -When it was 50/50, the response was all over the place -What other variable does this sound like? Contingency. -However, you can see an adult get punished for doing a behavior or reinforced for it, but what really matters is what happens to you. See next slide.

Variables in Forgetting: 4. Context -Cue-dependent forgetting Greenspoon and Raynard study! -State-dependent learning

-Context in which learning occurs affects learning -Cue-dependent forgetting: Results from the absence of cues that were present during training -> You learned a certain word list in a particular scenario/environment, almost like CC. -CS -> Not there now, therefore you are forgetting more. Greenspoon and Raynard study! -Had participants learn words under 2 conditions (standing versus sitting) -Then asked them to recall list -Some in same condition as they were when they learned them, others in the opposite/reverse condition (opposite from how they learned: so sitting then standing and vice versa) -People who learned by standing/sitting and remembered standing/sitting (same condition) remembered more, but if you reversed it at the remembering stage (opposite from how they learned it), they remembered less (struggled more). EX: Studying in the classroom that you will take the exam in. -State-dependent learning: Occurs during a particular physiological state and is lost when that physiological state passes. EX: Drinking lots of caffeine while studying, also want to be highly caffeinated while you take the exam (to remember more) -Emotional states too.

OL Applications -OL in the clinic (self-injurious behavior) -Jim example: Parents only showed him attention when he was doing this behavior, even going through DRI, so they had to use a combination...

-DRI can also be used to treat self-injurious behavior -Any time a child is playing calmly or doing a good behavior that does not require them to hurt themselves -A boy is given food every time he plays steadily with a toy -Reinforcement procedures also been used to treat other forms of behavioral problems -Jim, 10 years old. Poison oak and scratched even after it was gone, left him in scars and sores. Parents only showed him attention when he was doing this behavior, then told parents to do timeout when he was doing this behavior and sent him to his boring room when he scratched, reinforce him with weekly trips if he reduced the amount of sores on his arms within a given week (DRL). Combination of punishment and reinforcement. -Aversive treatments such as shock procedure, now only used after reinforcement procedures have failed. -Used in 1990s before ABA.

Kinds of memory: 4) Non-declarative/Implicit Memory -Classical conditioning -Procedural memory

-Deals with knowledge that cannot be expressed (more unconscious: do not really consider) -Classical Conditioning: Don't consciously remember it unless you really sat there and considered why you don't like a certain food anymore for example (if you don't have this detailed memory of something that happened and now that is why you dislike a certain flavor or something to that effect), BUT if you had to rethink and write a paper about it, it would become a more conscious memory. -Procedural memory: Motor skills and behavioral habits -Riding a bike. Things that become such a habit that you have difficulty describing the steps. And if you actually try to describe them you might struggle more.

-OBS LEARNING VS. IMITATION: A consequence must be there!!! Must be an expectation. -Generalized imitation -Baer and Sherman study

-Difference between the two: -Observational learning must have a presence of reinforcement for it to be so. -A consequence must be there!!! Must be an expectation that maybe you'll be reinforced or punished for doing the same thing. -Why do we imitate irrelevant acts even if there is no clear-cut reinforcement/punishment? Sometimes we still do it. No matter what. -GI: The tendency to imitate modeled behavior even though the imitative behavior is not reinforced. -Imitation reinforced in general sometimes (imitation is just reinforced.) Baby mimics word you want him to say and you're like Oh my gosh! This is a huge deal! then the baby thinks its funny and keeps doing it. A lot of times you just reinforce the behavior of imitating no matter what even if that current thing may not be reinforced at that period of time, the act of just imitating this person in general has been reinforced, which is why babies continue to do it. -Bobo doll study: Adult sometimes punished, sometimes reinforced, sometimes both for being violent with a clown doll -If adult was reinforced, kid definitely performed violently. -If punished, kid did not perform the behavior. -If mixed, then the behavior of the kid was all over the place too. -Kids who did play violently with the doll also had an increased attraction to guns, even if the model did not use the gun. The kids also picked up hostile angerage. Baer and Sherman Study: -Kids interacted with puppet who did 4 behaviors: 3 of those reinforced when kid imitated them: mouthing, head nodding, speaking nonsense, doll pressed lever (KIDS NOT REINFORCED TO PRESS LEVER). Though kids were not reinforced for lever pressing, they still did it anyways. -Increase imitation of all behaviors even the one not reinforced.

Theories of Generalization and Discrimination: 1. Pavlov's Theory

-Discrimination training produces physiological changes in the brain such that a CS+ or S+ establishes an area of excitation, where a CS- or S- establishes an area of inhibition. -Pavlov said, "You condition because this area in the brain is now creating an area of excitation in the brain that looks similar to the UCS." -Role of novel stimuli: If a new stimulus is similar to your CS then it will excite an area of the brain near that and cause a response. (Physiological explanation -> He guessed it since he watched behavior.) Anything new would cause a response similar to your CS, however he didn't necessarily have a great theory. -Problem of circular reasoning!

Measuring Forgetting: 1. Free Recall

-Doesn't always take into account we don't forget everything even if we can't remember it all at this exact moment. "Tell me all the things you can remember as fast as you can." -Providing the opportunity to perform the learned behavior Examples: A student memorizes a list of vocab words and then must write their definitions during a quiz at the end of the week. This method is a rather crude form of measurement. If I just told you to take your final, write down all the things you remember about this third section (NO HINTS.)

OL Applications -OL and paralysis -Taub Study! Constraint-induced movement therapy

-Edward Taub, 1977, UA -Found that monkeys failed to recover use of a limb following treatment paralysis (Stopped using it after it had one point been paralyzed because using the limb before hand caused a lot of pain, so they relied on other non-affected limbs.) -Constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT): Human stroke victims too. Restrict use of good limbs so they have to use the formerly injured or paralyzed one. Reinforcement in using that one (if a shock is no longer paired with something, often behavior still does not go extinct, but here we are using force of only using good limb to go extinct)

Observational Learning Applications -Crime and television

-Experimental research lends strong support to the idea that viewing televised aggression increases aggression in children -One of the oldest areas of research in observational learning. What began in Bandura. Rocky and Johnny Study -2 violent children (R & J), watched violent TV shows. Then taken to playroom with toys after they had watched the violent programs and each child got 20 minutes in the room. Counted number of aggressive acts committed. If watched violent program beforehand, much more likely to play violent and aggressively. -Looking at violent encouraging violent behavior has to do with TELEVISED AGGRESSION. -Televised crime is reinforced 56% of the time (Violent and aggressive behavior is reinforced where children watch and see constant violent and aggressive behavior get reinforced) -The more time children spend watching TV at age 8, the more they likely were convicted of a serious crime by age 30. But... Correlation (not necessarily causation)? 3rd variable? Maybe parent was not present at home which is why the kid watched more TV and had a lot of free time to. Maybe the neighborhood was dangerous and the child could not go outside so they spent a lot of time watching TV. -Problem with this research is correlation: Cannot randomize a child into a category and force them to watch violent or aggressive TV to see if they turn out violent. (UNETHICAL.) -Directionality problem too: Violent children might be more likely to watch violent TV than violent TV making kids more likely to be violent.

Variables affecting Observational Learning 4) Characteristics of the observer -Gender -Sensory issues

-Gender -> An influence of age may vary with gender (Young female chimps watch mom more carefully in way she gathers food while young male chimps tend to play more.) Social learning differences within the gender differences of a species -Sensory issues -> Some individuals have a harder time paying attention or getting all of the information due to poor vision or hearing

Theories of Generalization and Discrimination: 3. Lashley-Wade Theory -Generalization gradients depend on prior experience (the more experience, less likely to generalize) -Tone VS. Silence Experiment -Clinician example -Color pecking example

-Generalization gradients depend on prior experience with stimuli similar to those used in testing. -The more experience one has had with a stimuli, the steeper the generalization gradient (the more discrimination you would see); conversely, the less experience one has had, the flatter the generalization gradient (more generalization you would see.) Tone vs. Silence Experiment: Jenkins and Harrison Study!!! -Pigeons divided into 2 groups (Group 1: Went back and forth through periods of a tone being sounded and then silence, but only reinforced when the tone was on. Group 2: Heard the tone constantly, reinforced for disk-pecking throughout their entire experiment.) -Experiments then tested all pigeons for generalization to other tones that sounded somewhat similar and periods of silence. -Group 1: Pigeons who were prior exposed to the silence discriminated it and also discriminated between that and other tones they had heard. The more experience the pigeon had with sounds and different tones, the more they were able to discriminate between them. -Group 2 constantly heard the tone, did not discriminate between periods of silence or different tones. -If an animal is prevented from experience, it's behavior after training will be affected. -If you can control an environment where a rat has no different experiences with colors, then he might respond to all colors if he's reinforced for pressing a lever when a certain light is on. People example! Becoming a clinician -> Differentiate between really different diagnoses and to pick out small patterns of behavior (symptoms that might look similar in Bipolar Disorder and Depression, different anxiety disorders that might look really similar) -As you get more experience with individuals who may have a certain disorder that becomes easier for you to pick out those subtle differences. -If you are brand new with no formal training or experience then that will be really difficult to do (same with animals). -The more experience = the greater the ability to discriminate, less experience = greater likelihood to generalize. -Pigeon trained to discriminate between an orange, red, and yellow disk will probably peck a red disk if it gives him food if the option is there. HOWEVER, pigeons with no prior training (no prior reinforcement to peck a certain color disk) would probably try all of the colored disks (generalization). Had never see a disk. -Fan of artist -> more experience to tell apart different songs from one of their albums versus a first-time listener (no experience with the artist, cannot differentiate between the different songs).

Measuring Forgetting: 2. Prompted/Cued Recall -Chimp and vending machine

-Hints about the behavior to be performed are provided. Examples: A student might be given sentences that use the vocab words to aid in recall. -Add the number of cues/hints they need to measure forgetting. Chimp trained to get fruit from a vending machine by tokens, may prompt them by giving them the token to see if they do the behavior.

Variables affecting Observational Learning 1) Characteristics of the model -Berger Study -Fisher and Harris Study -Expressions of the model

-Human observers tend to learn from models who are competent, attractive, likable, and prestigious. -Celebrities, who you are likely to buy things from or shape your behavior after. Berger Study: -College students instructed to watch a model identified as either an assistant to the experimenter or a fellow student. -The model physically was the same, however those who thought she was an assistant showed more evidence of learning (could have paid more attention because they thought this person was more important than being a fellow student) Fisher and Harris Study -Researcher approached 2 people in a shopping center and asked them to guess prices of certain items on the shelf. 1 of 2 people was a confederate (in on the study) and asked to guess price first. 1/2 the time the confederate would wear an eyepatch and 1/2 the time not. -When person later was asked what this confederate had said about the prices, when the person wore an eyepatch thy stood out more and people remembered the prices they listed more -Role of attention: We pay more attention to people that are attractive, prestigious, or have unique characteristics -Model characteristics also have a strong effect on the tendency to imitate -Celebrity: Some cases you can manipulate a model's mood: smile really aggressively or frown and look really angry and it did not matter if they were happy or angry, just the more expression a model had on their face, the more likely an observer will remember what they said.

Theories of Observational Learning 2) Miller-Dollard Theory AKA Reinforcement Theory, Operant Learning Model -Older and younger brother example

-If Bandura's theory states what happens to the model is more important (the expectations of reinforcement) then this theory says what happens to the observer is more important. -We learn that paying attention to what is reinforced or punished for other people pays off! -We are reinforced for paying attention. Does not deny the importance of paying attention, but it views things differently. -The changes in an observer's behavior are due to the consequences of the observer's behavior, not those of the model. Think of the candy machine study (Did not keep trying to turn in the direction the model did because that did not pay off for them) -What happens to you is most important. Consider this to be a variation of operant learning. Observational learning will happen if there is a chance it will pay off for the observer. REDEFINING: -Attentional: Attention isn't in your head. It's gaze, eye contact, looking in the direction of pointing. And these can be measured in overt behavior. (Eye Tracking Devices) -Retentional: Acts the observer performs (how similar are the acts to the kid as to the model) -Motor-reproductive: Imitation behavior, overt performances -Motivational: If we saw a model reinforced, we expect to be reinforced, but what happens to you is what matters most. Look at environmental events not hypothetical, unobservable mental processes. -Older kid runs to door to greet his father, younger brother follows -Both get a piece of candy -What behavior has been reinforced? -Older kid: Running to door to greet dad -Younger: Act of imitating his older brother -Different behaviors reinforced, BOTH OPERANT LEARNING just a difference in what they are reinforced for doing. -Imitation and expectation of reinforcement are due to prior environmental events! Issues: -Sees thinking and feeling as behavior, not as an explanation of behavior unlike most people. -Takes the natural science approach, does not deny that people think or feel but sees them as behaviors not as an explanation for behaviors. -3 year old Carson saw his older brother hit a girl on the playground because she was playing on his swing. The girl immediately got off the swing. SCT (BANDURA): If Carson saw the other kid get reinforced he's likely to imitate the behavior because he expects he will also be reinforced. SO, It matters what happened to his brother. Explain Carson's likelihood to imitate his brother's aggressive behavior MDRT: Has he been reinforced for imitating his brother in the past? Has it paid off for him in the past? If he gets hit by the girl and gets knocked down he would likely not imitate his brother again. What happens to him, Carson, is most important!

Variables affecting Observational Learning 8) Consequences of the observer's behavior -Miller and Dollard study

-If a given behavior produces different consequences for the observer than the model, then the observer's consequences will eventually win out. -If bad things happen to you, it doesn't matter if good things happen to Timmy, you will stop performing that behavior. -Friend who had a great pickup line and it worked for them. You tried it and it failed terribly. You will not remember the great time your friend had you'll instead remember the negative impact it had on you. Miller and Dollard, 1941 -Kids had a gumball machine. Model trained handle to right and saw adult get reinforced. When kids had the opportunity, when they turned it to the right, nothing happened. But when they turned it to the left (the opposite of the model's behavior) they did get the gumball. -It did not matter what the model did, it mattered what the kid's outcome was, so they kept doing it the way it gave them the reinforcement, not what gave the model reinforcement.

Variables affecting punishment: 6) Alternative sources of reinforcement -Herman and Azrin

-If alt. methods of receiving reinforcement are available, punishment is more likely to be successful. -Rats: Press lever for food despite being exposed to loud noise, then punisher is not effective. But if the rat had a different lever to press for food, then the rat would be less likely to press the lever with the loud sound because they have a better alternative (gave same amount of food). -Finding different ways to give a child attention. If a child acts out when you scold him, that's the only time you pay attention to him, you will likely see him act out more because this is the only time he gets attention. -If you were to give him attention other times when he was acting like a good student or good kid (reading to him at night) then you giving him attention other times and the behavior will decrease due to an alternative area of reinforcement (gave the same amount of attention). -Herman and Azrin, 1964 -Male psychiatric patients, behaviors produced a loud annoying sound (but they continued) -Staff only paid attention to patients and gave them feedback and listened to them if they were acting in a negative way. Like children. -When there was an alternative source of reinforcement (staff gives attention at other times) the punishment completely suppressed the behavior.

Alternatives to Punishment 5) Differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL)

-When a behavior is reinforced only if it occurs no more than a specified number of times in a given time period -A teacher would praise a child only if he cursed 3 time or less in an hour -Sing Baby Shark constantly over and over, reinforce if it is sung only once every 10 minutes. DRL 10' Extinction of the rate of behavior, not the behavior itself -Can be an excessive amount of a good behavior. -Sometimes the goal is not to completely eliminate a behavior, but to reduce it to an acceptable level. -Kid who asks too many questions at once, or answers questions without raising hand -Reinforce if ask 2 or less questions within a class period

Generalization and Discrimination Applications! G and D in the analysis of behavior: 3: Smoking relapse -Alligator -Another example of discrimination: Chicken trained to put/peck football through field goal: Discrimination from football and other objects.

-In situations they previously smoked, about 90% became regular smokers again. How stimulus control can impact what you do in one scenario versus another. -Pack a day smoker, reinforced 73K times a year. -Stimulus control plays a very important role in smoking relapse. EX: Smoking after morning coffee or when you see someone else smoking. If you always smoked before your morning coffee when you are drinking your morning coffee now you might be more inclined to want to smoke. -Get people to NOT go back to their old neighborhoods or around old friends (stimulus control). Ways to quit smoking: -Avoid troubling stimuli. -Undergo training, stay out of those scenarios where you were likely in the past to do these behaviors (can be applied to gambling, overeating, etc.) Stimulus Control on Alligators: -Alligator got aggressive when trained fed it (indoor captive: cannot be released into wild because of its lack of fear in people). Any time trainers walked into the room the alligator got aggressive because it thought it was going to eat. -They started using a frisbee and whenever they would show the alligator a frisbee he would know it was time to eat. They put the alligator's response under stimulus control, only get food if you see the frisbee. It stopped being aggressive when they would just come into the room and started to when he saw the frisbee (get excited because he knew he was going to eat). Kept him from becoming really aggressive just when he saw them.

OL Applications -OL and language: How rapidly a baby learns depends on...? -OL and verbal behavior -Greenspoon Study -Verplanck Study

-Language: How rapidly babies learn depends on the amount of instruction and practice. -Shaping and language: Vocal responses of children, how rapidly they learn to speak and the reinforcement you get for speaking. -Babies might first say something that sounds similar to words like "Dada". Kids realize the reinforcement and keep doing that behavior and the closer they get to the actual word the more you reinforce them. -Language -> Processing words -> Processing sentences (All to do with shaping) -Parents who provide the most instruction (feedback, reinforce their questions and curious attitudes) and practice in language later had kids with the best-developed verbal skills. OL is not just reinforcing good or bad behaviors. -Verbal behavior: To understand VB, we must examine its effects on the social environment. -You can also see the reinforcement of VB and communication in college students (How they communicate with you, what types of words they use, etc.) Greenspoon Study: -Ask college students to say as many words as they could think of in a given period. -Condition 1: Kids told 'Mhm' after plural nouns (affirming and positive) -Condition 2: Kids told 'Huh...' after plural nouns. (not very interested) -Those in C1 produced more words because the words they chose were reinforced, so they said more plural nouns. How a certain type of word can be reinforced. Verplanck Study -People engaged in conversations for 10 minutes and introduced to a new topic for the next 10 minutes -1/2 reinforced positively (For using the topic like if someone comes up to you and starts to talk about something you really care about and you engage with what they are saying and they will continue that conversation more as a result) -1/2 not. -The first group talked about the same subject much easier without changing the subject for 10 minutes, whereas the other group who were not affirmed or reinforced for what they were saying about a certain subject dropped it within the first 2 or 3 minutes.

Measuring Forgetting: 3. Relearning Method

-Measures forgetting in terms of the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. -The concept of savings. Example: Rat maze. The amount of time between how long it initially took them to learn something (the first time) could be about 30 trials (rat took 30 times to go through a maze without error), and then the amount of time after retention interval (rat sat whole day without doing the behavior). They then took only 20 trials to remember how to go through the maze. SAVINGS of 10 TRIALS, 10 Trials you didn't have to do because you used a relearning method. Example: You taught your dog to sit, reinforced for it, may see how long it takes for him to sit a second time. Should probably happen a lot faster (consider him to not have forgotten as much)

-PR, NR, PP, NP (see photo) -Punishment 1. Rat receives mild shock to feet. Moves about chamber and happens to depress a lever and experiences no shock for 5 seconds. When shock returns, rat immediately goes to lever and presses it. 2. Young woman seated on bus. Looks and makes eye contact with a man and he smiles. Next time she is on the bus, she does not look at others. 3. Young man takes seat on bus. Smiles at woman and says he likes her hat. She responds sarcastically to save his comments for someone who might be interested. For next 2 months, every time man has chance to sit next to woman on bus he does so and compliments some aspect of her clothing. 4. A fourth grader often gets into fights while on playground. Teacher decides to cut recess time short each time he fights. Frequency of fighting substantially dropped. NP - time out (removing time from reinforcers)

-Look to decrease a behavior, behavior must have a consequence, behavior must decrease, the decrease must be due to the consequence you applied. -You can attempt to punish someone or an animal and it backfire and you're not actually doing what you intended. -Both negative and positive punishment have the same effect to decrease a behavior. EX: A kid with not a lot of attention does something wrong and you spend a lot of time scolding them and because they do not get a lot of attention any attention is good attention and that might actually increase their behavior. Not everything is a punisher to everybody. Must consider individual differences. 1. One of the few times negative reinforcement is effective in animals. Constantly enduring something bad this is an example hard to apply to real world. 2. Positive punishment, relative to the individual (individual differences). We added something to decrease a behavior. 3. Positive reinforcement. Woman might have intended to make her comment a punisher, but in this case the behavior increased. 4. Negative punishment. Removal of recess time.

OL Applications -OL and Learned Helplessness -If learning experiences can cause helplessness, can they prevent them? -If you use ____ you can encourage learned industriousness in children to persist. That is a matter of ____ a behavior, not immediately start at 'He can do 500 math problems!', a bit more each time. Put success in there! Putting too much too fast that a child cannot do can cause ____ ____ and kids will give up and it will encourage LH instead.

-May aid in our understanding of depression. -Learning experiences may prevent helplessness. -Learned industriousness: Increased tendency to work hard for prolonged periods as a result of reinforcement of high levels of effort and persistence -Classroom: Biggest fear of an adolescent is not fitting in. Piece of paper face down, solve anagrams. One group had easy ones, others did not. -Easy group asked to raise hands after they completed their words, harder group never raised their hands (received impossible anagrams). -What the group with the first two impossible anagrams did not realize was that their third anagram was the exact same as the easy group's, but because they felt so embarrassed after the first two, they gave up before attempting the third anagram. -LH in kids not expecting good things in their environments (related to some self-control). -Learned industriousness example: If you do not consistently punish behavior or consistently just use punishment and never use reinforcement, if you use reinforcement you can encourage learned industriousness in children to persist. That is a matter of shaping a behavior, not immediately start at 'He can do 500 math problems!', a bit more each time. Put success in there! Putting too much too fast that a child cannot do can cause ratio strain and kids will give up and it will encourage LH instead.

OL Applications -OL and tech -Complex environments matter! Rats driving cars. (Far more likely to pass their driving text. Complex environment led to more behavior flexibility.) -Practice: 1) Many people believe that raising prices of cigarettes will reduce smoking. If so, is this punishment? 2) Some psychologists have suggested that people could reduce unwanted behavior such as nail biting by hitting themselves with a rubber band against their wrist when they perform the unwanted behavior. 3) 5 year old Mary misbehaved. Father spanks her and sends her to her room. Is this punishment? 4) Suppose you are a pediatric dentist and many of patients constantly suck thumb, practice may cause dental problems. What should you suggest to parents to reduce this behavior? 5) How could a principal use differential reinforcement to reduce the use of punishment by her teachers? -DRL, DR0, DRI 6) You are preparing guidelines for use of corporal punishment in a reform school. What points will you consider when designing these guidelines?

-More bad examples of OL/Reinforcement! (Not healthy behaviors!) -Social media likes -Fitbit, etc. - step trackers and activity trackers put a lot of weight into that instead of other things they need to focus on -Steps > > > healthy diet -Form unhealthy exercise habits -Turning exercise into work -Assisting with eating disorders (Go to gym and forget activity trainers: many just go home. Cannot do my exercise because my watch won't know.) -Encourage exacerbating injuries (walking really fast all the time) 1) If the rate of smoking decreases, yes. However, there is an issue of contingency that may impact the effectiveness of this punishment (punished for buying the cigarettes not necessarily smoking them) -Maybe instead you could get shocked every time you smoke a cigarette 2) Since it is a self-punishing technique, it is not as effective as other forms of punishment. 3) If the behavior in which Mary was spanked and sent to her room decreased then yes. However we do not know this information so we cannot determine that. 4) A parent could coast their child's thumb in a foul-tasting substance so the child would experience a bad taste every time they put their thumb in their mouth. 5) DRL: Principal give teacher praise/bonus/reward if he or she only punished them 3 times or less in a week DR0: Praise if went 3 days without using punishment DRI: Give teachers praise every time he or she used reinforcement instead of punishment 6) Consider many different things (All issues with punishment such as learned helplessness, imitation of the punisher, abuse) -Kids in a reform school may be slightly difficult to begin with and are already used to punishment so they may respond better to reinforcement.

Variables in Forgetting: 3. Subsequent learning Retroactive interference! Jenkins and Dallenbach study!

-RI: When what we learn interferes earlier learning (older information is inhibited by newer learning) J&D Study! -Students learned list of 10 nonsense syllables and then asked to recall after 1, 2, 4, 8 hours -> some cases they were asleep others they were not -> Participants overall forgot less after a period of sleep (Theoretically if you are asleep, you are immobilized, etc., you are not learning new things on top of older things) -Forgetting may be the result of previous learning -SAME THING WITH TRAINING roaches to run mazes. -Gave roaches muscle sedatives (paralyzed them: immobilized). -Those just laying there for a period of time (not necessarily asleep) forgot less than those moving freely. EX: Remembering student names: All you can remember is your newer students names when trying to remember older student names EX: Paired-associate learning: List-pair: Newer list and you have difficulty remembering an older list because of that newer list. RI! Trying to remember newer things on top of older learning, therefore you have difficulty remembering the older things.

Variables affecting punishment: 4) Introductory level of punishment -Cats example -Daycare example

-More learning occurs when an effective level of punishment is used from the very beginning Problems: -Common practice (not common in society). First time caught texting and driving, it is unlikely you will have your hands cut off (though it would be immediate and potent). Likely to see a fine paid and that fine go up in amount each time they are seen doing it, then license taken, then insurance rates go up. (ethical, but not effective). "Well I paid $150 last time, $175 is not much more." -It is not obvious what level of punishment will be effective from the beginning (because of individual differences) -Legal...? -Found cats would continue to respond despite really strong levels of punishment, they were going into a chamber they did not want them getting into that at one point provided them with food. Slowly increased amount of shock, cats would just continue to stay there even if the shocks were very intense at the end. -If punisher was initially strong, then that would have stopped the behavior. -Daycare: Parents if late paid fine $3 per kid for every 10 minutes late. Increased amount of parents who left their kids there ($3 not a lot considering amount of money paid each day for daycare anyways) "Wow, an extra hour for only $3!" -Saw twice as many kids, initial punishment was too weak. If it was instead about $50 (or in line with how much they'd pay usually per hour), then the behavior would have stopped.

Variables affecting punishment: -More on individual differences: Can related people have different styles of what will or will not reinforce/punish a behavior? -Jackson Galaxy: Squirt guns -> consider contingency (cannot get onto cat for jumping onto counter 24/7, impossible, he will likely do it when you are not around even if you spray him). Do not know what they are being punished for, will develop a negative relationship with you (CS: human for fear) -Alternative sources of reinforcement -> Yes factor, a stand, sill for window so cat can watch you in kitchen without getting on counter -Reinforcement of punished behavior: It's worth it if you leave food on the counter for the cat to eat. No reward or attention at all is best. Some cats want attention in general (so bad attention is good for them). -Intro level of punishment: very potent, not gradual. Yes/no: Placement sticker on either side of counter, electric eye air sprayer (you can be away and is contingent to cat jumping on counter)

-My dog tends to get over punishment very fast, my mom's dog can be told no and goes in and sits on bed for rest of day, will ignore you, and not eat. -Anthony: Not emotional and even-keel. Nothing his parents did affected him too much. Dismantle family table with screwdriver, did not care baout getting in trouble. Related people like cousins could have completely different styles of what will and will not reinforce a behavior or punish a behavior. Is complicated, a lot of individual differences to consider (probably more than in reinforcement). -Professor: If her mom told her they needed to chat, she would think it is the end of the world and get very upset. Some are more sensitive to punishment and certain types of punishment than others.

OL Applications -Skinner's teaching machine -OL and school -Mrs. A Study -Adolescent Study -Tennis Study -Morningside Academy Reinforcement-only is ____ ___ ___!

-Now used via tablets to teach kids spelling (SHAPING: A little bit at a time, smaller words and moving up to larger and then much larger words). -Did not catch on, but is being brought up now through computers. Skinner still used shaping as a matter of reinforcement and teaching school-related behaviors. -Reinforcement can have a significant impact on student behavior. Mrs. A Study: -Using a reinforcement-only technique... -Mrs. A originally ignored good behavior and used a lot of punishment -Intervention with her to ask her to use a reinforcement-only technique -> able to decrease use of punishment and now praised the children. Asked to focus most attention on poorly-behaved students. -Before: Misbehaved 1/2 of each 20 minutes -After: Cut to 1/3 as often as they did in the beginning, but once they stopped using this reinforcement-only intervention, kids went back to their usual behaviors. Need to use this beyond the short-term. -Adolescent study: -Adolescents and adults respond similarly to children (VB examples) -15-16 year olds - teachers only praise them, like Mrs. A study and amount of time spent doing what they were supposed to increased from 70-85% -Reinforcement can play a direct role in learning, especially if you have timid students and you only focus on what they are doing wrong. -Tennis study -Teen girls learning to play tennis and are not that good. -Teach 3 basic skills, at first coach did what most do and point out all wrong things, however then instructed to ignore these mistakes and focus on whaat they did right. Improved their skills this way by 200-400%. Can improve motor behaviors too. -Reinforcement has been used in several successful educational programs. Morningside Academy: -School that help students who fell behind 2 or more grade levels. Use reinforcement techniques and typically get their students to improve by 2 grade levels within a year especially in reading and math. Instead of using a punishment type of technique, used a lot of reinforcement. -Reinforcement-only is hard to do!

Theories of Observational Learning 1) Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory ARMM

-Observational learning is accounted for by 4 processes that occur during or shortly after observation of a model 1) Attentional processes: The individual observing the relevant aspects of the model's behavior and its consequences (observe) 2) Retentional processes: Acts the observer performs to aid in recall of the model's behavior (recall) 3) Motor reproductive processes: The skills required to perform the modeled behavior (skills for performance) 4) Motivational processes: Expectation that a modeled behavior will be reinforced (expected consequences) -Unlocking a safe example 1) Pay attention to way the dial is turned, numbers they stopped on (seeing the model do the behavior) (observe it) 2) Finding a way to remember the numbers (remember it) 3) Practice opening the safe (do it) 4) Do you expect to be reinforced? (expect it) Issues: -Is is the expectation of reinforcement or previous learning that explains what you do? (Did you get reinforced for imitating your brother in the past or not? or Is is that you saw him get reinforced?) -How do you measure and explain 'cognitive processes' like these? You don't. (Are unconscious, in the brain, thus hard to describe) -Do not have scenarios that would tell you why will I pay more attention with someone who has an eyepatch?

Observational Learning Applications -Foraging -Chickadee study -Bat study -Kitten study

-Observational learning plays a role in how certain animal species find food (Teach their young to hunt/find food) Chickadee Study -Expose birds to foil container, 4 figured out how to get to top to get food, then had these 4 act as models and the remaining birds watched them (figure out how to open the container) Other half just given the container and those who had models solved the problem much quicker (like H&H cats). Bat study: Train bat to find piece of food on wall, divided remaining bats into those that observational group, reinforcement group and control group 1) Observational (observed a model) group had best results 2) Reinforcement (got reinforcement for finding the food) did good too -Some forms of food gathering that may seem innate (from genetics) turn out to be at least partly the result of observational learning Kittens raised with mother, much more likely 95% to hunt for mice after observing their mother vs. those who did not observe their mother (45%) -A seemingly innate behavior for cats to hunt for mice

Alternatives to Punishment 4) Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) -Self-injurious behavior -Lever example

-Occurs when a behavior that is incompatible with an unwanted behavior is systematically reinforced -In order to reduce amount of time students spend wandering around classroom, teacher would praise students who are sitting on their seats (reinforcement available for a behavior while it is happening, does not allow kid to do same behavior you do not want them to do: child cannot sit and wander class at same time or he cannot yell and be quiet at the same time.) -Self-injurious behavior: kid hits themselves, reinforce them for holding stuffed animal, something they could not be doing while hitting themselves. -Similar to DRA, but instead of lever pressing to a different lever, would reinforce rat for standing AWAY from the lever (cannot stand away and press lever at same time)

OL Applications -OL and zoo life -Creating a more 'natural environment' -Losing weight -OL keeps your animals safe!

-Operant procedures can be used to enhance the quality of life of zoo animals. -Easier to take care of them, but also makes a better quality of life for them (gives them something to do). -Otter Training: Shape behavior (using treat animal wants for example you can actually take better care of the animal and make them feel better) -Elephant gets reinforced to stick foot through hole so his feet can be trimmed (his feet have callouses). -Creating a more 'natural environment' -Sometimes zoo animals seem bored when they actually have to hunt for their food, use their brains to think about things instead of being handed food. Actually increases the quality of their life so some cases just giving toys isn't enough but actually having them hunt for their food like they could do in the wild creates a more natural environment. -Operant procedures also used to help shelter animals get adopted -Some that been neglected or have a behavioral problem and if dogs act shy, fearful, or aggressive they are significantly less likely to be adopted. Use OL procedures (reinforcement techniques recommended) to get rid of some of these behaviors. -Cinderblock the cat: Also can train an animal to do specific behaviors because they are significantly overweight. -Train tigers MIX OF OL AND CC (useful behavior: scenarios where kid falls into zoo enclosure, animal goes to kid and animal gets killed: trying to avoid this behavior) -Train tiger to come to sound of reinforcement (giant clicker) and if it came to the sound's location it got a big piece of raw chicken. So if something ever happened in this enclosure, if a kid fell in, could make that sound and tigers would come running to their cages to get the treat and ignore whatever happened in the cage. The animal would not be killed and the kid would be safe. -Training scenario: Throw something delicious in enclosure (like kid falling in) and sound the sound. Tigers would still leave the attractive object and leave the enclosure. -OL keeps your animals safe! -Sniper correct time to sit so he does not run into the street or get run over by the backing up car (OL with clicker) -Reinforce dog even in ridiculous ways to be compliant - like to wear pajamas Using OL with cats and shelter pets: Walking your cat...? Teach high-five! First, must be clicker trained.

Learning to Remember: Suggestions to increase your memory! 1. Overlearn

-Overlearn to a point. The better you learn something, the less likely you are to forget it. Example: Continue to go through your flashcards even after you have gone through through them perfectly. -However, there is a point of diminishing returns with overlearning (cannot overlearn 500% and expect to do 500% better). -A limit to how much you can potentially store in your brain by overlearning.

Forgetting Applications and Interpretations 1. Eyewitness testimony -Race, stress, weapon focus, time of exposure, disguise, retention interval

-People are bad eyewitnesses! -Influencing factors on EW Accuracy: 1) Race (Tend to be really bad at trying to pick out different members of different races, people are best at identifying members from their own race) 2) Stress 3) Weapon focus (focus on weapon too much) 4) Time of exposure (longer exposure to the perpetrator/person who committed the crime, the better you will recognize them, however that is usually not something that happens in a real crime situation) 5) Disguise (perpetrator has on a disguise) 6) Retention interval (large gap between when you saw the person and when asked to identify them) -People cannot differentiate between accurate and inaccurate EWs Suggestibility and EW Testimony (Suggestibility and things that can create false memory!): The ways that ?s are framed can impact EW testimony Loftus "Headlight" Study: -Way people are questioned. Participants watched a video of a 5-car collision and were then asked 'Did you see a broken headlight?" Most were like no, I did not. -BUT if asked 'Did you see the broken headlight?" They would likely say yes (students twice as likely to say yes even if there is no broken headlight in the video) Loftus "Car Crash" Study: -Asked how fast the car was going and just used different verbs -"How fast was the car going when it hit the other car?" Different description invokes different, false memory. -"How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?" SIGNIFICANTLY MORE likely to rate the speed faster (40 vs. 50 mph versus when it was actually 20 mph) -Smash: As some broken glass must have been made, so it had to have gone pretty fast. Faulty EW Testimony: Picking Cotton: -Cotton was falsely convicted of the rap of a woman. Bailed: Of 233 bailed due to DNA results proving they were not the perpetrator. More than 75% put there due to faulty EW testimony. -The way the question/statement was framed: Assume EW using recognition memory when they weren't. "SAME person you picked up in the photo lineup." -Cotton further in trouble due to using a false alibi.

Theories of Generalization and Discrimination: 2. Spence Theory Continued: PEAK SHIFT. -Goes backwards because green is closer in hue to zero than yellow!

-Pigeon would shift away from yellowish-orange colors and would shift definitely toward a darker reddish color. PEAK SHIFT: If our pigeon had never been trained to avoid a disk and was only reinforced for pecking red disks then he would peck anything close to red (doesn't matter that it was close to orange or not). This would not be a peak shift. -A pigeon never trained to discriminate (control group). Responding to all colors close to red - only reinforced to peck red. -VERSUS A pigeon that learned to discriminate (avoid desks that were orange and to go to red disks). Not sample photo, but same idea. HANSON, 1959: Pigeons trained to peck a green-yellow disk (even more similar than orange and dark-red disks), but to not peck a slightly more yellowish disk. -The STEEP line would be the peak shift. The discrimination group (go backwards: avoid what he was trained to avoid). In our example, the very tip would be the darkest reds. -Control group had a BELL CURVE. -If on the right side of the peak shift (where it gets closest to the x-axis): The slightly more yellowish disk, not far at all, very similar colors. AVOIDED if in the discrimination group. But in the control group, with no discrimination training, only reinforcement for pecking yellow-green disk, then it responded equally on both sides of the spectrum.

Ways to Make Discrimination Training Easier 2: Differential outcomes effect discrimination training

-Proceeds more rapidly when different behaviors produce different reinforcers. -S+: Left lever for food -S-: Right lever for sugar water -Immediate reinforcement for one behavior vs. delayed reinforcement for another behavior is another example. (Left lever that gives immediate reinforcement or the right lever that gives delayed reinforcement.) -Animals can tell the difference there as well! Easier to see the difference. Examples: Pink disk (food) and yellow disk (no food) at same time. = Simultaneous DT. Pink disk (food, a different outcome) and yellow disk (water, a different outcome) at same time. = DOE DT. Pink disk and yellow disk alternate. = Successive DT. Pink disk, presented for 20 seconds. Green disk, presented for 1 second, color dimmed, slowly time and color increases. = Errorless DT. Show pigeon pink disk; pigeon must choose between pink disk (for food) versus yellow and green (none for either). = Match to Sample DT. Show pigeon pink disk ; pigeon chose yellow disk and got food. = Oddity Matching.

OL Applications -OL and work

-Provide feedback of performance. -Reinforce employers for good behavior and performance -3 managers received performance feedback for how they were treating their employees -1 was told they received too much overtime, provided periodic info about amount of overtime employees worked (graphs) -Other 2 received supplemental feedback with praise if use of overtime went down, mild form of punishment (verbal) if it went up -All 3 showed a reduction in overtime use of about 40%. Providing feedback for performance - how much overtime is used - actually made them use less overtime. -Truck drivers: combine feedback with other consequences equal pretty good outcomes. Had the effect of feedback with also bonuses based on job performance (0-9% of salary). Bonuses resulted in substantial improvement in performance compared to just salary. And not just giving away free money, but actually saved company average of $5000/month in labor costs (paying out money to employee to be more efficient) -Daily feedback to roofers - how well they did in avoiding work-related accidents. How safe they were being, compliance level to safety procedures. Workers who followed the safety practices about 80% of the time got more time off in vacation days, so this reduced the number of work-related accidents

Theories of Punishment Two process theory Rat getting shocked by lever: OW! I'll stop doing that! (OL) and Now I'm scared of the lever! (CC) -Mansfield and Rachlin Study -> In a situation involving two stimuli, if just one is associated with a shock, then according to 2PT, the animal should only avoid that one stimulus and continue to interact with the other. Is this what happens?

-Punishment involves both OL and CC. -A rat receives a shock every time it presses a lever. CC: The lever becomes a CS for fear. OL: Moving away from a lever is reinforcing a reduction in fear. -If you spank your dog with a newspaper, not only does he stop that behavior and its punishing consequence for that behavior, but then he also becomes afraid of the newspaper. -Issues: -Pressing the lever > touching it > standing near it > approaching it -Rat should be significantly less likely to press the lever, significantly less likely to touch it, but they should also kind of avoid standing near or approaching it. -Punishment would reduce responding in proportion to the proximity to what they are being punished for. -Mansfield and Rachlin -Trained pigeons to peck disks -2 different disk pecks required for food. -Added shocks when pecking in the correct order. -IF the 2-PT was right, the birds would peck the right disk (the disk that did not provide any shock), but not the left (the disk that did). Avoid 1, but not so much the other. BUT both disks were declined at same amount. -CS: Should have only been the left disk, but it was both so it goes against the theory.

Theories of Punishment One process theory -Does punishment always create a CS (time out)? -Thorndike -Premack principle: Symmetrical effects

-Punishment involves only OL. -A rat receives a shock every time it presses a lever. OL: The rat decreases the amount of lever presses in order to avoid the shock. -Punishment does not always create a CS. Put kids in timeout... is he afraid of that corner now? Probably not. Thorndike: Punishment is the mirror image of reinforcement. Punishment weakens a behavior in the same way reinforcement strengthens it. -However, T abandoned this idea when he said things like 'Wrong' to a kid. -We know saying yes and good to a kid can encourage their behavior, but when he said the word wrong, it didn't reduce the likelihood for that behavior to happen. It could be that his punishment was too weak or the wrong response to happen Premack principle: HP behavior will reinforce LP behavior. Eating (HPB) encouraged running a wheel, doing chores (LPB). The opposite should be true for punishment (if it is a mirror image like Thorndike said). (LPB should punish HPB). If a kid plays on the playground too much then forcing him to eat broccoli for doing that can punish the HPB. This is what actually happens... A hungry rat made to run after eating, it will eat less. LPB (running) used to punish/suppress HPB (eating) is the mirror image of how it would work in reinforcement. -Punishment and reinforcement have symmetrical effects. Thorndike was right... however P&R have symmetrical effects, but they do not necessarily have a great outcome always and in the same ways. Reinforcement might be really effective, however you don't usually have a lot of issues that come up with reinforcement where as you do have issues that come up with punishment.

Problems with punishment 1) Escape

-Punishment is not as effective if it can be escaped. -A failing student skips school. My dog ate my homework. -We use punishment because its reinforcing to us, it stops the behavior immediately (if a kid is doing something annoying and we stop that, we are reinforced) -Sometimes escape involves fleeing a situation (skipping school) or lying/cheating (my dog ate my homework) -Rats shocked when pressing lever and lever also gave them food (reinforcement). Rats learned to lie on their backs when they pressed the lever so they could still get food. Fur was an insulator and did not get shocked as bad (escaped punishment), thus punishment was not as effective.

Alternatives to Punishment 3) Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) -Lever example

-Reinforcement is made available for a specified alternative to the unwanted behavior -Give another way of obtaining the same reinforcement -Kid throws tantrum to get your attention. Instead give them attention when you read them a book and they are behaving quietly and in a good way. NOT incompatible, same reinforcement they would be getting with a bad behavior but applied to a good behavior (more general sense) -If a rat presses a lever for food, put that behavior on extinction, decline would be slow, but if you provide food for a different lever, lever B, then the behavior for lever A would decrease much quicker.

OL Applications -OL and delusions -Trauma, behavioral issues, personality and chemical differences

-Reinforcement not responsible for all types of delusions (such as in schizophrenia) -Operant procedures can be used in treatment of delusions -Patient who thought her head was falling off, staff in institution would sit with her to calm her down and this is the only time they would interact with her (when she would have a delusional meltdown), otherwise they would ignore her or be annoyed with her. She would continue with her meltdowns because this was the only time she ever got attention. When they showed her appropriate ways to interact with the staff and gave her attention otherwise (DRA), the delusions disappeared. -Man who tore poles out of his backyard because Jesus told him to. Variables to go in here: Trauma, behavioral issues, personality and chemical differences, but for people who have outrageous behavior just for the sake of getting attention you can think that maybe this is obtained by OL (the reinforcement they get, the sympathy), can also use reinforcement to treat delusions if it is motivated by reinforcement. -NO OUTRAGEOUS BEHAVIOR IS MAINTAINED BY REINFORCEMENT AND CAN THEREFORE BE REMOVED BY APPLYING ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF REINFORCEMENT, EXTINCTION, ETC.

OL Applications -OL and self-control continued (Self control techniques) 1. PR 2. D 3. M 4. IO

-S-C refers to the tendency to do things now that affect our later behaviors Self-control techniques 1) Physical restraint: Consists of doing something that physically prevents our undesirable behavior from occurring EX: Locking up liquor cabinet 2) Distancing: Staying away from situations likely to elicit undesirable behavior EX: Avoid bars and parties where drinking occurs 3) Monitoring: Keep a tally of number of times behavior in question occurs EX: Count the number of days in a week you drink or the number of drinks you have in one night 4) Informing others of your goals: Telling others of your efforts to change your behavior EX: Tell friends you would like to drink less

OL Applications -OL and self-control (Marshmallow Task) -The use of self-control techniques is established and maintained by its consequences. -Self-control and impulse control as a child is highly correlated with later life outcomes.

-Skills we shape in young kids. -The use of self-control techniques is established and maintained by its consequences. The Marshmallow Task: -Kids have to wait and if they wait they while looking at the delicious marshmallow in front of them they get a bigger reward (in this case 2 marshmallows), but they have to wait and this requires self-control -Older kids had a better outcome than younger kids -Self-control and impulse control as a child is highly correlated with later life outcomes (how well you do in life, the job you get, how much education you have, how you do in a marriage). -But is this less of a measure of self-control or more on reinforcement history? -What was interesting is when it comes to the types of kids they were measuring... Learning and reinforcement history: Kids were responding in a way that demonstrated what they had learned previously. -These negative life outcomes were more associated with socioeconomic status -> Baby Mozart: Parents were more involved and that was actually causing an increase in the kid's academic skills in kindergarten. -Kids from poorer backgrounds learned in their environment that things weren't always guaranteed so there was no sure definite going to be there for later option for a lot of these kids. If they did not take the marshmallow then (what they could get now), then it probably wouldn't be available to them later. -If you want to get something you better get it when you can, because their parents don't have the money maybe to provide for a large birthday party, dealt with these negative things in their life and come to expect things to fall through and resources to not be available all the time. -So, the marshmallow task results are more due to products of reinforcement history: not necessarily self-control. Some kids could count on the bigger and better things to be there in the future, but some could not (not used to disappointment).

Theories of Punishment: Skinner: Skinner summed up: Temporary suppression, incompatible behavior -What suppresses the behavior? -Aversive things disrupt! -Incompatible! (Skinner's thoughts and DRI) -A PUNISHMENT CAN DISRUPT A BEHAVIOR beyond the temporary. Aversive stimulation independent of behavior IS MEANT TO be lesser than punished behavior, this is not how Skinner viewed it (both disrupted and made behavior incompatible.) Skinner thinks, well they cannot press a lever while being shocked because the shock induces an involuntary response to flinching and they can't use their hands if they are being shocked. The noncontingent shocks should have also reduced lever presses, but we know it doesn't necessarily because if they are getting shocked randomly they should also not have the capability to press the lever, but in a contingent shock you see a much sharper decrease.

-Skinner: An animal stops doing things and punishment is effective because it disrupts what they are doing. Rat that is shocked will flinch or run around and this is not compatible with him being able to press the lever. DRI -If a kid gets pinched or smacked for giggling when is supposed to be really behaved then he is obviously not going to be able to have a good time and be in pain at the same time. DRI -Skinner believed punishment worked in a very temporary type of level (because once punishment was relieved, the rats did the behavior just as much again as if they had not been punished) and maybe really strong types of punishment can make behavior stay suppressed, but he was much more of a reinforcement guy. He did not get into a lot of punishment, but we know you can have a punishment that suppress a behavior and it's not always compatible. -Difference between control (not shocked but keeps making response), NC shock (received shocks not contingent to actual behavior, and punishment (C shock) where they receive the shocks due to the behavior of pressing the lever, so we see a behavior decline. -Skinner thinks, well they cannot press a lever while being shocked because the shock induces an involuntary response to flinching and they can't use their hands if they are being shocked. The noncontingent shocks should have also reduced lever presses, but we know it doesn't necessarily because if they are getting shocked randomly they should also not have the capability to press the lever, but in a contingent shock you see a much sharper decrease.

Forgetting Applications and Interpretations 2. Foraging and hunting

-Some animals, especially birds, store excess food when it is plentiful and draw on these stores when food runs short. -Animals probably forget a lot of the places they store their food, much more rapidly than humans, but much more likely to remember things if they are really important for survival. Do remember some things! Clark's Nutcrackers - Bird study! -Allowed birds to store seeds in various places and then find them in a week, 3 months, or 6 months. -Obviously a decline in the finding of the food, birds did find seeds at level greater than chance, even though it had been several months since they hid the food and of course the longer it was between (6 months: more likely in comparison to a week vs. 1 week: less likely to forget in comparison to 6 months).

Alternatives to Punishment 2) Extinction -Issues

-Stop reinforcing the behavior! Any positive benefits to a behavior a kid or animal is doing. -Giving attention to kid who is throwing a tantrum in order to get attention, sometimes just removing the reinforcers of that behavior may be beneficial to stopping it Issues: -Extinction burst, emotional behavior (animals and people throw temper tantrums) -The kid might get angry because behavior is not reinforced anymore and you see some of the aggression and emotional behavior you expect to see in some of the punishment talked about (He is trying to get that behavior and that attention).

Types of Memory: The Temporary 3. Sensory Memory

-Super quick/really brief, navigating around an environment EX: Avoiding stepping on a squirrel, not important information to submit to your LTM Sperling's Sensory Memory Study!!! -Write down as many of the following letters as you can. Usually people only get 3 or 4, very rarely do people get all of them. Some suggest you can only hold 3/4 or so in your sensory memory and that's why you can't remember them. Other theories include by the time you try to recall them they have already been decayed from your memory. There is no clear-cut answer.

Ways to Make Discrimination Training Easier 1. Errorless Discrimination Training

-The CS- or S- is introduced in very weak form and gradually is strengthened. Show the right answer (CS+ or S+ and make it flashy, put incorrect answer vary far over and hardly show it at first.) -S+: Lit green disk for 3 minutes (A lot of time to make the right choice) -S-: Unlit red disk shown for 5 seconds (Wrong answer presented really quickly to prevent the animal to have the opportunity to make the wrong choice and give much more opportunity to make the right choice.) -Application to children: Give me the correct math answer! -1 problem, 2 answers -3 + 5: 7 way over here holding it closer to my body, versus the 8 being pushed out to the kids. -Look at the 8! Ignore the wrong answer, reinforcement is much more likely for choosing the right number and the children do not quit. -Birds trained in the traditional manor often stomp their feet (get really angry or frustrated) -> Gradually increase the duration and strength of the wrong decision (how long the red disk was displayed), but pigeons still did not make that choice because they are living the good life by selecting the right answer and getting food or reinforcement for making the correct choice. -Chicken Camp: Train to make the correct choice: Red disk - food, Blue/Yellow/Green - no food. Showed the red disk first for a long time.

Variables affecting Observational Learning 5) Observer's learning history -Difficulty separating age and learning history.

-The ability to learn from a model depends on one's learning experiences prior to viewing a model -Have they been reinforced for imitating a behavior in the past? -A child whose aggressive behaviors have been reinforced in past is more likely to imitate an aggressive model. -Difficulty separating age and learning history.

Variables in Forgetting: (How quickly you forget, what you forget): 1. Degree of learning Ebbinghaus study -Overlearning -Krueger study

-The better something is learned, the less likely it is to be forgotten. -Ebbinghaus study!!! -8 vs. 64 practice trials (Participants looked at a list - list learning - and how well you could pair the two words together was tested.) -8 trials: did not remember much the next day -64 trials: almost perfect next day (remembered more) -Overlearning is the continuum of training beyond the point required to produce one errorless performance. Beneficial to amount of stuff you can remember. Some benefits to overlearning. -Krueger study!!! -Zero vs. 50% vs. 100% overlearning -Participants memorize 3 different lists containing different nouns 1st list: Stop after they had produced all 12 words correctly (just one time) 2nd list: Learn 50% more trials (got right, but continued to practice at least 1/2 of the amount it took to get the list correct the first learning session) 3rd list: Do 2x as many trials (100% overlearning) -It might have taken them 20 times to get the list perfect the first time, so they then practiced the list 20 more times. -Participants then asked to learn the lists again at different intervals of time. Those that overlearned (50-100%) remembered more and forgot less. Difference between 50 and 100 is not a huge margin (not as different between 50 and 100 VS. 0 and 50: VERY DIFFERENT). -Diminishing returns: Cannot practice something 200% and expect a significant benefit over 50% and 100% more.

Types of Discrimination Training 1. Simultaneous Discrimination Training -Lashley

-The discriminative stimuli are presented at the same time. -Both disks available at same time: Green disk = food, Red disk = no food. -Lashley jumping stand: Rat can jump toward any of the two doors (2 options presented as same time. Wrong choice causes the platform to fall, no food will be given.)

Variables affecting punishment: 5) Reinforcement of the punished behavior -Reed and Yoshino

-The effectiveness of punishment depends on the frequency, amount, and quality of reinforcers the behavior produces. Or an annoying sound played at same time they press the lever, if they get a lot of food for it, they'll still do it. -Rat, getting benefit from lever even if shocked. -Leaving work early (gets you writeup which might eventually get you in trouble if you reach a certain amount, not making as much money either might miss $3/4 an hour), but you have more free time. -Dog digging in trash, food is out there and he likes food. If he is acting out because it gets him attention and that is definitely reinforcing to him, he will do it more. -"Is it worth it?" -Balancing act with punisher. Is the punisher strong enough to prevent the behavior even if it reinforces or is the reinforcement so strong that it keeps the person or animal doing the behavior? -Reed and Yoshino, 2001 -The Rat Study. Sound annoying sound that annoyed rats. -Tone for .5 seconds, eliminated lever pressing. No reinforcement at all. -Longer tone (1.5 seconds), with a rich reinforcement schedule was ineffective to reducing lever pressing. Did not decrease the behavior at all because it was totally worth it to hear the sound if they got a lot of food.

Variables affecting punishment: 1) Contingency -Boe and Church Study -Azrin et al.

-The greater the degree of contingency between a behavior and a punishing event, the faster the behavior changes. -Boe and Church Study: -Shocks and levers. Lever pressing was put on extinction for 20 minutes. 1 group received shocks occasionally no matter what they were doing (noncontingent shocks) and another group received shocks only when they pressed a lever, and a third group received no shocks. -Punishment is only effective if always with paired behavior you hope to decrease. -Next time they put that behavior on extinction, rats who were never shocked showed a gradual decline. And the groups that received noncontingent shocks showed a similar pattern, but the group with contingent shocks showed a huge decrease in behavior because that is what was punished so they stopped doing it a lot faster. -If you want a behavior to stop you must punish it every single time it happens. Must also make sure you are punishing the right behavior. -Yell at kid when doing something he shouldn't be doing, but if you yell at him all the time then your punishment would be significantly less effective and if he gets away with the behavior sometimes and does not get yelled at then it would not be effective either. -Azrin et. al 1963: -Pigeons, amount of responses they made over a certain amount of hours. Those not punished, the behavior significantly increased, followed by FR-1000, then FR-500, FR-300, FR-200, FR-100, then CR/FR-1 (every behavior was punished). Did not peck much at all the more frequently they were punished. -A failure of contingency -Sniper occasionally screams, learned from mom's dog but only when nobody is at home. No matter how much time you spend with him otherwise, once you leave the house (without background noise to distract him), he does it. The behavior cannot be punished because he never does it when someone else is at home.

Variables affecting punishment: 2) Contiguity -Time out (NOT immediate punishment) -Coming home to see dog did something he shouldn't have done (What if you punished him then?) -Rats 30 second vs. 2 second vs. 0 second delay

-The longer the delay between the behavior and a punishing consequence, the slower the learning. -Time out: NOT immediate punishment (by the time they are done with time out, they have no idea why they were put there). -If hyperactive first and second graders are reprimanded immediately you see way more of an impact of that punishment then if you waited 2 minutes after they've done it. -Cannot come home and see dog has done something and expect him to remember what he did and to remember what he is getting punished for. The dog will even look guilty, not go into the room, but he will not remember what he did. If you punish him then, you might punish him for coming to you or for being in that room instead. You might be classically conditioning him to make yourself a CS for fear. -TIME: 30 second delay, 2 second delay, 0 second delay (immediate response). Rats much quicker to stop a behavior if they were immediately punished. The lower the suppression ratio, the more effective the procedure. With 30 seconds, who knows what they were doing for those seconds, might not even be anything related to what you are trying to punish them for doing.

A problem with Discrimination Training: Oddity matching AKA mismatching -Frustration leads to extinction!

-The opposite of Match to Sample. Instead of matching the sample, you are matching the one that was not there. -These tasks can be very difficult! Frustrated subject goes through extinction (they may just quit). -Even if you accidentally select the right answer, as a pigeon, you probably have no idea why so it becomes very difficult. -A bird may be required to peck a disk that is different from the sample and this may alternate too! (Increasing the variations) -So far all of these training techniques can have you animal making a lot of mistakes!

Kinds of memory: -Short and long memories: A retention interval is? 1. Short-Term Memory (STM) -Telephone number

-The period between a learning experience and its recall. EXAMPLE: You see Joe on Tuesday at 10 a.m. and are then asked on Tuesday at 10 p.m. if you have seen Joe. The retention interval would be 12 hours. -Memory for events following a retention interval shorter than one minute. -Remembering a telephone number long enough to dial it.

Generalization and Discrimination Applications! G and D in the analysis of behavior: 1) Mental rotation The greater the degree of rotation...

-The results of mental rotation studies suggest that generalization plays a role in solving these problems. (How similar the letter looks when it is presented to you vs. how it actually looks. If the letter looks completely different and is rotated further and further away from how you're used to seeing it, then it becomes more difficult. The greater the degree of rotation, the longer it takes to answer.) Letter rotation study: People respond quicker to a letter that more closely resembles a letter they saw in the training stimulus. (Geometric) Shape rotation study: The further it was rotated from its sample position, also the slower they were to respond. Mental rotation data is generalizable!

Variables affecting punishment: 3) Punisher Intensity: -60s Voltage Study Contiguity + Intensity: Another Voltage Study -Issue

-The stronger the punisher, the more learning that occurs. -Variations in shock intensity -Weak punishment: Time out (sometimes eliminate a behavior temporarily, but if you remove that then you will end up seeing the behavior go back to its original form) -60s study: Voltage of rats, rats not shocked, rats shocked with 35 volts, rats shocked with 50, 75, 120, 220 -The stronger the voltage, the quicker that behavior goes away -You can have a punishment severe enough to do away with some of the issues of time. -If a punishment is so terrible even if you know its in the future, the consequences are so bad then you may be less likely to do that behavior. Even though there is a gap of time. -Control group -3 different shock intensities -Y-axis: mean suppression ratio: The further down, punishment is more effective as behavior is more suppressed. -Those shocked with the highest voltage with either a 30 second delay or immediate had the most suppressed behavior. Because the shock was so strong, you do not see much difference in behavior amount whether immediately followed by or 30 second delay followed by shock. -One of the issues with intense punishment is you do not always know what is going to be effective (different for different animals and people).

Stimulus control: The environment!!! The tendency for a behavior to occur in the presence of a CS+ or S+ but not in the presence of a CS- or S-.

-The tendency for a behavior to occur in the presence of a CS+ or S+ but not in the presence of a CS- or S-. -If you are discriminating, you are under stimulus control! -Anything causing you to discriminate. Examples: -Response to stop lights -> If the reason for you to do a behavior, do something in one scenario but not the other. To go when you see a green light vs. to stop when you see a red light. -Party etiquette -> Different types of parties you might attend (beach party, cocktail party, party with grandma and older relatives) Probably behavior differently depending on the type of party. -Dogs: Stimulus control and using that to change a behavior. You teach your dog to sit (but only train him in the living room). Now your dog will only sit when you tell him to in the living room.

Discrimination: -What does it require that generalization does not? -Discrimination training: CC (bell vs. buzzer), OL (lamp on/off) Difficult discrimination can be shaped (to prevent subject frustration) by making the discriminative stimuli very different initially, and then gradually making them more alike. (Shape subject to make tougher and tougher discrimination decision). Start off easy or face extinction!

-The tendency for behavior to occur in situations that closely resemble the one in which the behavior was learned, but not in situations that differ from it. -If you are not generalizing, you are discriminating! -REQUIRES TRAINING! (There is a tendency to naturally and above all generalize.) -A pigeon reinforced for pecking a certain color disk will likely spend some other time on other similar objects and pecking them, unless that pigeon has been trained that is usually extensive and requires a lot of work! -DT: Any procedure for establishing discrimination (Anything you use to help animals or people to tell things apart.) -Your subject, pigeon, may have not had a lot of experience with different colors, or a different sound or tone as in rats. -Anything you are using to train him to be able to tell the difference between things (Color A = Food, Color B = No food) Examples: -Classical conditioning: CC Associated with food, CS with UCS, (CS +: buzzer, get food), but if the rat hears a different stimulus without the UCS, (CS -: Bell), so rat would be trained to ignore the bell sound, but get excited when it hears the buzzer sound. -Operant learning: S+ (Lever press with lamp on, Reinforcement to press lever when lamp is on), S- (If the lever is pressed without the lamp then they get no food (no reinforcement)) -DT Continued: Difficult discrimination can be shaped (to prevent subject frustration) by making the discriminative stimuli very different initially, and then gradually making them more alike. (Shape subject to make tougher and tougher discrimination decision). -If you make the choices too hard to begin with they might stop responding (due to making a wrong choice) and the behavior will go through extinction! So start off easy.

Theories of Generalization and Discrimination: 2. Spence's Theory -Excitatory gradient: CS+ increased tendency -Inhibitory gradient: CS- decreased tendency PEAK SHIFT WOULD CAUSE GRAPH TO GO BACKWARD! S- ON RIGHT SIDE OF PEAK, GOING MORE TOWARD THE REDDER REDS!!! Only reinforced to peck red disks but not to avoid orange, you would see a BELL CURVE! Peck close to red (could be orange), peck less the further it is away from red.

-The tendency to respond to any given stimulus is the result of the interaction of the increased and decreased tendencies to respond, as reflected in excitatory and inhibitory gradients. -Kept some of Pavlov's theory, but changed it somewhat. -Excitatory gradients: Increased tendency to respond to something that is similar. Show an increased tendency to respond to CS+ or S+ and stimuli resembling them. -Inhibitory gradients: Show a decreased tendency to respond to CS- or S- and stimuli resembling them. Shifts you away from responding to things you have previously learned do not give you anything (things that did not matter) Color EXAMPLE: Pigeons reinforced for pecking a red disk, but not for pecking an orange disk. You would then peck things that looked red and stayed away from things on the more orange side. -CS-: What you have not been reinforced for (the orange disk) -CS+: What you have been reinforced for (the red disk) -Pairing a CS+ with a UCS results in an increased tendency to respond to CS+ and stimuli resembling the CS+. 2 Generalization Gradients: 1 (on left): Inhibitory gradient: CS- without UCS causes decreased tendency to respond to CS- and those similar to it. -CS-: training produces a gradient of inhibition: stay away from things that look like the CS- (orange) -Could be yellow on left of dashed line, to orange in the middle, to red-orange on the right (that appears more orange than red) 2 (on right): Excitatory gradient: -CS+: training creates a gradient of excitation (gradient of increased responding to CS+ and stimuli similar to it) Stay close to things that look like the CS+ (red) -Could be red-orange on left (that appears more red than orange), then red in the middle (where the dashed line splits the gradient), and brown on the right -Area of conflict lies between the two gradients: Right between red and orange, what do they choose to do? Sometimes respond, sometimes do not respond. But he will definitely stay away from yellow-orange because it looks too much like what he was trained to avoid! -Definitely go toward the reddish browns, especially red things that do not look orange at all. -Pigeon would shift away from yellowish-orange colors and would shift definitely toward a darker reddish color. PEAK SHIFT: If our pigeon had never been trained to avoid a disk and was only reinforced for pecking red disks then he would peck anything close to red (doesn't matter that it was close to orange or not). This would not be a peak shift.

Generalization and Discrimination Applications! G and D in the analysis of behavior: 2: Concept formation -Cfcc, mffh -Herrnstein study -Jackson study larger than lighter than sameness

-The word concept refers to any class whose members share one or more defining feature(s). 1. Simple concepts (cats, flowers, cars, chairs) 2. Superordinate concepts (mammals, food, furniture, houses) More variable! 3. Abstract concepts (same vs. different) -Concepts require both generalization (have to put things in a cat category for example. Have to figure out that though most cats have fur, hairless cats also belong in the cat category) AND discrimination (have to tell cats from dogs). -Assimilation: Children use. To fit things into categories that already exist. -Accommodation: Children use too. To change the category when needed. Herrnstein Study! -Trees. Pictures projected on walls of pigeon's cage. Pigeon only reinforced when picture contained a tree. Then made the discrimination and pigeons kind of developed a concept for trees. Jackson Study! -Brighter. Shown 2 disks and had to choose the bright, lighter disk for reinforcement. When able to do that they replaced the brighter disk with a dimmer one so the other disk was not the correct answer anymore and kids had to still choose the brighter option. Chimps learning 'larger than': Reinforced for choosing larger lids that had food than the smaller lids. Chickens learning 'lighter than': Peck a light grey square and got food versus a darker grey square. Pigeons and 'sameness': Reinforced to peck when the 2 values of the circle were the same color versus being different colors. The Powerful Pigeon: Cardiff University: Peck pictures of trees, gives food whereas other pictures do not (developed a concept for trees). New set of images pigeon had not previously seen, to get right the pigeon had to have the concept of trees in its head, and YES the pigeon compared new images with its now mental concept of trees. -Picasso VS. Monet, concept of Picasso painting established to receive food (concept based on painting style). With Matisse, the pigeons did peck some as it was closer to Picasso's painting style than Monet. Pigeon, Cardiff University, green bars: if same size, tone, food. If green bars were not the same size then no tone and no food. -Pigeon could not detect it (Equal to), Cannot do greater than either. -Pigeons could do what people could not, smaller area of color = tone, larger area of color = no tone. We try to find meaning in the difference, when it could be as simple as how much area the bars were taking.

Variables in Forgetting: 2. Prior learning Ericsson and Karat study! De Grout study! Proactive interference! Levine and Murphy study!

-Things already connected in your mind and the associations (Important when considering what people forget). -More meaningful material is easier to remember. ERICSSON AND KARAT STUDY! -Participants read sentences from novels (1 word/1 second) sentences put in correct order for some and for others were randomized order of words that did not make sense. -Steinbeck sentences vs. random order. -Those who read the actual sentences remembered the sentences better (prior learning and associations - being able to picture something in your mind: scenarios, story - can help you to not forget as much) DE GROUT STUDY! -Chess experts vs. amateurs (arrange pieces on chessboard as if a game was in progress) -When tested to remember what the board looked like, the chess experts remembered more (as they were more familiar with playing it). -But when the pieces were arranged as if they were just randomly placed (not like a real game) there was no difference between experts and amateurs as to what they could remember) PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: When old learning interferes with recall (newer learning) - what you see with a lot of prior learning -Paired-associate learning -Told to remember a list of word pairings like hungry matched with beautiful and then you tell them the first word and they give you the second word. Then you have them learn a different list after a period of time. -When asked to recall EARLIER LIST (the newer list) the earlier list gets in the way of what you're trying to remember when it is something newer. You're having difficulty remembering newer things due to learning of old things. -If you drove a manual transmission and got a newer car that is automatic, all of a sudden you go on to slam your clutch and switch gears. Trying to remember how to drive your newer car, but the older learning impacts it and prevents it from happening. Levine and Murphy Study! -Communism vs. anticommunism passages. 1940s. -Participants asked to read 2 passages and then be able to tell researcher what passages said in 15 minutes. -Students continued this process every week for 4 weeks, both passages on communism, one for it and one against it. -Students who were strongly set in their beliefs system (if they were pro or anti-communism, less likely to forget passage that agreed with them) -Remember things that aligned with their PREVIOUS BELIEFS (influence of prior learning and proactive interference)

OL Applications -OL and the home a) Orphanages b) Abusive situations

-Training kids how to behave in society. -Poor quality orphanages - Application of learned helplessness (Crying doesn't work. No type of behavior the kids try work to get attention of workers, maybe workers are overworked and have too many kids to tend to rather than spend individual attention with each child.) -LH also in abusive situations, where kids are ignored by parents.

DT Applications -Applications of DT techniques: -Pigeons Bach/classical musician (4/5 70% or more), fish classical music/blues, pigeons Picasso/Monet (90% even black and white), pigeons and locations on campus, pigeons and English letter, mice and Dutch/Japanese spoken words -Generalization and discrimination via application: Survival value of generalization (taste aversion, applying things from classes to different scenarios). Survival value of discrimination (collecting food, camouflage) -Japanese adults English language, mechanics, dogs finding illegal drugs, African Pouch Rat Practice: 1) Suppose that the AOA has asked you to develop a training program to teach elementary school students to discriminate am ong various groups of birds. Want program to be effective, but also easy and enjoyable for the kids. Ask you to start with a program that would teach kids to distinguish between songbirds and birds of prey. AOA provides you with numerous slides of these 2 kinds of birds on computer disc, with software that allows you to present the images side by side or one after the other for as long as you would like. Design a program that would teach these kids to distinguish songbirds from birds of prey. -Generalize all songbirds, but discriminate birds of prey from songbirds. -Children - Cannot make it so difficult that they give up.

-Using DT techniques, pigeons have been able to discriminate a lot of different things (really impressive things too.) Example: Pigeons heard different clips from Bach and another classical musician, and only Bach gave them food. 4/5 pigeons learned to respond correctly 70% or more of the time (to discriminate between Bach and the other classical artist). Example: Fish can discriminate between classical and blues music. -Pigeons can pick between Picasso and Monet paintings and respond correctly about 90% of the time even if the paintings were put in black and white. -Pigeons have learned too to discriminate between different locations on a campus. Different English letters. Rats can discriminate between Dutch and Japanese spoken words. -We have a tendency to generalize because it often has survival value. Example: Taste aversion: Sick when you eat a certain type of food, generalize that taste aversion and stop eating things similar to that food. -Education: Apply important things to different classes and different scenarios (Both are beneficial to us; TA and education examples.) BUT: Discrimination also plays an important role in survival too. -Collecting food - Picking food that is very bad for you, but look similar -Camouflage - Discriminate from the background and certain animals that might be camouflaged. Not just good for the lab! -Discrimination training for Japanese adults in the US To discriminate certain letter sounds of the English language. Huge improvements in their ability to discriminate sounds to understand what people were saying and how to pronounce certain sounds! -Mechanics telling tiny parts from each other. The more you work in a certain area, the more experience you have, maybe the easier it becomes. -Dogs finding illegal drugs (discriminating from different smells). -Rats and landmines: AFRICAN POUCH RAT: Small, cheaper to transport than dogs. Blind, so they depend greater on their sense of smell. Discriminate between TNT and other smells in lab initially.

-Due to the experience of observing... -Vicarious reinforcement -Vicarious punishment -Thompson and Russell -Picture preferences -Asocial observational learning

-VR: An increase in an observer's tendency to imitate a model when the model's behavior has been reinforced -VP: A decrease in an observer's tendency to imitate a model when the model's behavior has been punished -T&R 2004 Study -14-26 months old, social modeling -Babies who observed the demo were 3x as likely to get the toys and solve the problem much quicker. -Mat with toy on it, if you do a certain behavior you push the mat away from you and then you get the toy. Pulling the mat toward you actually made the toy go further away. -Those who saw it demonstrated by a model solved the problem much quicker. -Picture preferences: -If an adult model preferred a certain picture and those around them were like (Yeah that's great!) then kids were likely to choose that same picture (Social modeling in children) -ASOL: -No model (mysterious machine solves problem for you) O [E -> S +/-] O: Observer, E: event/no model, S+/-: outcome (good or bad) -To the observer it looks like the problem solved itself on its own -T&R 2004, Continued -Hidden pulleys to move the mat (and the toy) -The kids learned! Person was not required -They were actually MORE successful then with the model. -No adult demonstrating how to solve the problem -"Ghost condition" So... How much learning Is from the action of the model and how much is it just because you watched the problem be solved and it not matter if there is a person there or not? -Did the turntable cats in the H and H study learn more by seeing a model pull the wheel or from seeing the food approach the model when the wheel moved? Just some food for thought.

-Social observational learning model, active model type -Herbert and Harsh CAT STUDY -Formula: O [Mb -> S +/-] -60, 57, 15

-Watch a person, or cat if you're a cat, perform a behavior. -Learning the behavior of another individual Formula: O [Mb -> S +/-] O: Observer, Mb: Model's behavior, S +/-: Positive or negative outcome of model's behavior -H and H Study: -Expanded on Thorndike's failures -> "No observational learning in cats. It does not work." -Contraption allowed cats to view another cat (Lazy Susan - if you turn it food gets to be in your cage and you get to eat it) -30 trials to solve problems -Some of the observer cats got to watch all 30 trials, others the last 15 trials. -Overall models took about a minute to solve the problem in the first trial. Observing cats who saw 15 trials solved it in 57 seconds and observing cats who saw 30 trials solved it in 15 seconds.

Observational Learning Applications -Social Change -Imo the monkey -Group therapy -Flossing in monkeys -Eating sensibly

-We do not solve every problem that confronts us on our own, we learn from others (Observational Learning can become a habit and spread among a certain group) -Group therapy: You learning from others (we are a very social species) -Social transmission: Imo: Monkey who learned that washing sand off of sweet potato made them taste better, then spread through her whole community and after 10 years it became the standard. -Monkeys flossing - Social species too - When an infant was present, the mother paused more often, repeated flossing more, and flossed longer (Mothers will even model for infants) -Modeling to make people eat more sensibly: Student models ate fruit in classroom setting and it began to spread through whole class

Variables affecting punishment: 7) Motivating operations -Azrin, Holz, Hake Study

-What has the person or animal been through? -Punishment is not very effective when the deprivation level is high. -Rats: If your rat is super hungry and he has not eaten for a long period of time he will probably press a lever even if he gets shocked. If the lever gives him food it is worth it. If a rat has just eaten, and is full, then the rat will probably not press the lever. -Azrin, Holz, Hake, 1963 -% of body weight of pigeons -> Disk pecking -Every 100th behavior the pigeon would be shocked, different levels of deprivation of being hungry (60% body weight, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85) -Punishment did not have much of an effect at all on those birds very hungry even if shocked every 100th time. If they got food they did not care.

Problems with punishment 3) Apathy -DeCastro et al. 2019 Study -How can it be avoided? (Not just having ____ all the time.) -How does it occur?

-When escape and aggression are not possible, punishment may result in a general suppression of all behaviors instead of just the behavior being punished. -A child who often receives bad grades may stop caring about school in general (If punishment is frequent.) -Apathy as a result of punishment can be avoided if strong positive reinforcers are offered as well. -Constantly just applying punishment leads to apathy. (Can be PP or NP). DOES TRAINING METHOD MATTER? Yes. DeCastro, Fuchs, Pastor, Sousa, Olsen - 2019 -92 companion dogs, 42 from reward-based training and 50 from aversive-based training (punishment only) based groups. -Dogs in the R-BT group were more curious and figured out what bowls contained the sausage faster than ones punished. -Dogs in aversive group had more stress related behaviors (higher cortisol levels) when trying to solve the problem (more 'pessimistic' in a cognitive task), more reluctant to explore and less curious. -Task: Empty bowls were sausage had been (can smell it)

Problems with punishment 4) Abuse -Corporal punishment -Shaping negative behaviors

-When punishment is used, there is a potential for abuse by the punisher. -Punishment happens because it is reinforcing to the punisher (it stops the behavior immediately) and this can get out of hand. -Corporal punishment -> physically abusing or hitting a child, they get angrier and angrier -Child abuse -> may accidentally reinforce worse and worse behavior (SHAPING the child to do more and more outrageous things before you give into what they want -> Thus you must really give an intense punishment to suppress that.) -Punishment needs to be really fast, really severe in order to be effective if child has been shaped (ETHICAL ISSUES).

Variables affecting Observational Learning 3) Skilled vs. unskilled model -Interaction about number of observations and skill level of model

-With an unskilled or learning model, you can see the mistakes and what not to do. Herbert and Harsh cats: Saw model perform all 30 behaviors and therefore did better -Also skilled models. Anthony and kid that trains with him (kid first started when he was 19.), Anthony has been training since 13/14 and he is 30 now. No history of working out with the kid, with Anthony being so skilled he has a harder time explaining the steps. The kid might get more confused. Anthony is so skilled in what he does he often has a difficult time describing how to do certain things and the exact movements to do because it is so ingrained in him. He just gets into action, a certain pattern and says to just do it. -Interaction: Number of observations and skill level (Overlap between these 2 variables) -Might see more of a demonstration from an unskilled model because they are actually having to solve the problem and it may take them longer, so you may get more from one demonstration of a very skilled than 30 performances of an unskilled model who is also learning - no one, clear-cut answer

Variables affecting punishment: 8) Other variables -Qualitative features of the punisher: High pitch vs. low pitch -Interaction of variables: Dog digging in trash example, Contiguity + Intensity -Individual differences? (Stress, Anxiety, Learning History) 3a. Stress: Less effective if try to punish dog that has high levels of stress. 3b. same 3c. Abused? Might be creating CC when you do not intend to.

1) High pitch vs. low pitch sound. Some things make better punishers than others depending on who the animal is, what type it is, what they are capable of hearing, smelling, dealing with. 2) It's complicated! Multiple interacting things (How hungry is your dog when he digs in the trash? Do you catch him immediately? Does that matter?) Remember interaction between contiguity and intensity! 3) 3a. Stress may make it less effective if you try to punish a dog that has very high levels of stress, may create a whole host of problems 3b. Anxiety same thing as 3a. 3c. Have they been abused in the past? If so, Classical Conditioning might be happening that you did not intend to happen especially with animals and really little kids. -Never a time where you can say 'I'll never use punishment.' If a kid is stabbing another with scissors you cannot just let that happen. It is important to use punishment, but discern when the most appropriate time to use it. -If Sniper ran towards street and that could get him killed, then the cost versus benefit of punishment (spank butt) would be greater and that behavior needs to be stopped immediately. -But if my dogs tore into the trash, the behavior is done and he probably will not die, but I cannot stop the behavior it has already been done. I probably could have let him out much sooner (if he pees inside) and the only thing to come out of that is a negative relationship between us and that is not a good idea. But if it is more beneficial to punish (to stop a behavior immediately) then punishment should be used to stop it. -We sometimes rely on punishment too much, because it is reinforcing to punisher to get rid of annoying behavior immediately, but consider if the behavior is life threatening to animal or someone else.

Observational Learning Applications -Education -Puppet and mitten (6 month olds) -Fish! -Group classroom setting -Practical tasks (kids with Down syndrome)

1) Starts in infancy! (Kids 6 months old learned through observing a model - removed mitten from puppet's hand and rang the bell that was revealed in the puppet's hand, learned how to do that from a model even at 6 months old) 2) Language! (Show a kid a fish when they are really young and say 'Fish!' and they say fish you reinforce them by being like 'Yes! Good job! Right! We're labeling and naming things!' so constantly reinforcing you imitating what I'm saying 3) Classroom learning: Depends on attention. Classrooms or groups: Kids solving problems on the board. Teachers use observational learning, reinforcing good behaviors. 4) Practical tasks: Daily living - kids with Down Syndrome watched as one of them was instructed on how to cook certain things like eggs and milkshakes. They got reinforcement for watching (got to eat and drink the food). Not only did the kid that was doing the task get reinforced, but the observers got better at doing these basic tasks as well.

-Research in observational learning -Warden Study -> 5 times, most in 10, majority in 30 -Rosekrans and Hartup Study -> dolls

1) Thorndike's early failures: Cats did not learn anything by watching model cats solve the puzzle box 2) Warden Study -Monkeys in compartments and solve problems to get a piece of food. At first monkeys accidentally solved the problem, however when he had observers watching the model perform the act about 5 times, they were able to solve the problem and a majority of them benefited from watching the model. -Most solved within 10 seconds, majority within 30 -Even if the monkeys failed to solve the problem they still performed the correct act (maybe they did not pull or press as hard as the model) 3) Rosekrans and Hartup Study -Children watched adult models play with an inflatable doll and a clay doll. At times the adults would be violent with the dolls and say violent things. -1/2 time adult would be reinforced by another adult (You really taught him a lesson, good job!) -1/2 time other adult would criticize the violence (You ruined it! You broke it! How terrible!) -When kids saw adult get reinforced, they would likely play violently with the dolls (similar to the Bobo Doll experiment with Bandura) -If adult was punished, kids less likely to be violent with the dolls.

Parts of the brain involved in memory! Where do memories live? 1. Hippocampus 2. Cerebellum 3. Amygdala 4. Temporal Lobe 5. Prefrontal Cortex -Role of the hippocampus -HM, Clive Wearing -Episodic learning? Semantic memory? Procedural memory? NEURONAL FIRING.

1. Spatial memory and formation of new memories 2. Motor action learning and memory 3. Fear learning (learning involved in emotional responses) 4. Declarative memory 5. Working memory -> the part of short-term memory that is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing. -The role of the hippocampus: The hippocampus is involved in the formation of long-term memories. Case of HM (surgery) and Clive Wearing: Injury leads to inability to form new memories. -Wearing only recognizes his wife -> <30 second memory. -Long-Term memories do not reside in the hippocampus, but instead extend to various areas of the cortex, or the outer layer of the brain (Depending on what type of memory they are -> various locations) -Damage to the hippocampus seems to interfere more with episodic learning. Semantic memory seems to be more dependent on the frontal lobes. -Procedural memory maybe independent of the hippocampus (walking, riding a bike -> mostly cerebellum) -Memories are recalled as a result of neuronal firing.

Variables affecting Observational Learning 2) Observer's age -Levy study -Coates and Hartup study

Levy Study: -Children more likely to imitate the picture choices of a model, but the consequences of the model's behavior had no impact on the choices of adults -Kids more likely to imitate, however... Older > younger: Coates and Hartup Study: -Young children and adults asked to watch a video of a model perform brand new movements. -When asked to remember what the model did, adults were more likely to remember than the children, whereas in general kids are more likely to imitate. -Stages of development also impact the benefit of observational learning. Things you are reinforced for doing at the stage you are in also matters. -Kids imitate a lot and tend to be reinforced for that when they are really young.

-Overimitation -Overimitation and imitation of irrelevant acts study -Overimitation and age -Are we just stupid as humans or is it adaptive? Or is it learned?

Overimitation and age: -Kids more likely to imitate than adults, but does go away a little as you get older. HOWEVER, we tend to imitate successful models still as we get older and as adults. (Model style after a celebrity) -Overimitation and imitation of irrelevant acts study -Train 3-5 year olds to watch actions and taught them how to figure out what steps of a problem were irrelevant -If an adult did something that was not actually relevant to solve the problem, the kids STILL DID IT. -Jar with dinosaur in it, someone tapped jar with a feather, unscrewed it and then got the toy out. (The feather tapping is irrelevant) -Same situation given to kids, but with a turtle in the jar. Left room and watched child. Kid still did irrelevant act even though they had been trained to figure out that problem was not solved by hitting the jar with the feather. -Even though told not to imitate irrelevant behavior, still did it. -Those who did not observe the model obviously did not tap the jar with a feather. -This tendency increased with age (5 year olds more likely then 3 year olds) -An adult might not do this in a design this simple, but maybe we do overimitate irrelevant acts to solve problems. -Overimitation in animals: -Primates less inclined to imitate irrelevant acts. -Sheep will jump a hurdle even when the hurdle was removed because they saw another sheep jump over the hurdle. -Are we just stupid as humans or is it adaptive? No we're not stupid, we are social individuals and imitation is ingrained in us at a young age. -Or learned? YES. People are rewarded for imitating in infancy. Imitating ensures our success a lot of the time, it might not matter if you bought a purse a celebrity had or tapped a jar, if you saw someone else do it you can always edit these things out later. It helps to spread new practices through society which improves the odds of the survival of our society.