Qualitative Research (Combo) May 2016 (ALL)
ego-syntonic
aspects of personality that are viewed as acceptable and consistent with that person's total personality
akinesia
lack of movement
conversational interview
unstructured interview with open-ended questions
Culture
A common set of beliefs, values and behaviours.
Snowball sampling
Word of mouth
mind-dependent
Depending on the mind for existence or definition, e.g. ideas are mind-dependent
Rational Data
This is basically the same as interval data, but has a true zero
time triangulation involves:
multiple time periods (longitudinal v. cross-sectional)
Quantitative research tends to have a _________ range of info
narrow and focused
Qualitative research environments are typically ____?
naturalistic
Leveling
- minimizing the less-central details
What does Cohen says is the minimal acceptable level?
.80 the larger the power needed the larger the sample size
T/F: Additional analysis may lead to re-conceptualizations of the data
True
T/F: Focused Coding involves applying a limited set of codes to a large quantity of data.
True.
T/F: Focused coding is more selective and conceptual than Open Coding
True.
Strong Foundationalism
(Classical foundationalism) says all knowledge from conclusive truths
Theoretical samplinng
(e.g., if theory raises question of whether certain type of person would help elucidate the theory, and researcher seeks such participants)
Evident to the senses
(like seeing color)
Contingent First Principles
(not able to locate decent def need to look toward reading materials) dependent on or upon some preceding occurrence or condition
3 As of Epistemology
- Analysis - Assessment - Argument
Framework "tool"
- Case & theme based approach - Hierarchy of themes and sub-themes - Reduces data through summarization & synthesis - Retains link to original data
Transcripts for Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS)
- Depends on the software. - Identify speakers - Marking units of text
Methods of Control (Internal Validity)
- Randomization Groups have equal chance of receiving intervention - Crossover Participants serve as own controls - Gets intervention, then doesn't get intervention - Homogeneity Groups as similar as possible (control for confounding without randomization? - Matching Eg. Case-control: try to ensure groups are similar - Statistical Control Advanced planning for 'controlling' potential confounders
Discourse Analysis
- Study of well-established meanings or ideas that shape language use. - Relationship between language and power. - How do meanings change?
Significant considerations:
- The rationale and purpose of the research determine the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Guideline Development Process
-Extensive interdisciplinary clinical review of needs, practices, emerging technology -Comprehensive literature review -Ranking of evidence quality -Peer review of guideline drafts -Pilot review with intended users
In essence what three things needs to be presented by the researcher?
-description of site -key informants -thought involved in the researchers' conceptualization throughout
name three qualitative researcher characteristics
-engages as a whole person -needs to be authentic -more subjective than objective
Double-blind design
-neither researchers nor subjects know who is in the experimental or control group
Give two examples of going native
-when a researcher loses their objectivity ie Blenner's study of stress on an African expedition -an anthropologist who starts dressing and behaving like on eo fthe natives
According to Cohen the minimal acceptable level of power is
.80 this means that ther is an 80% probability of obtaining an accurate result and a 20% chance of a type II error
Laboratory study
A method used in quantitative research in which subjects are placed in an artificial environment and their responses to various stimuli are measured.
Focus group
A small group of 6-10 individuals who are led in discussion by a professional consultant to gather opinions on and responses to issues being researched.
Researcher bias
A tendency for researchers to engage in behaviors and selectively notice evidence that supports their hypotheses or expectations
QDA- qualitative Data Analysis
1. Coding - Upack the box, deconstruct, naming to classify the data 2. Categorize: Reconstruct data into categories. Comparison of similarities or differences. 3. Patterns
Empiricists:
1. John Locke: rejects innate knowledge a. Man born tabular rasa: blank slate b. Knowledge gained from
Overt observation
Observation in which those being observed and informed are informed of the observers presence and purpose.
What asserts that ther eis a relationship between the variables or a differnce between groups
2 tailed
1. 3 types of knowledge
:
First principle
A basic axiom or proposition or statement or idea that is self-evident or generally accepted.
Fallacy, or logical fallacy
A flaw in an argument or reasoning
Slippery slope.
A logical fallacy that argues if a little bit is allowed than a great deal more in quality and quantity will come and does not provide evidence for the same
Naturalism
A model of research which seeks to minimize presuppositions in order to witness subjects' worlds in their own terms (Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).
Sceptic
A person who believes it is impossible to be certain of anything
Code
A symbol or notation to label patterns within the data in some sort of systematic way.
concept empiricism
All concepts are derived from experience; there are no innate concepts.
Sampling error / bias
An over or under representation of a sample - this is why randomization is so important.
Content Analysis
Analysis of existing documents to reveal important information about human behavior
Narrative interview
Based on the assumption that humans are storytellers. The respondent is asked to tell their story of something they have experienced to show individual interpretations.
Life histories
CHRONLOGY of Narrative self-descriptions of life experiences
senses
Capacities that give us experience of the external world; hearing, smell, taste, touch and bodily awareness
Negative case analysis
Cases that do not fit in to the categories, asking why the don't fit is very useful.
Nominal
Classify or categorize data
Coding of latent content
Classifying by the underlying meaning of a phrase
Concepts
Clearly specified ideas deriving from a particular model.
Clinical Significance
Clinical significance requires that research have an important outcome that generates a noticeable (sizable) difference for patients or is large enough to warrant change in practice.
Content Analysis Sampling
Cluster sampling is common - researcher identifies unit (ie paragraphs) and then draws a sampling of said unit from text
In qualitative analysis, _ & _ _ are created (at least in part) from the data itself during the process of data
Codes and coding schemes
Data triangulation
Collecting data over different times, locations and participants.
Four Essential Elements of Evaluation
Credibility, Transferability, Dependability, Confirmability
In-Depth Interviews
Detailed interviews; often recorded
Reliability Methods
Display reliability estimate as correlation coefficient / tests for 3 attributes
Theory
Empirically falsifiable set of abstract statements about reality
Cross-case analysis
Examination of similarities across cases (inductive approach to variable-oriented analysis)
Sampling; exclusion criteria
Exclusionary barriers; restrictions are placed to exclude subjects
sense experience
Experiences given by our senses
Conversation analysis
Extremely close scrutiny of the way people converse with one another; crucial to ethnomethodology
Qualitative research
Focus on words to understand and give meaning to a phenomenon or event
_: intense analysis around one or a few of the coding categories.
Focused coding (axial coding)
Ethnography
Focuses on describing culture or the "cultural scene" (culture can be small group culture too) Ethnographic work is always contextual There are many types of ethnography (classical, systematic, interpretive, critical, focused etc....) Key elements of ethnography: fieldwork (participant observation; immersion in the field), focus on culture (norms, values, beliefs, practices, rules)
Positivism
Focusing on logical reasoning; grounded theory research
Genealogical
Following Foucault (1977; 1979), the study of the ways in which discourses have been structured at different historical points.
Heterogeneous
How are they different? To what degree?
Cogito Ergo Sum
I think therefore I am
Ethnography/Participant Observation
In participant observation, the researcher "gets to go home at night" but in this research methodology the researcher is there "24/7" (live, interact, participate with subjects).
Focus Group Interviews
Interviews in SMALL GROUPS led by a MODERATOR
Phenomenological research focuses on the
LIVED EXPERIENCES of humans through many different traditions-description and interpretation of people's lived experience
Reflective notes
Methodologic notes, Theoretical notes (or analytical notes), PERSONAL NOTES
Impressionist tales
Researcher storytelling
Semiotics
Science of signs.
Correspondence theory of truth
That truth is that which corresponds to reality (as opposed to perception, etc.).
Participant expectations
The participants' ideas of the research and the researcher can affect the trustworthiness of the data.
Historical
The past; What were the ancient Romans' basic beliefs regarding diseases of the breast?
Relevance marker 2
Thick description
Phenomenology
To describe experience as it is lived; the essence of an experience The focus is on writing in such a way that the essence of an experience is revealed A process of reading, reflecting and writing The writing is often evocative, poetic and is used to evoke understanding
T/F: Stages of data collection, data analysis and drawing conclusions are simultaneous and interactive
True. These three stages all happen at the same time
Qualitative Research Evaluation Criteria
Trustworthiness, credibilty, Transferability, Dependability
Triangulation
Using 3 different strategies to get at the same in formation
Tabula Rasa
We are born with no ideas
justification
What is offered as grounds for believing an assertion
Case study:
a detailed, descriptive account of one individual, situation, organization, group, or other entity.
9. Pragmatic Theory:
a proposition is true if it is successful in explaining phenomena or in achieving desired consequences
In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can
be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.
Name the three types of nonprobability sampling?
convenience sampling quota sampling purposeful/theoretical/judgment sampling
logorrhoea
copious, pressured, coherent speech; uncontrolled, excessive talking; (also called tachylogia, verbomania and volubility)
Grounded theory analysis involve
core variable
Relevance marker 1
corpus construction
Interpretive
describes AND interprets experience
what is the third step in systematic sampling is probability?
every kth (constant) element is chosen to be in the sample
conditions of worth
ex. peer pressure. causes us to betray ourselves
Kierkegaard
first existential/phenomenological author who studied hopelessness form a christian perspective, and found hope in faith.
catatonic rigidity
fixed or sustained motoric position that is resistant to change
self-defeating:
if no one knows anything how do we know it isn't true
vegetative signs
in depression - sleep disturbance, decreased appetite, constipation, weight loss and loss of libido
Subjectivity
internal mental states thought to exist inside ones own subjective consciousness
When a researcher explains why a qualitative method is needed they should always clearly identify what?
philosophy and methodological approach.
Real Objects
physical objects or persons
coprophagia
poop eating
Levels of data
priori framework, descriptive, synthesis formed, increased complexity and case variance, and the gold standard; a product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon.
hypersomnia
sleeping more
Justification of deception
that deception is justified only when it is necessary and the scientific knowledge outweighs the cost
what does random assignment refer to?
the assigning of subjects to either experimental or control groups in an experimental research design AFTER the sampling procedure is completed
Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in
the data.
Triangulation
use of MULTIPLE SOURCES draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth, can contribute to credibility
three ways to increase credibility are:
use reflexivity / make generalizable / triangulate
Confidence to act
with the quality and quantity of information I have, I am willing to go forward with a change in practice and advise others to do the same.
file drawer problem
~ tendency for negative findings to remain unpublished
Rationalism v Empiricism
...
Reflexivity
...
Replication in Qualitative Research
...
Self evident
...
Triangulation
...
Validity and Realism
...
coding themes
...
Homogenous Focus Group
A focus group where participants share key features (e.g. they all work in a library).
Convenience sampling
A non-probability sampling method where a sample is selected from population that is readily available.
Content Coding Options
Nominal, Ordinal or Interval
Ordinal
Order and rank values without equal intervals
Researchers should not waste time, money, or other resouces, so a smart researcher might first do a?
Pilot studies
Stages of Qualitative Research
Problem formulation-> Research design formulation -> Data Collection <-> Data Analysis <->Drawing Conculsion-> Public Dissemination of results
Inter-rater reliability
Process of multiple researchers coding same raw data and comparing notes for concensus
Dr. Blenner's infertility study where she chose couples who both had infetility problems, then the male facot, then unexplained factor?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling
Social constructionism
See constructionism.
Case-Oriented Analysis
Thorough, ideographic examination of a single case
indirect realism
We perceive physical objects, which exist independently of the mind, indirectly via sense-data which are cause by and represent physical objects
Empiricism:
a belief that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experiences
xenophobia
abnormal fear of strangers
jargon aphasia
aphasia in which the words produced a neologistic
Quantitative research environments are ____?
artificial
expressive dysphasia
difficulty in expressing verbal language
motivating yourself
have to learn to self-restrain
Cartesian Dualism
objective world is logically configured, and external world is concrete, measurable, provable.
Self-evidential
obvious, immediately evident
recognizing and influencing
others emotions
unconditional positive regard
regardless of what you do, i respect you
5. Truth:
something that corresponds with the facts
metonymy
speech disturbance that is seen in schizophrenia where the affected person uses a word or phrase that is related to the proper one but is not the one ordinarily used. e.g. consuming a menu (rather than meal) - subtype of paraphrasia
What is the principle when it comes to sample size?
the larger the size the better
triarchic theory of love
the three circle diagram
Ethnographic methods
the use of participant observation and field interviews, but not necessarily accompanied by immersion in the field or by a holistic cultural analysis.
Properly Basic beliefs
these are the most basic most foundational beliefs and are called self justifying and first principals of knowledge
data collection and analysis should be consistent with what?
type of qualitative research design
eidetic image
unusually vivid or exact mental image of objects previously seen or imagined
lilliputian hallucination
visual experience of seeing small people and objects; subtype of micropsia
knowing emotions
we get "theory of mind"- be aware that emotions exist, of our own emotions, that others have emotions, and that we all express emotions in a variety of ways
adynamia
weakness and fatiguability
frankl
wrote book about logo therapy in concentration camp. people can never touch your dignity-rescue of their dignity
condemnation of reductionism
you cannot reduce humans to their parts
dispersion
~ gives us a sense of how loosely or tightly bunched the scores are
representativeness
~ heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype - like goes with like
Ad hominem
"Appeal to the man," an informal logical fallacy by attacking the person.
Tabula rasa
"Blank tablet," the empiricist idea that the mind contains no innate ideas.
Qualitative Research: Setting for Data Collection
"Informant-driven" rather than "theory-driven" Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or experience being studied Informant teaches the investigator Data is collected in the "field" - the natural world where people live and experience life Investigator should: be nonintrusive spend a prolonged time in the field Some researchers used multiple methods-observation, interviews most common Usually a large volume of data is collected during qualitative research process- FAT DATA.
case study
"analysis consists of making a detailed description of the case and it's setting" (Creswell, 2013).
What do we mean by an "a priori" framework?
"in advance" - researchers start with some framework - then they go back and check to see if the data still fits the framework.
IV and DV
- In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured. - "There will be a statistically significant difference in graduation rates of at-risk high-school seniors who participate in an intensive study program as opposed to at-risk high-school seniors who do not participate in the intensive study program." IV: Participation in intensive study program. DV: Graduation rates.
Range
- difference between the highest and lowest scores
Self-report measures
- questionnaires assessing a variety of characteristics
Informed Consent
-Agreement to participate in research after receiving adequate information -Exposure to harm -Confidentiality
Tools for focusing attention
-Alerts and reminders -Remind the user of problems that might otherwise be overlooked e.g., abnormal lab values, potential drug interactions, guideline compliance
Pros of using computers (Coding and Retrieving Data)
-Word counts and phrase counts -Set up code systems -Assess frequency, proximity of one code to other codes -Assess positive and negative coding -Search function locates codes of interest -Store codes for case in ?index card? analogous to card file box.
How is qualitative data analysis different from quantitative analysis?
-abstraction and generalization are matters of degree -emphasis on contextualizing -more emphasis on inductive reasoning
Audit Trial
...
Beliefs: something we affirm to be true, formed on the basis of knowledge
...
Case and Theme Approach
...
Data chunking
...
Data reduction
...
Knowledge: a justified true belief
...
Content Analysis - Initial Process
1) Text scanned 2) Units determined 3) Units tagged with one or more markers 4) Markers are used later for sorting
reflexivity
1) the process of critical self-reflection re the ways in which a researcher's individual perspective may influence the study. 2) The act of reflecting back upon the communications, decisions, and consequences during the research process (Galletta, 2013)
Limitations of qualitative research
1. Can be very time-consuming to collect. 2. Can generate large amounts of data that is difficult to analyze. 3. Potential susceptibility of the results to get misused or misinterpreted 4. Results not necessarily representative of the whole population 5.Researcher's role is extremely critical, can lead to ambiguous or at times misleading results.
Empiricists: ii. Internal reflection:
1. Combine, compare, contrast simple ideas 2. Develop complex understandings
3 Theories of what truth is
1. Correspondence theory: a proposition is true if it corresponds to the facts of reality a. Oldest theory put forth by Plato and Aristotle b Strengths i Fit with our most basic intuition of what truth means ii. Links truth with reality iii. Provides a reliable way to check truthfulness of propositions c. Weaknesses i. All may not see reality the same or accurately ii. Difference between something being true and knowing its true
.Rene Descartes: life spent in search of certainty
1. I think therefore I am 2.Only your existence can not be doubted 3.From existence can deduce a. God (ontological argument) b. Matter c. Mind
Empiricists: i. Eternal sensations
1. Passive 2. Sense based 3. Simple ideas
Willig (2001) Stages of IPA
1. Reading and rereading of the transcipts 2. Identification of emergent themes 3. Structuring emergent themes 4. Creation of a summary table of the structured themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme.
How many informants does saturation usually occur at
15-50
2. The analytic story
: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
3. The mystery story
: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Hyphenated phenomena
A concept which refers to the way in which apparently stable social phenomena (a 'tribe' or a 'family') take on different meanings in different contexts. Thus a-family-as-seen-by-the-oldest-child takes on a different meaning than a-family-as-seen-by-the-youngest (see constructionism).
Paradigm
A conceptual framework (see model).
Reductio ad absurdum
A form of negating argument that says if one were to accept a proposition one would also be accepting a contradiction.
Abduction or inference to the best explanation
A form of nondeductive reasoning in which one argues that the correct explanation is merely the best available explanation.
Triangulation
A kind of cross-checking of information and conclusions formed in research brought about by the use of multiple procedures or sources.
Significance level
A level of sample established prior to the study - a min.
Straw man argument
A logical fallacy in which a weakened version of the other's position is (re)presented and then disposed of, creating the illusion that the actual argument has be eliminated.
Participant observation
A method that assumes that, in order to understand the world 'first hand', you must participate yourself rather than just observe at a distance. This method was championed by the early anthropologists but is shared by some ethnographers.
Positivism
A model of the research process which treats 'social facts' as existing independently of the activities of both participants and researchers. For positivists, the aim is to generate data which are valid and reliable, independently of the research setting.
Structuralism
A model used in anthropology which aims to show how single cases relate to general social forms. Structural anthropologists draw upon French social and linguistic theory of the early twentieth century, notably Ferdinand de Saussure and Emile Durkheim. They view behaviour as the expression of a 'society' which works as a 'hidden hand' constraining and forming human action.
Purposive sampling
A non-probability sampling method where subjects are deliberately selected based on predefined criteria or particular characteristics chosen by the researchers that they feel will help them explore the research topic.
Snowball sampling
A non-probability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.
analytic
A proposition that is true (or false) in virtue of the meaning of the words. For instance, 'A bachelor is an unmarried man' is analytically true, while 'A square has three sides' is analytically false
represent
A relation of one thing (e.g. sense-data) to another (e.g. physical objects) established by an accurate and systematic correlation of the first to the second
resemblance
A relation of similarity (in properties or appearance) between two things e.g. sense-data and physical objects
Participant observation
A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.
Non-participant observation
A researcher observes a group or activity he or she is studying, without participating in the group or activity.
Subculture
A set of beliefs, values and behaviours shared by a particular group.
simple idea
A single uniform conception or sensory experience, with nothing distinguishable within it
Gettier case
A situation in which we have a justified true belief, but not knowledge, because the belief is only accidentally true given the evidence that justifies it.
epistemic virtue
A skill, ability or trait of the mind or person that contributes to gaining knowledge and forming true beliefs
Sample, sampling
A statistical procedure for finding cases to study. Sampling has two functions: it allows you to feel confident about the representativeness of your sample, and such representativeness allows you to make broader inferences.
What is the postmodern transcription technique?
A technique used in interviews to not only record sound, but also record movement, laughs, and body-language. This can be done through notes or by filming.
Reflexivity
A term deriving from ethnomethodology where it is used to describe the self-organizing character of all interaction so that any action provides for its own context. Mistakenly used to refer to self-questioning by a researcher.
Thick description
A term from anthropology and ethnography used to describe research reports which analyse the multiple levels of meaning in any situation (see Geertz, 1973).
Category Emergence
A term that describes when patterns in qualitative data become evident. For example, when people keep saying the same thing over and over again.
Interview society
A term used by Atkinson and Silverman (1997) to point out the ways in which interviews have become a central medium for understanding who we are.
Sound Argument:
A valid argument with all true premises (soundness = validity plus truth).
Relativism
A value position where we resist taking a position because we believe that, since everything is relative to its particular context, it should not be criticized.
Intervening variable
A variable which is influenced by a prior factor and goes on to influence another. Commonly used in quantitative research to work out which statistical association may be spurious.
belief
Affirmation of, or conviction regarding, the truth of a proposition, e.g. 'I believe the grass is green'
Tuskegee Study (1932 to 1972)
African American men living in rural Alabama diagnosed with syphilis - Researchers never informed the men they had syphilis or that effective antibiotics were available
argument from illusion
Against direct realism: illusions can be 'subjectively indistinguishable' from veridical perception, so we see sense-data, and not physical objects, immediately
Hume's copy principle
All simple ideas are copies of impressions
coding frame
An exhaustive list of all possible values that codes may take in content analysis. A list of the codes in use in a qualitative data analysis project usually containing their definitions and a set of rules or guidelines for coding. Also called a code book.
complex idea
An idea that is derived from two or more simple ideas
idea
An object of perception, thought or understanding. Locke uses the term to refer to a complete thought, taking the form of a proposition, e.g. 'Bananas are yellow'; a sensation or sensory experience, e.g. a visual sensation of yellow; or a concept, e.g. 'yellow'
What is a controlled observation?
An observation that takes place anywhere (either lab, or in natural conditions) but the situation that takes place is a artificial one.
What is a naturalistic observation?
An observation that takes place in a situation that naturally occurs.
Deduction or deductive reasoning
Arguing from general principles to specific instances. The conclusion is logically necessary because it is implicit in the premises - and if the premises are wrong... Example: All philosophy is exciting. This is a philosophy class. Therefore this class is exciting. (See induction.)
Induction or inductive reasoning
Arguing from specific occurrences to a general principle. The conclusion is only probable from the premises. Example: Every philosophy discussion I've heard has been boring, therefore all philosophy is boring.
Attribution Error
Attributing meaning to an observation without verifying it (by testing). For example, you think someone is angry based on the way they act but you can't know this for sure simply based on observation (dispositional vs. circumstantial).
Considerations before, during and after observation
BEFORE: Find out the problem to be investigated. Set up a plan for observation. Decide whether to conduct a participant/non participant observation. Become familiar with the setting and the people to be observed. Decide what kind of notes to take. Be aware of researcher's possible influence. Be aware of ethical rules of conduct. Consider observer triangulation. DURING: Meet with the participants and establish a rapport. AFTER: Conduct post-observational interviews. Debrief the participants. Carry out data analysis, using grounded theory based on analysis.
Primae Facie Certainty
Based on the first impression; accepted as correct until proved otherwise.
Inductive
Based on the study of particular cases rather than just derived from a theory.
P-value interpretation rules
Baseline p-values: -Should be GREATER THAN alpha cut-off -Shows that groups were equal at baseline Results p-values: -Can conclude statistically significant differences or relationships if p-value is LESS THAN alpha cut-off -P-values can't show precision Need confidence intervals
Empiricism (Hume)
Belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. Bottom-up theorizing
Rationalism (Descartes)
Belief that at least some knowledge can be known independent of the senses; e.g., by thinking, deducing, or inferring. Top-down theorizing.
Informed consent
Between researcher and participant. Do not exploit people to further own cause; sharing results; quitting study at any time.
Qualitative Methods
Case history Narrative approach Phenomenological method Discourse analysis Naturalistic observation Survey, interview, & focus group methods
_ attempt to generalize and abstract by generating concepts and even theories from the raw data.
Categorizing Strategies
Open coding
Categorizing data so that it makes sense
4. Gettier problem:
Challenge to tripartite definition of knowledge
Purposive sampling
Common across qualitative methods; researcher seeks & invites qualified participants
Advantages to mixed ethod research
Complementarity—words and numbers,Quicker feedback loops,strengthens ability to make inferences
Qualitative Research: Literature Review
Completed (and sometimes not started) after the data have been collected and analyzed Rationale: To avoid leading the participants in the direction of what has already been discovered Purpose of literature review: = To show how current findings fit into what is already known
Qualitative Research: Data Analysis: Process of fitting data together:
Comprehending- understanding what has been said Synthesizing- organizing and summarizing information Theorizing- placing information within context of a theoretical framework (grounded theory) Re-contextualizing- interpreting information within context of environment where event or phenomenon occurred
CAQDAS
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software.
Code creation
Concept investigation may be inferred a priori - series is typically built inductively through analysis.
Coding Units
Concepts are coded as units of analysis
Adjacency pairs
Consecutive actions which are grouped in pairs and constrain what the next speaker may do (e.g. questions and answers).
Operationalization
Content Analysis allows for revisions
When a study tool, such as a survey, actually measure the concepts the researcher is interested in, we say the tool has a high degree of?
Content validity
Types of validity 3
Content, criterior-related, construct
_ attempt to treat the data as a coherent whole and retain as much of the raw data as possible in order to capture the whole context.
Contextualizing Strategies
General rules for these data
Continuous: - Average scores between two or more groups can be subtracted - Therefore you may see results with 'minus' signs Discrete (Categorical): - Data can be calculated in frequencies (or proportions) - Data from 2 groups can be divided (to get 'Ratios') - You will never see 'minus signs' if the data are presented as ratios
Assumptions of conversation analysis
Conversation is socially structured; Conversation must be understood contextually; Seeks understanding of the structure and meaning of conversation
Confidence marker 3
Corpus construction - maximising sampling variety
Open Coding
Creating many codes during initial look at data
Grounded Theory
Data collection and analysis are conducted together. Discovery of theory from the data. Theoretical sampling to exhaust categories.
GROUNDED THEORY Data Analysis
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. Researchers serve as instruments for data interpretation. Emerging patterns identified from transcripts and fieldnotes. Codes of themes. Nvivo™ computer software one example of a program used to manage data. These themes/patterns further explored in interviews. Themes also used as a form of data reduction. Initial analysis called open coding. Then data are compared with other data continuously as collected by process known as constant comparative method. Propositions made about the relationships among and between categories/themes/codes.
Quasi-experimental - Examines why certain effects occur
Data collection method - questionnaire, scales, or biophysi
representation
Denzing and Lincoln (2006) questions whose reality is really represented - member checks
Qualitative Research: Data collection: Direct Observation
Direct observation is where the researcher observes the actual behaviors of the subjects, instead of relying on what the subjects say about themselves or others say about themselves. Example: Observe behaviors of nurses and physicians regarding "speaking up"
Informed Consent
Disclosure Understanding Voluntariness Competence Consent Consent/REB approval should be described in research article
Data reduction
Distill down you themes, reducing data to the basic common underlying theme
Concern for Welfare: How to apply: - What may seem a trivial matter to a researcher may be of greater significance to participants in different circumstances or different cultures. - Unintended consequences of research participation can be anticipated by paying attention to participants' characteristics and circumstances: - Consider potential impacts on participants' physical and mental health, on their social or economic circumstances, and on their privacy - Consult any groups that may be affected by the research to assess the risk of negative impacts such as stigmatization and discrimination - Eliminate and/or minimize risks - Maximize benefits - Provide accurate and accessible information
Ensure that participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks. Aspects of welfare include: - physical, mental and spiritual health - physical, economic and social circumstances - privacy and the control of personal information - the treatment of human biological materials according to the consent of the donor - the possible effect of the research on the welfare of participants' friends, family, or other groups
A priori coding
Establishes the categories before the data are collected, based on some theoretical or conceptual rationale
Qualitative Research Studies
Explore reported findings including perceptions, feelings, preferences, trends, and other phenomena that cannot be adequately measured by NUMBERS Provide data to research questions that cannot possibly be measured by RCTs. This includes identifying themes, unexpected impacts, patient satisfaction, improvement in staff morale, etc. Has been (Somewhat!) negatively viewed for many years as "non-valid research" but is rapidly evolving to be its own science with credibility and significant value for decision-making Critical appraisal processes apply here as well.
Grounded Theory
Explores social or psychological processes Based on symbolic interactionist approach (people behave based on ways they interpret symbols and experiences) Builds a theory about a process Uses inductive and deductive approaches Constant comparative analysis Theoretical sampling
Variables
Factors which are isolated from one another in order to measure their relationship; usually described in quantitative research.
T/F the process of data collection can be carefully developed and planned before implementaiton?
False
T/F the complete list of the population should be ordered by any riteria such as educational preparation?
False, should not
T/F: Drawing conclusions occurs after the process of data collection and analysis
False. Can occur in part during the process.
Elemental Memo
Final coding scheme is dependent upon the compilation of these memos - contain detailed accounts of relatively specific points of interest to researcher
Define data triangulation.
Finding different data to gain a sort of "average". This can be done by collecting data from different schools, or at different times, etc.
Writing up qualitative research Preparing to write It is at this point that some preparation is needed in terms of both mental and physical organisation.
First, it is highly likely that the researcher will be emerging from a deep involvement in analysis and ideas, hypotheses and features of the research story will be furiously buzzing away. It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.
What computer program uses power analysis?
G*Power3
semi=structured interview
Galletta, 2013
Guidelines Generated by:
Generated by: - Professional Groups e.g. CMA, AHA, American Cancer Society Methods vary, may be based on consensus (can be problematic) May have incentives such as protection of providers not patient safety as incentive - Agencies - Typically more rigorous - Health Canada - links to guidelines -CMA -BC CDC
Saturation Point
Getting enough subjects to reach a data ?
Interval
Give values meaning with equal intervals
Ratio
Give values meaning with equal intervals, absolute zero point plotted.
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
Goal is insight into an individual's unique perception of an experience. Based on grounded theory.
Husserl
Grandfather of phenomenology. Interested in 'the cleavage between' the subjective and objective.
Focus groups
Group discussions usually based upon stimuli (topics, visual aids) provided by the researcher.
Systematic errors are errors that?
Happen repeatedly throughout the study for specific reasons
Snowball sampling
Have participant help RECRUIT OTHERS
Quantitative research typically has _______ reliability.
High (easy to repeat)
Qualitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.
High (very real life)
Qualitative research typically is _______.
High reflexivity
Effect size
How large of a difference between the control group and the intervention group is needed?
Main data source of phenomelogical
IN DEPTH CONVERSATIONS with a small number of participants who have experienced the phenomenon, not opinions, but accurate descriptions of experiences
Interpretive Phenomenology
INTERPRET AND UNDERSTAND HUMAN EXPERIENCE Heidegger influenced
Non-propositional knowledge
INformal, implicit and derived primarily through practice
A priori
In epistemology, knowledge argument not derived from (a / without) sense experience (e.g. mathematics).
A posteriori
In epistemology, knowledge derived from (post / after) sense experience (e.g. experimental science).
Control Variable/Group
In experimental studies, this term refers to a group or element separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results; this isolates the independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate explanations of the experimental results.
What is the difference between a participant and non-participant observation?
In participant observations, the researcher pretends to be "one of" the participants. In the non-participant observation, they do not.
Necessary First Principle
In philosophy, a first principle is a basic, foundational proposition, so it follows this is the needed principle on which to base conclusion. In philosophy, a basic, foundational proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption
Deviant case analysis
In qualitative research, involves testing provisional hypotheses by 'negative' or discrepant' cases until all the data can be incorporated in your explanation.
Gatekeepers
Individuals who are formally in charge of giving access to a particular social setting.
What is qualitative methodology?
Inductive, draws big conclusions from small ideas. Answers in words, tries to depict how certain individuals view the world. Looks for subjectivity.
Ethnography Sampling
Informal conversations with MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS with SMALL # GROUPS of key informants
Emic Perspective
Informants perspective
IPA
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
_ codes: require field researchers to use understanding of the social context in order to categorize a section of field notes.
Interpretive
GROUNDED THEORY: Data Gathering (natural setting)
Interviews (recorded, transcribed) Skilled observations of individuals in setting/situation (recorded as field notes) Open-ended questions used to identify concepts for further focus. Semi-structured questions with probes. Example: Have you ever been tested for HIV? (closed-ended question) Example: Why did you decide to not/get tested? (open/probing) Probe: Was this a difficult decision for you? Could you tell me about how the things you considered when making this decision.
Content analysis
Involves establishing categories and systematic linkages between them, and then counting the number of instances when those categories are used in a particular item of text.
Analysis of data obtained in observational research
Involves taking an inductive approach by creating a picture as they collect the data and examine it. The analysis is often based on researcher's field notes but are often compared to data from other sources (e.g. interview transcripts, pictures, narratives), as it is common in participant observation to use a variety of sources.
Respondent validation
Involves taking one's findings back to the subjects being studied. Where these people verify one's findings, it is argued, one can be more confident of their validity.
Contextual sensitivity
Involves the recognition that apparently uniform social institutions (e.g. 'tribes', 'families', 'crime') take on different meanings in different contexts.
True Knowledge
Justified True Belief
Knowledge:
Justified True Beliefs
tripartite theory of knowledge
Justified true belief is necessary and sufficient for propositional knowledge
Axial Coding
Key codes and concepts of interest are identified and regrouped of data into main coding scheme
Being
Key dimension of Being is time or temporality of the individual entity
Constant Comparative Method
Key feature of GTM; 1- Comparing incidents across cases, 2- Developing/Adopting concepts, 3- Comparing concepts across cases, 4- Integrating concepts from different avenues of inductive inquiry, 5- Delimiting the theory (creating/adopting theoretical approach and ruling out less important concepts), 6- Writing theory - explaining approach to others
ability knowledge
Knowing 'how' to do something, e.g. 'I know how to ride a bike'
Historical Research
Learning from the past; research
Qualitative research typically has _______ reliability.
Low (hard to repeat)
Quantitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.
Low (not very real life)
Cluster sampling
Making divisions within groups. How do I want to narrow this down? From where, what?
Signs
Material artifacts or nonmaterial instances (body language, gestures, word usage)
physical object
Material objects, including things like tables, books, our bodies, plants, mountains
Think-aloud method
Means of COLLECTING DATA BOUT COGNITIVE about cognitive processes as they unfold (e.g., clinical decision-making)
sense-data
Mental images or representations of what is perceived, the 'content' of perceptual experience. If sense-data exist, they are the immediate objects of perception and are 'private', mind-dependent mental things
Writing up qualitative research findings Preparing to write
Metal: take the time to think of ideas or half-formulate thoughts. It might even involve taking a few days of before starting to write. Take the time to write a couple of ours at the time not all snatches hours here and there.
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Method of idographic qualitative research that attempts to understand how a given person understands a particular phenomenon in a given context. It is an inductive approach because the theory emerges from the data.
Purposive sampling
Minimal bias sample; but can not generalize to the larger population because the researcher has selected - focus is more on the phenomenon itself.
Leave an Audit Trail
Minimize researcher bias by allowing another to retrace analytic steps.
Generalizability
Minimize researcher bias by considering sufficient study background data to infer about generalizability.
Trustworthiness (Minimizing Researcher Bias)
Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.
Presence to Hand
More abstract stance to things, when we step back and look at them in a more detached way and conceptualize them as existing independently of us
Tripartite Definition of Knowledge: for a proposition to be knowledge
Must believe something to be true Must be true Must have good reason for believing it to be true
A Data Display may include _.
Narrative text, Visual displays
Weakness:
No logical connection between what works and what is true (slavery) No criteria to determine success Makes truth changeable What was true yesterday is not true today
Participant Anonymity
No one outside the research team should know the identity of the participant/s.
Incorrigible
Not able to be corrected, improved, or reformed. A belief that you can not be persuaded to disbelieve
mind-independent
Not depending on the mind for existence of definition. According to realism, physical objects are mind-independent
Worthiness of the project
Not wasting time, money, resources
Sorting Memos
Notes regarding organization and compilation of elemental memos
Qualitative studies
Often are very small; n=6 to 10 subjects - data is collected until saturation
Debriefing
Often in psychological research, this refers to a short semi-structured interview/conversation that takes place between researchers and research participants immediately following their participation in a psychology experiment.
Axial coding
Once done with open coding, narrowing the data more
necessary condition
One proposition is a necessary condition of another when the second cannot be true while the first is false, e.g. being a man is a necessary condition of being a brother, because if you are not a man you cannot be a brother
_: The initial coding of field notes, interviews, or other documents
Open coding
CAQDAS
Otherwise known as Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Systems.
sensation
Our experience of objects outside the mind, perceived through the senses
What is the difference between covert and overt observations?
Overt observations, participants are aware that they are being observed. Covert observations are undercover.
Theoretical sampling
PILOT study sample, a starting point for a larger study that may be coming; or expensive, or time sensitive
Quantitative v Qualitative
Per Krieken et al 2006 - qualitative data is richer, has greater depth and is more likely to present a true picture of experiences, attitudes and beliefs
Data collection; the start
Planning and pioting; ID unexpect issues, confirm study feasibility, allow for revisions, determine and address all key study elements, and the type of data needed.
Cave, Allegory of
Plato's allegory wherein people think shadows on the wall are reality until the are released to see the sun and themselves.
PICOT
Population, intervention, control, outcome, time
positive coherence theory
Positive coherence theories, on the other hand, demand positive support for all beliefs. Positive coherence theories require the believer to actually have reasons for holding each of his beliefs. Different positive coherence theories are generated by giving different accounts of reasons.
What is the capacity to reject the null hypothesis?
Power
Peer Review
Process to help identify and correct flaws in research and it's conclusions
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 5
Producing hypothesis prior to research means that you cannot generate new ideas from the data
Systematic random sampling
Progression of random sampling - such as picking every 4th person; getting samples by intervals that were set up
What is the main function of the Institutional Review Board?
Protection of human subjects
Coding
Putting data into theoretically defined categories in order to analyse them.
Data saturation
Qualitative researchers analyse the data until they reach a point where they can find no new information.
Research articles; need 3 things
Quality - is it valid and reliable? Quantity - 3 articles or 30 articles? Are they all stating the same thing? Consistency - in similar circumstances, do different researchers find the same outcomes? Need all 3 in order to act with confidence.
Silverman Criticisms of Quantitative 1
Quantitative research can amount to a quick fix
Experimental / Clinical trial - examines causes of certain effects
Questinnaire / Scales / Biophysiological
Grounded theory methods
Question What are the social problems and processes associated with...........? - Data Collection method Interviews - Data Analysis method Coding, matrices, central category Format for presenting results Theory or theoretical/conceptual model
Phenomenology Data collection and analysis
Question What is the lived experience of......? - Data Collection method Long, multiple interviews - Data Analysis method Hermeneutic analysis (interpretation of human meaning and experience) Statements, meaning themes Format for presenting results Description of "essence" of experience
Ethnography Data collection and analysis
Question: What are the cultural practices in group...............? - Data Collection method Participant observation, interviews, artifacts Prolonged engagement in field Focus groups - Data Analysis method Describe practices, interpret meaning of practices Format for presenting results Description of cultural behavior of group/individual
Exploratory descriptive - answers what questions describes frequency of occurance
Questionnaire and scales - data collection method
David Hume:
Radical empiricist, takes it to extreme a. Sense knowledge and only sense knowledge exist b. Rejects all metaphysical claims not gained solely on senses i. Causality ii. Mind iii. Time/space
In a study using grounded theory methodology, the sample size must be big enough to?
Reach data saturation
Reports; realist tales
Real life accounts, 3rd person voice
Post-postivsim
Reality exists but we will never fully understand it; grounded theory
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning that definitively proves an Argument to be true; it provides both Necessary and Sufficient Conditions to the Argument. An Argument utilizing Deductive Reasoning is a Sound Argument.
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning that does not definitively prove an Argument to be true, but provides Sufficient Conditions to the Argument. An Argument utilizing Inductive Reasoning is a Valid Argument.
Low-inference descriptors
Recording observations 'in terms that are as concrete as possible, including verbatim accounts of what people say, for example, rather than researchers' reconstructions of the general sense of what a person said, which would allow researchers' personal perspectives to influence the reporting' (Seale, 1999: 148) (see reliability).
What do we mean by the term MEMOING?
Recording of the data, getting ideas when reading the info, and making notes - why did I think that? Does the study still represent the hypothesis?
Fieldnotes
Records of observations and speech fragments arising from the field.
Data Saturation
Recurrent themes / repeated data
Dependability (reliability)
Refers to stability of data overtime and over conditions Researcher has documented all phases of the research process Leads reader through the: steps of designing the research question, collection of data, analysis, and interpretation stages This is determined by an audit trail Involves auditing research process, documenting all the raw data generated, and assessing method of data analysis Would findings of an inquiry be similar if it were replicated with the same/similar participants and context?
Methodology
Refers to the choices we make about appropriate models, cases to study, methods of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc., in planning and executing a research study.
Cartesian circle
Refers to the circular reasoning Descartes seems to employ regarding clear and distinct ideas and God: Descartes cannot rely on clear and distinct ideas before proving that God exists, but he cannot prove that God exists without relying on clear and distinct ideas
Confirmability (objectivity)
Refers to the objectivity of the data- the potential for congruence between two or more researchers about data accuracy, relevance, or meaning Findings must reflect views of informants and conditions of inquiry Audit trail-recording of activities that another individual can follow (e.g. systematic collection of documents-data, coding, etc)
Personal reflexivity
Reflecting on the ways in which factors such as the researcher's values, beliefs, experiences, interests, and political commitment have influenced the research.
Ready to Hand
Relate to the hammer as that tool which enables us to construct something, it is not a meaning that we add to the situation, rather it is the meaning that is already there.
empirical
Relating to or deriving from experience, especially sense experience, but also including experimental scientific investigation
reliabilism
Reliablism claims that you know that p if p is true, you believe that p, and you belief is caused by a reliable cognitive process. (More sophisticated versions also claims that for something to count as knowledge you must also be able to discriminate between 'relevant possibilities' in the actual situation
Phenomenology Sampling
Relies on VERY SMALL SAMPLES (often 10 or fewer) experienced phenomenon of interest & be able to articulate their experience
Theoretical Notes
Remind researcher of ideas for concept and theory development
Case study
Research based on the study of a limited number of naturally occurring settings.
Qualitative Research: Ethical Issues in the Field
Research goals never override the rights, health, or well-being and care of informants Protecting the anonymity of the informants (how done?) Disclosing (or not) the purpose of the research Researcher as instrument - "reflexivity" is the researcher's consciousness of biases, values, and experiences he/she brings to a study
Mixed Method Research
Research that integrates qualitative and quantitative data and strategies ( Instrument development, Hypothesis generation and testing,Intervention development)
Grounded Theory: Research Protocol
Researcher brings some knowledge of literature to study. Researcher must not express his/her opinions or values to the informant. Exhaustive literature search is purposefully not done in advance of the study starting. Why??? Theories are expected to emerge directly from current research data and not from previous research and are therefore grounded in the data.
Qualitative Research: Data Analysis
Researcher immerses self in data to bring order and meaning to vast narrative Come to truly understand what the data are saying, similar data is clustered together Cyclical process - data collection occurs simultaneously with data analysis Analysis begins when data collection begins Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing, and reporting on data Requires extensive amount of time
Qualitative Research: Researcher Role: Explicating Researcher's Beliefs
Researcher is immersed in the field of study so must acknowledge biases Bracketing - setting aside one's biases and personal views on a topic =Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and feelings about the topic Purpose: the researcher is made aware when interpretations of the data reflect personal beliefs rather than those of the participants
Quantitative research is deductive
Researcher narrows hypothesis to finite set of variables, which is answered through research driven experimental study
Qualitative Research: Data collection: Interviews
Researcher questions a subject verbally: face-to-face, telephone, using open- or close-ended questions. Content of an interview is based on the: literature review, research question, previous experience Interviews are preferably pilot tested before doing the study to test reliability, validity and clarity of items (reword some items)
Etic Perspective
Researcher's perspective
Risks/Benefits
Researchers often administer a consent form to alert the participant of these possible experiences.
Reports; confessionist tales
Researchers personal accounts that provide insight into the study
Clinical Significance/Relevance vs. Statistical Significance
Results from research studies might be clinically significant/relevant, but not statistically significant And results might be statistically significant, but not clinically significant/relevant - If statistically significant, results might not be practical e.g., Treatment could be effective, but might involve costly or inaccessible procedure Even if not statistically significant, results might be very important e.g., if sample size were increased, might see statistical significance
Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness of Data
Sample (size, setting, recruitment strategy and informed consent obtained). General numbers (may be more or less in each) 1. Grounded (20-30 subjects) 2. Ethnography (up to 50 subjects) 3. Phenomenological (10 or fewer subjects) Data collection: interviews, participant observation, length of interviews. Data analysis: how analysed? Coding procedure, categories and themes clearly described.
Sample size
Sample size guided by data saturation Must have enough data to illuminate patterns, categories & dimensions of phenomena Depends on scope of project & type of research. At least the following amounts: Ethnography: N=50 Phenomenology: N=10 Grounded theory: N=30
Theoretical sampling
Sampling method recommended for field researchers by Glaser and Strauss. Sample is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.
Extensive analysis
Searching through your whole dataset to test hypotheses generated by analysis of one or two cases.
Realist view (Popper)
Sees theories as soft mental images involving values and beliefs while facts are hard, settled and observable. (Failing to confirm the null hypothesis = probable truth)
Focuses on the core concepts that emerged during focused coding.
Selective Coding
Bracketing
Setting aside your own interpretations to decrease or remove bias
Explain "transferability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to external validity. Can the conclusions found here be transferred to describe similar situations?
Close-Ended Questions
Similar to fixed-response questions, this refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are often pre-set by the researcher.
Explain "confirmability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to objectivity. Just, in qualitative it is believed that subjectivity is important and instead it is valued that the research is described detailed enough that it can be repeated.
Explain "dependability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to reliability. Dependability relies on the researcher having described all of the factors in the research that might have influenced the data.
Which sampling techniques are used in interviews and why?
Snowballing: Chosen participants are told to invite people they know. Good for qualitative because if you choose one person relevant to the study, the people in their social circles will most likely share these traits. Purposive sampling: Specific people are chosen because they know a lot about the subject and can offer information. These are used because interviews require rich data, data that can only be obtained if the interviewee has a lot to say on the subject. Also, the interviews use specialist topics, which require a "relevant" person.
It is useful to reflect on whether they will contribute to the text rather than simply repeating commentary that has already been made. Can you edit a quotation?
Some believe that quotations should be reported exactly as they occurred. Others believe that some editing is desirable to provide a more fluent account for the reader and/or because some readers may give less weight to more hesitant accounts.
Gatekeeper
Someone that you may have to go thru in order to gain access to a culture that you want to study; based in trust.
Gatekeeper
Someone who is able to grant or refuse access to the field.
Methods
Specific research techniques. These include quantitative techniques, like statistical correlations, as well as techniques like observation, interviewing and audio-recording.
3 attributes in the reliability method
Stability, equivalence, internal consistency
matters of fact
States of affairs, how the world is. According to Hume, they are known through experience and induction, especially causal inference
What is statistical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?
Statistical generalizations is when the research is just used to expand on other similar cases. Data gathered from a case study may be used to help analyze other similar cases.
Aggregate Data
Statistics which relate to broad classes, groups, or categories, so that it is not possible to distinguish the properties of individuals within those classes, groups, or categories. Aggregation can be by socioeconomic grouping, for example, the size of the economically active population, or by time interval, for example, the percentage of single mothers by education in a year (see McLanahan)
Explain the four different structures of an interview.
Structured: There are specific questions which will find and answer and nothing else. Semi-Structured: The interviewer had a decided a structure but allows the discussion to deviate a little, on the focused topic. Unstructured: There is no structure, the interviews are like conversations, the interviewer as a specific goal, but reaching it is unimportant. Narrative: Asked "Tell me about your childhood" and the interviewee tells the story without interruption.
Willig (2001)
Suggested there were two types of reflexivity: 1: Personal reflexivity 2. Epistemological reflexivity.
Relevance marker 3
Surprise value - reader must be interested in where the results surprise the expectation s of the researcher and predict previous findings
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances.
Quantitative
THEORY GOING INTO STUDY already and aim is to find EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT theory Respondent,Concepts, Variables, Data (numeric values),Relationships
Technephronesis
Techne, producing outcomes by mastering the means of production. Phronesis - good judgement applied to human conduct - reasoning across time.
common sense
The basic perceptions or understandings that are shared by many (most) people
Rationalism.
The belief that at least some ideas are achieved through reason alone without the senses, intuition, etc.
Foundationalism
The belief that knowledge is based on first principles. Truth is demonstrated by a chain of logic reaching back to basic ideas.
Intuitionism
The belief that least some truth is realized directly, not through the senses.
Fideism
The belief that rationality cannot prove the transcendent, only faith can accept it.
Syncretism
The combining of otherwise different or contradictory beliefs, often accomplished by modifying beliefs.
Method triangulation
The comparison of data which comes from different methods (e.g. both qualitative and quantitative methods).
Triangulation
The comparison of different kinds of data (e.g. quantitative and qualitative) and different methods (e.g. observation and interviews) to see whether they corroborate one another.
Phenomenal fallacy
The confusing of sensory data with the experience of that data.
Interviewer effects
The effects that the presence of a particular interviewer may have on the interview.
Analytic induction
The equivalent to the statistical testing of quantitative associations to see if they are greater than might be expected at random (random error). Using AI, the researcher examines a case, and, where appropriate, redefines the phenomenon and reformulates a hypothesis until a universal relationship is shown (Fielding, 1988: 7-8).
Generalizability
The extent to which a finding in one setting can be applied more generally.
Credibility
The extent to which any research claim has been shown to be based on evidence.
Reflexivity
The fact that a researcher reflects upon his/her own involvement in the research process.
Logic
The formulation and study of principles for correct reasoning.
Relativist view (Foucault)
The idea that the powerful influence of our thoughts often dictates what we observe as facts. We only know the world through our consciousness, and it is coloured by our language and subcultures.
Coherence theory of truth
The idea that truth is not absolute, but consensual.
Non-contradiction, law of
The law of logic that states that a thing cannot be itself and not itself or a proposition cannot be true and not true at the same time.
Foundational Differences between quantitative and qualitative research
The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research stems from the researcher's underlying strategies and engagement. Quantitative research is viewed as confirmatory and deductive in nature (confirming a theory or hypothesis with the data i.e. general to specific) Qualitative research is considered to be exploratory and inductive- ( generalize, conceptual framework theory- from specific data)
Ockham's razor or the principle of parsimony
The philosophical principle that the best argument is the one with the fewest parts.
Secondary Analysis
The practice of analyzing data that have already been gathered by someone else, often for a distinctly different purpose. As a research method, it saves both time and money and avoids unnecessary duplication of research effort.
Selective Coding
The process of identifying the central code in data
What is inductive content analysis? (thematic content analysis)
The process of identifying themes form the qualitative data of an interview. The data will be categorized into subordinate and superordinate (over-arching) themes so that researchers can reach conclusions about their data.
Memoing
The process of writing memos to yourself as you develop the coding scheme to keep track of ideas for coding and concept creation as data analysis progresses
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 4
The pursuit of 'measurable' phenomena mean that unperceived values and subjectivity creeps into research - cannot enumerate discrimination
What is member-checking?
The researcher goes through the final data with the participant to see if the participant agrees that it is a realistic representation of their own reality.
Inferential generalization
The results of the study can be applied to situations outside of the study. Also called transferability or external validity.
Turn-taking
The sequential organization of speech acts (see conversation analysis). Validity: 'The extent to which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers' (Hammersley, 1990: 57). Researchers respond to validity concerns by describing 'the warrant for their inferences' (Fielding and Fielding, 1986: 12) (see reliability).
Field
The setting or place where ethnographic research takes place.
Discourse analysis
The study of 'the way versions of the world, of society, events, and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse' (Potter, 2004: 202).
What is a case-study?
The study of a specific incident that is studied because it is rare or simply because it is relevant for a certain situation.
Epistemology
The study of origin, nature, and validity of knowledge and belief.
empiricism (knowledge empiricism)
The theory that there can be no a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world (outside my mind), i.e. all a priori knowledge is of analytic propositions, while all knowledge of synthetic propositions must be checked against against experience
scepticism
The view that our usual justifications for claiming our belief's amount to knowledge are inadequate, so we in fact don't have knowledge
Confidence marker 4
Thick description - using quotes from participants to give deep sense of contribution
Transferability examples;
Thick description, checking for representativeness of the data, clear explanation of the boundaries and limitations of the study.
Epistemological reflexivity
Thinking about the ways knowledge has been generated in the study. Could there be a different methodology employed, different research question?
Slots
This describes when an interviewer gives the interviewee a chance to say something they might've forgotten, didn't know to mention, and/or time to discuss whatever they may not have shared throughout the interview.
Qualitative Data
This form of data consists of text - for example gathered from interviews with or observations of participants. Textual data is open-ended and flexible and is considered "rich" but also subjective as it is open to interpretation.
Quantitative Data
This form of data is in the form of numbers that is easy to summarize and to statistically analyze. This form is often collected in order to generalize beyond the subject sample when creating nomothetic laws.
Deception-Based Research
This is also sometimes referred to as incomplete disclosure in research, and occurs when participants are deliberately given false information about some aspect of the research; incomplete disclosure occurs when participants are not given information about the real purpose or the nature of the research.
Confirmability
This is where field notes are important to determine if the study is ?
Method of Difference
This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have each circumstance except one in common, that one occurring only in the former, the circumstance in which the two instances differ is the effect or cause or necessary part of the cause of the phenomenon; the only thing that is different is the cause.
Method of Agreement
This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if two or more instances of a phenomenon under investigation have only a single circumstance in common the circumstance in which all the instances agree is the cause or effect of the phenomenon; everything that is the same is the cause.
Experimental Design
This refers to a method used to test a specific hypothesis about a cause and effect relationship. Three steps are commonly taken: (1) measuring the effect variable; (2) exposing the effect variable to the cause variable; and (3) measuring the effect variable again to see if a change has occurred. Any factors that might affect the two variables being measured and that are not part of the causal relationship being tested must be controlled.
Correlation
This refers to a mutual relationship, connection, or association between two or more things.
Scientific Method
This refers to a particular method that includes observing, asking questions, developing a hypothesis, making predictions, conducting experiments or testing, recording and analyzing data, revising theory, and observing again (theory testing model).
Anonymity
This refers to a person or research participant who is not identified by name or other identifiable information.
Sample
This refers to a portion drawn from a population, the study of which may lead to statistical estimates of the attributes of the whole population.
Bias
This refers to a prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair, and sometimes unconscious; a partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation.
Informed Consent
This refers to a process of (1) disclosing to potential research subjects information needed to make an informed decision; (2) facilitating the understanding of what has been disclosed; and (3) promoting the voluntariness of the decision about whether or not to participate in the research.
Intervening Relationship
This refers to a relationship between two variables (A, B) that is dependent on the actions of a third variable (C). For example, working-class student (A) performs poorly on SATs (B). What might the explanation be? Working-class students go to low-quality schools (C). Here, a school-quality variable intervenes in the relationship between student social class and SAT score.
Rapport
This refers to a relationship of mutual understanding or trust and agreement between people; often this takes time to establish between a researcher and participant.
Historical Comparative
This refers to a research method in which historical accounts are observed and weighed in relation to each other.
Surveys
This refers to a research method that is often theory testing and draws on a large sample size (Big N).
Positivist Science
This refers to a scientific approach that emphasizes observable facts or perceptual experience and excludes metaphysical speculation about origins or ultimate causes; rooted in empiricism.
Likert Scale
This refers to a self-anchoring scale which presumes that you anchor yourself in an order. It is ordinal, but can sometimes be interval.
Standardized Questionnaire
This refers to a survey approach in which everyone gets the exact same questionnaire. Q: What is the problem with the standardized questionnaire? Close-ended, fixed responses, etc.
Fixed Response
This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are pre-set by the researcher. For example, "How likely are you to visit a health care provider?" Likely, somewhat likely, unlikely, etc.
Matrix Questions
This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which there are a number of options listed to the side of the question for respondents to choose from. For example, "Your current GSI is supportive of your learning." 1 = of course, 2 = absolutely, 3 = without a doubt, 4 = you betcha, 5 = like no other, etc.
Dependent Variable
This refers to a variable that is "responds" to the independent variable; the presumed effect.
Entrée
This term describes a process of winning trust and getting official permission to gather data from a particular social setting.
Front/Back Stage
This term describes what individuals do when they think others are or are not watching.
Variables
This term refers to a concept(s) that can take on more than one value. For example, the variable ethnicity may take on the values of African-American, Latino, etc.
Qualitative Data Analysis- main steps
Transcribe audio-recordings And/or write a narrative about video recordings Read transcriptions to identify: What is this? What is going on? What does it stand for? What else is like this? What is this distinct from? Develop a general coding scheme Based on reading the transcripts
Transferability
Transferability refers to the generalizability of the study findings to other settings, populations, and contexts Report must provide sufficient detail so that readers can assess this Lack of transferability is viewed as a weakness of qualitative methods Ask- Are the findings only applicable to individuals who are similar to those in study? Do your experiences resonate what the findings are telling you? Can lead to instrument development. Do the results add to body of nursing knowledge?
What is triangulation?
Triangulation is the process in which you try to boost the trustworthiness of data conclusions. This may be done by "cross-checking" in a variety of different ways.
T/F in probability sampling each person has a probability of being chosen as a potential subject?
True
T/F the significance of the research should be identified.
True
T/F: Conclusions are more "grounded" in the data
True
Type 1 Error: The likelihood of concluding there is a relationship or difference between groups when in fact, there is none (the results are really due to chance).
Type 2 error: The likelihood of concluding there is no relationship or difference when, in fact, there is one (failing to find an actual difference).
Ethnographic Research
Understanding culture; rounded and not segmented understanding. Method includes the Gatekeeper, emic perspective, and etic persspective
Grounded Theory Method
Use of cross-case analysis to inductively create/adopt concepts and build theory
Variable-Oriented Analysis
Use of independent variable to predict an outcome of a dependent variable
Method triangulation
Use of multiple methods of data collection to study the same phenomenon.
Member
Used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to participants in society. It is a shorthand term for 'collectivity member' (see ethnomethodology).
Direct observation
Using different interviews; structured and semi-structured interviews - also, video recordings
Define methodological triangulation.
Using different methods to understand a topic. This might include different types of research methods, or using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods.
Define theoretical triangulation.
Using different theoretical approaches to understand a situation. E.g applying evolutionary psych and cognitive psych to one specific situation.
Convenience sampling
Using people around you; like at work for study
Induction
Using quantitative or qualitative data to build theory
High attrition rates in a study represent a concern for the studies?
Validity
Compounding variables
Variables that are not accounted for in a study that confounds the data that is collected - it may or may not have an effect on the study; however, the variable is generally excluded if known.
Transferability, durability, credibility
What are the 3 most importatnt factors to consider when reviewing a quantitative study?
Field Notes
With good ?, and methodology, this increses the validity of the study.
Recipient design
Work that is designed for a particular audience (the term derives from conversation analysis where it is used to describe how all actions are implicitly designed in this way).
Operational definitions
Working definitions which allow the measurement of some variable within quantitative research.
Participatory Action Research
Working with people to improve the present All forms of knowledge are of value and can be applied to practical problems. Researcher identifies areas in which improvements in practice are needed, solutions are identified, actions taken to implement change in partnership with STAKEHOLDERS. "Look, think, act" Evaluation is done to ensure that changes have the desired effect. Application to health and wellness programs, program evaluation community programming. Researcher acts as a consultant, investigators immerse themselves in the field for deep understanding and to build trust and credibility; Sample is diverse perspectives backgrounds experiences. Example in class today from Deb's work
Inductive reasoning
a "bottom-up" type of reasoning that begins with specific observations and particular circumstances and then moves on to broader generalizations and theories.
Deductive reasoning
a "top-down" type of reasoning that begins with broad generalizations and theories and then move to the observation of particular circumstances in order to confirm or falsify the theory.
Verstehen
a German verb (meaning "to understand"), used in English as a noun describing participants' first-person perspective on their personal experience as well as on their society, culture, and history.
Indefeasible
a belief that cannot be proved wrong. A criteria of modest foundationalism that says we are justified to believe in something in the absence of a claim that can defeat our belief
Rationalism:
a belief that knowledge of reality can be acquired through reasoning independent of the senses, but not all knowledge
What is essential with simple random sampling even with the chance for each individual to be selected and placed in the study?
a complete list of the population
Look-glass self
a concept borrowed from symbolic interactionism, which suggests that identity is largely created through the reactions of others. (i.e., we see what others tell us they see).
Thick Description
a concept coined by Clifford Geertz (1973), which captures the fact that researchers immerse themselves in, and report on, particulars before moving toward grander statements and theories.
sensitivity
a condition of knowledge according to which S knows p if, if p were false, then S would not believe p
prima facie justification
a form of justification for a belief according to which it is only possible for S to hold the belief unjustifiedly if he has reason for thinking he should not hold the belief (equivalently, it is necessarily true that if S holds the belief and has no reason for thinking he should not then he is justified in holding the belief)
Participatory Action Research (PAR)
a form of research based upon the notion that researchers should work together with research participants to help them address, understand, or improve local issues or dilemmas.
Site
a geographical or architectural area within a field (e.g., a fraternity house).
mood congruent delusion/hallucination
a hallucination or delusion with content that is mood appropriate
Duality of structure
a key part of structuration theory, this concept refers to the idea that structure is created from the top-down and from the bottom-up; structures are only made "valid" when individuals follow them and make decisions that are based upon them.
in performing a power analysis you also need effect size which is?
a measuer of the strength of the relationship between two variables
ethnography
a methodology that is the study of a culture
auto-ethnography
a methodology that is the study of your personal experience
phenomenology
a methodology that looks at the study of a phenomenon; researcher bias is removed to conduct the study
chorea
a movement disorder characterised by involuntary quick, jerky and purposeless movements
false memory
a person's recollection and belief by the patient of an event that did not actually occur
Etic
a perspective in which behavior is described according to externally derived, non-cultural-specific criteria.
Emic
a perspective in which behavior is described from the actor's point of view and is context-specific.
theory of proper functions
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which a belief is justified in case it is the product of a process that is working according to its proper function in the environment for which it is appropriate; stipulates that the process has to offer its output in accordance with a design plan--neither the reliability of a cognitive process nor whether a cognitive process is functioning properly can be assessed a priori
direct realism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which justification must be partly a function of the perceptual states themselves and not just a function of our beliefs about the perceptual states; internalist, non-doxastic theory
externalism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which more than just the internal states of the believer enter into the justification of beliefs; process and reliabilist externalism
foundationalism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which simple beliefs resulting directly from sense perception form an epistemological foundation and all other beliefs must be justified ultimately by appeal to these epistemologically basic beliefs
cognitive essentialism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which the epistemic correctness of a cognitive process is an essential feature of that process and is not affected by contingent facts such as the reliability of the process in the actual world
process externalism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which the epistemic worth of a belief is determined by the cognitive processes from which it issues; denies cognitive essentialism, and insists instead that the same cognitive process could be correct in some circumstances and incorrect in others
internalism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which the justifiability of a belief is a function of our internal states; states the justifiedness of a belief is determined by whether it was arrived at or is currently sustained by "correct cognitive processes"; for S to be justified in believing that p, the grounds that justify this belief must be contents of S's mind (ontological)/S must base his belief on the grounds that justify it (methodological); all doxastic theories are internalist
coherentism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification according to which the justifiability of a belief is still a function of one's total doxastic state, but all beliefs are on an epistemological par with one another; the justification for a belief, rather, is the way it "coheres" with the rest of one's beliefs
reliabilism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification advancing the position that cognitive processes should be evaluated in terms of their reliability in producing true beliefs; externalist
probabilism
a philosophical account of epistemic justification which assesses beliefs in terms of their probability of being true; externalist
positivism
a philosophical paradigm rooted in the belief that there is a universal reality that humans can know through empirical investigation
post positivism
a philosophical paradigm that accepts the belief that there is a universal reality, but asserts that humans are limited to perceiving that reality through an individual contextual lens. - bracketing monitors subjectivity
Triangulate
a practice in which researchers use multiple types and sources of data, variant methods of collection as well as various theoretical frames and multiple researchers.
triangulation
a procedure used to verify validity of the data by testing one source of data against another (Fetterman, in Creswell, 2012).
audit trail
a systematically maintained documentation system; an organized collection of materials that includes the data generated in a study
Rationalists, Plato: metaphysical belief of 2 world
a. World of being- i. Not physical ii. Composed of perfect forms iii. Intellectually only iv. We all pre-existed here first v. We all had knowledge of all these perfect forms vi. At birth trauma pushes knowledge into our subconscious vii.Learning is recollection of previously known truths
paraphrasia
abnormal speech in which one word is substituted by another
delirium
acute mental disorder, reversible, characterised by confusion and some impairment in consciousness - see notes/DSM
thick descriptions
all the details (of setting, observations, participant responses)
Field
all the types of spaces where one could observe a phenomenon of interest; it consists of many potential sites, settings, and participants.
Audit trail:
allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.
Strong Foundationalism
also called classical foundationalism says that for a belief to be known it must meet 1 of the following criteria
dreamy state
altered state of consciousness likened to a dream situation that develops suddenly and usually lasts a few minutes. common in temporal lobe lesions
Power refers to obtaining what?
an accurate result from the statistical test.
What should be generated from a grounded theory?
an actual substantive theory
15. Self-defeating:
an argument against skepticism in that most of their argument defeat themselves. For example, if no one knows anything then how do you know that something isn't true
dynamic argument
an argument for which all of the premises can be used to reach the conclusion in one's mind at one time; only relevant to justifiability of a belief
What questions should be asked with the findings of qualitative research?
are the researcher's conceptualizations true to data? Are the findings presented within a context?
thematic analysis
as coding and memoing takes place, themes begin to emerge from the data; a transcript of an interview is marked in relation to emerging themes.
When are decisions regarding key informants decided
as study progresses
snowball samples
ask one person, then have them suggest another, repeat step 1
clang association/clanging
association or speech driven by the sound of the word rather than meaning
if probabilty in systematic sampling the first individual is chosen how?
at random from the sampling frame
What must the key informants be when choosing?
authentic
Rationalists, Plato: metaphysical belief
b. World of becoming i. Physical world of our existencemetaphysical belief
Participant Action Research (PAR)
based on a recognition that KNOWLEDGE can be political and used for POWER, work with vulnerable communities (MANIPULATION)
substantiative theory is aka
basic social process
accurate empathy
be able to communicate that they feel empathy for client and must be accurate
reflection
be an emotional mirror ad listen fully and then process and say it back to make sure you got it right
With the greater the number of variables the sample size needs to ......
be increased
preoccupation of thought
centering of thought content on a particular idea, associated with a strong affective tone
cenesthesia
changes in the normal quality of feeling tone in a part of the body
syntactical aphasia
characterised by difficulty in understanding spoken speech, associated with gross disorder of thought and expression
rogers
client centered therapy-person centered approach
What for of sampling takes place in stages?
cluster sampling
Rationalism
comes from the Latin, ratio
incoherence
communication that is disconnected, disorganized or incomprehensible
Relevance marker 4
communication validation - presenting your data back to participants
Subsequent interviews
comparing data set to data set --> comparing data set to theory
dipsomania
compulsion to drink alcoholic beverages
process
congruence and incongruence
perception
conscious awareness of elements in the environment by the mental processing of sensory stimului
Intentionality (Husserl)
conscious is always consciousness of something, whether physical objects or persons or ideas or imagined objects
It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some
consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.
rumination
constant preoccupation with thinking about a single idea or theme
Gettier problem
counterexamples to classical conception of knowledge posed by Edmund Gettier in his 1963 paper ;
pica
craving and eating of non food substances such as paint and clay
occurrent
currently in the working mind or memory
Constant Comparison
data is CONSTANTLY COMPARED with earlier data to find commonalities and variations, used to develop and refine concepts and categories
How does cluster sampling differ from other types of random sampling?
data is collected from clisters instead of individuals
hypoactivity
decreased motor and cognitive activity, as in psychomotor retardation; visible slowing of thought, speech and movements
called tripartite definition of knowledge
definition put forward 2000 years ago now challenged by Gettier called Gettier problem he asks is knowledge only a JTB
nihilism
delusion of the non existence of the self or part of self. a depressive delusion where the world and everything related to it has ceased to exist
somatic delusion
delusion pertaining to one's body functioning
thought withdrawal
delusion that one's thoughts are being removed from one's mind
artifact
document, object or archival data of import to a participant - allows for triangulation
apathy
dulled emotional toned associated with detachment or indifference
The process of simple random sampling ensures what?
each participant has an equal and independent chance of being selected
terminal insomnia
early morning awakening or waking up > 2 hours before planning to
Structure
enduring schools of knowledge, societal norms, and myths that shape and delimit action.
What is the major use of power analysis?
estimating the size of the sample needed to obtain significant results
give examples of strata
ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level
hypochondria
exaggerated concern about health that is based not on real medical pathology but on unrealistic interpretations of physical signs of sensations as abnormal
hypermnesia
exaggerated degree of retention and recall; can be elicited by hypnosis and may be seen in certain prodigies
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
examine proposals in light of ethical guidelines
researchers often need to makea number of criteria that subjects need to be _______
excluded
What is the best way to make your sample as homogenous as possible?
excluding people on certain variables
The final stage of the process is reporting and preventing the findings. The aim is to
explore, unravel and explain the complexity of the findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative. It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.
Chapter 13- writing up qualitative research Final stage of the qualitative research process, reporting and presenting findings. Goal:
explore, unravel and explain the complexity of findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative.
expansive mood
expression of feelings without restraint, frequently with an overestimation of their significant or importance
EThnographic reserach Relies on
extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork
Effect size is the degree to which the null hypothesis is ______
false
T/F qualitative uses numbers and stats
false
delusion of control
false belief that one is being controlled by external forces
delusion of persecution
false belief that one is being harassed or persecuted
delusion of poverty
false belief that one is bereft or will be deprived of all material possessions
delusions of infidelity
false belief that one's lover is unfaithful
dysphoria
feeling of unpleasantness or discomfort; a mood of general dissatisfcation and restlessness.
thought broadcasting
feeling that one's thoughts are being broadcast or projected into environment
malingering
feigning disease to achieve a specific goal
stuttering
frequent repetition or prolongation of a sound or syllable
Dasein (Heidegger)
fundamental to the human condition is our inherent relatedness, and transcendence is intrinsic to existence. Our existence is also moving forward, as we are not static beings.
Immanuel Kant:
g. A posteriori: meaning posterior to, knowledge gained from our senses h. Kant's famous conclusion: causality, time and space are not prosperities of reality but programmed fixes of our mind in understanding the world. Our mind doesn't conform to reality, reality is conformed by our mind in a way we can understand it.
What does nonprobability no allow for?
generalization
peak experiences
glimpse of self actualization
extension
going beyond what the person is saying. seeing and stating patterns.
derailment
gradual or sudden deviation in train of thought without blocking
bruxism
grinding or gnashing of teeth typically occurring at night
hypnagogic hallucination
hallucination experience when one is falling asleep
hypnopompic hallucination
hallucination experience when one is waking up from sleep
olfactory hallucinations
hallucination involving smell
somatic hallucination
hallucination involving the perception of a physical experience within the body
tactile hallucination
hallucination primarily involving touch
The two limitations of qualitative research methods are
hard to replicate, hard to generalize (low population validity)
Nocebo effect
harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm (e.g., voodoo doll phenomenon)
6. Justified:
having a good and valid reason, right, reasonable
9. Common Sense Skepticism:
healthy kind involved in claims out of the ordinary
common sense skepticism:
healthy kind. That arises when we hear claims out of the ordinary
maslow
hierarchy of needs. one top is self actualization
what process requires authenticating resources such as archives, films, letters...
historical
What involves systematic compilation of data describing some past event?
historical research
Descriptive Studies
holistically describe phenomena, researchers analysis of narrative to understand themes and patterns
epistemological reflexivity
honest about own assumptions about subject & adjust for them
Remember superman v bird analogy
iii. Only applies to factual claims, does nothing for opinions put forward as truths iv. Word correspondence is vague, restated propositions are truth bearers, they represent truth in context v. Doesn't deal with paradox 1 Liars paradox: "I lie all the time"
deja vu
illusion of visual recognition in which a new situation is regarded as a previous experience or repetition
deja entendu
illusion that what one was hearing has heard previous - type of paramnesia
dysmetria
impaired ability to gauge distance
dysgeusia
impaired taste
simultanagnosia
impairment in the perception or integration of visual stimuli appearing simultaneously
Alexithymia
inability or difficulty in describing or being aware of one's emotions or moods
apraxia
inability to co-ordinate movements/perform voluntary purposeful movements
receptive aphasia
inability to comprehend what is being said and meaning of words - wernicke's/fluent aphasia
constructional apraxia
inability to copy a drawing such as a cube, clock or petagon
distractability
inability to focus one's attention
anomia
inability to name things
What approach generates theory reather than testing it in qualitative research?
inductive vs. deductive
abduction
inference to the best explanation
Random selection
key to generalizability; ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
a. knowledge of acquaintance
know Bill know where the mall is
knowledge of competency
know French An accomplishment
A posteriori
knowledge based on experience
Post-positivism
like positivism, this paradigm assumes a single true reality, but it suggests that humans' understanding of reality is inherently partial and that it is impossible to fully capture reality.
- The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will
limit the research outputs that are possible.
Qualitative research typically has a __________ structure.
loose
sensory aphasia
loss of ability to comprehend meaning of words, also receptive/fluent/wernicke's aphasia
acalculia
loss of ability to do calculations; not caused by anxiety or learning disorder
nominal aphasia
loss of ability to name objects
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events SUBSEQUENT to the index incident/onset of amnesia
Core Variable
manner in which people RESOLVE MAIN CONCERN
Fill In the Blanks Sampling Theory is a ______ method of ______ _____ for determining the most efficient way of selecting a sample.
mathematical decision making
What is power analysis?
mathmematical way of computing the minimum size of the needed sample.
verbigeration
meaningless and stereotyped repetition or words or phrases
monomania
mental state characterized by preoccupation with one subject
space triangulation involves:
multiple cultures
method triangulation involves:
multiple methods
observer triangulation involves:
multiple observers
What is another anme for snowball sampling?
network sampling
is statistical power used
no
defeasibility
non-conclusive reason; applies to memory--"seems to remember";
another name for nonrandom sampling
non-probability
aculalia
nonsense speech associated with marked impairment in concentration
Falling/Fallenness (Heidegger)
not living authentically but losing oneself in immersion to Das Man, to common sense, and the activities of one's life so that one forgets oneself and Being.
Descriptive statistics
numerical characterizations that describe data
Quantitative research is typically subjective or objective?
objective
tangentiality
oblique, digressive or even irrelevant manner of speech in which the central idea is not communicated
Hegemony
occurs when people see hierarchical relationships as normal, natural, and unchangeable and therefore accept, consent, internalize, and are complicit in reducing norms that are not in their own best interests.
How are key informants chosen?
on principles of theoretical saturationrather than statistical power analysis or size.
emic
one end of a spectrum describing the individual member level perspective
panphobia
overwhelming fear of everything
The level of significance is known as
p value or alpha
Three major research traditions
phanomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic
Which type of qualitative research is described as the "lived experience" with its foundation in philosophy?
phenomenological
Two types of qualitative research
phenomenological ethnographic
4 types of qualitative research
phenomenological grounded theory ethnographic historical
Process oriented and broad questions are characteristics of what?
phenomenon if interest
the qualitative design chosen should be true to what?
philosophical underpinnings
What is the ability of a study to detect differnces or relationships that exists in the populaiton?
power
What is power analysis used to determine?
power of a statistical test
How do you determine adequate sampling?
power of analysis
the higher the value of effect size (y) then the greater of what?
power of the test the relationship between the 2 variables is strong also the more stringent the p value
therapy
practice that's intended to help people
what is the method of increasing the representativeness of the variables in the actual study sample?
proportional stratifeid sampling
Selective outputs:
provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
guilt
psychoanalysis term - a feeling of culpability that stems from a conflict between the ego and the superego.
narcissism
psychoanalysis term - primary narcissism refers to the early infantile phase of object relationship development, when the child has not differentiated the self from the outside world, and all sources of pleasure are unrealistically recognized as coming from within the self, given the child a false sense of omnipotence. secondary narcissism is when the libido, once attached to external love objects is redirected back to the self
undoing
psychoanalysis term - repetitive in nature by which a person symbolically acts out in reverse something unacceptable that has already been done or against which the ego must defend itself; commonly seen in OCD
Confidence in qualitative research
readers should have confidence in the quality of your research and its accuracy
self actualized people are
real and honest, self accepting, accept others.
Bracketing
reflexivity in phenomenology
managing emotions
regulating the nature, intensity, and expression of our emotions
Another name for random
representative
Correlation Designs
research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated -correlations can be positive, zero, or negative (-1 to +1)
Ethnography
research marked by long-term immersion into a culture and by the thick description of a variety of cultural aspects including language use, rituals, ceremonies, relationships, and artifacts.
handling relationship
resoluting and giving feedback, being a team player
Qualitative research tends to have a _________ range of info
rich
cerea flexibilitas
same as waxy flexibility where one can be molded into any position by an examiner
What is the most objective way to identify the smallest sample size needed?
sampling size power analysis
Skepticism:
says we have no knowledge, they want us to suspend judgement concerning knowledge claims as we have no knowledge
structure
self and ideal self
Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through
seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
derealization
sensation of changed reality or that one's surroundings have changed
depersonalization
sensation of unreality concerning oneself, parts of oneself, or one's environment that occurs under extreme stress or fatigue
carebaria
sensation or discomfort in the pressure of the head
paradigm
set of beliefs that guides actions and theory of research
mimicry
simple, imitative motion activity of childhood
It is important to estimate the sample and sampling procedure with the greates accuracy in what
size and sampling procedure
mitigated :
skeptical thesis true and I believe it is true (not as sure as unmitigated). Tries to deflect the if no one knows how do you argument
loosening of associations
speech disturbance in which unrelated and unconnected ideas shift from one to another
poverty of content of speech
speech that is adequate in amount but conveys very little information
agrammatism
speech where patient forms words into a sentence without regard for grammar - seen in alzheimer's and picks'
hallucinosis
state in which a person experiences hallucinations without any impairment of consciousness
introversion
state in which a person's energies are directed inward to ward the self, with little or no interest in the external world
stupor
state of decreased reactivity to stimuli and less than full awareness of one's surroundings
What studies should you beware of?
studies that include statistical analysis while calling themselves qualitative
opportunity sampling
take who volunteers and is available
Telling the story The challenge is to
tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants' descriptions.
Satisific
the common practice of coming up with a decision that is merely adequate rather than optimal (Simon, 2007).
Transcendental ego (Husserl)
the ego which remains as an irreducible residue after having been subject to phenomenological reduction (sense of ownership of experience)
formication
the hallucinatory experience of small creatures crawling on the skin
concrete thinking
thinking characterised by actual things, events and immediate experiences rather than the abstract - thinking of children
illogical thinking
thinking containing erroneous conclusions or internal contradictions
autistic thinking
thinking in which the thoughts are largely narcissistic and egocentric, with emphasis on subjectively rather than objectivity and without regard for reality. interchangeable term with autism and dereism
Critical Dialog
this is a process whereby an individual attempts to think through the alternatives and objections to his own view and the alternatives put forward.
basing relation
to be justified in believing something it is not sufficient merely to have a good reason for believing it, S must believe Q on the basis of P
Why are sampling procedures important?
to determine whether a researcher can make appropriate generalization's beyond one's sample
What does probability sampling allow for?
true use of inferential statistics and generalizations beyond the sample
abstraction
understand abstract ideas-uniquely human. symbolism, time, can think of alternatives and change future self
14. Dis-positional Property:
we have a disposition to something, the propensity to act a certain way based on deeply embedded parts of character dependent on what changing circumstance require
paresis
weakness or partial paralysis of organic origin
Basing relations
what is the nature of the relationship between basic and higher order
quantitative counts numbers while qualitative collects
words
document
written texts prepared for personal reasons
fallacy of positive instances
~ tendency to recall events that appear to be striking coincidences and ignore or forget events that don't
Analytic codes (metacodes)
• Analytic codes (metacodes)
Use of quotations = cited passages. Quotations are essential in bringing alive the content and exposition of people's accounts, their role in providing testimony is more limited. Seven potential purposes for including verbatim quotes:
• As the matter of enquiry • As evidence • As explanation • As illustrations of themes emerging from analysis • To deepen understanding • To give participants a voice • To enhance readability
Case Study Method
• First, description • Then, inductive inference
Reporting voice and language Try to ensure while the viewpoints of interviewees take centre-stage, the distinction between researcher and participant interpretation is clear. Three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:
• Realist tales , where the author is 'absent' from the text; observations are reported as facts; interpretations are not formulated as subjective formulations; the viewpoints of interviewees are emphasized; and subject's statements are transferred to a general level using 'experience-distance' concepts. • Confessional tales , characterized by a highly personalized authorship with the authors expressing the role they played in what was observed, their interpretations and the formulations used, often resulting in a mixture of description of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. • Impressionist tales, which are written in the form of a dramatic recall often via narratives.
Empiricism
The belief that real knowledge is only acquired through sense experience.
Relativism
The belief that there are no absolutes.
Functionalism
The belief that things are best understood by their function not their essence.
Infinite regress.
The belief that things are caused but that there is an infinite chain of causation extending back chronologically and / or causally.
Epistemology:
The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
rational intuition
The capacity to discover the truth of a claim just by thinking about it using reason
concept innatism
The claim that some of our concepts are innate, not derived from experience, but somehow part of the structure of the mind
knowledge innatism
The claim that there is at least some innate knowledge, not derived from experience, but somehow part of the structure of the mind
Ethnomethodology
The study of folk - or members' - methods. It seeks to describe the methods that persons use in doing social life. Ethnomethodology is not a methodology but a theoretical model.
Semiotics
The study of signs (from speech, to fashion, to Morse code).
Narrative analysis
The study of the organization of stories (e.g. beginning, middle and end; plots and characters) that makes stories meaningful or coherent in a form appropriate to the needs of a particular occasion.
rationalism
The theory that there can be a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world (outside my mind) This knowledge is innate or gained by reason rather than derived from sense experience
solipsism
The view that only oneself, one's mind, exists. There are no mind-independent physical objects and there are no other minds either
Theoretical generalization
Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.
What is theoretical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?
Theoretical generalization is when the researchers use the data collected to expand and relate to an existing theory. The information gathered from an induvidual in a case study can be used to expand on a widespread theory.
Randomization (Random Assignment, Random Allocation) - controls for unknown confounders
Theoretically, randomization controls for known and unknown factors - Involves placing subjects into treatment conditions at random - Approximates the ideal—but impossible—counterfactual of having the same people in multiple treatment groups simultaneously - If randomization is effective, baseline groups will not be statistically different
Formal theories
Theories which relate findings from one setting to many situations or settings (see Glaser and Strauss, 1967).
General Principles of Statistics
There are two main types of data: - Continuous E.g., Blood Pressure in mmHg, income in dollars NOTE: continuous data can be converted into categorical data by grouping the data, but you can't convert categorical data into continuous data - Discrete (Categorical) E.g., yes/no; chocolate/vanilla/strawberry; income level (low, medium, high)
Filter Questions
These are questions that, based on the participants' responses, re-route them to another set of questions; this is an efficient way to skip a number of irrelevant questions.
Trustworthiness
This is established when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants.
Quasi-Experimental Design
This is like an experimental design but it lacks the element of random selection; all designs like this potentially result in selection effect.
Theoretical Sample
This is the type of sampling that qualitative researchers do. It is different from random sampling but borrows from the principles of survey research.
Mapping
This is what ethnographers do when they provide novelistic descriptions of a setting. This is part of the ethnographer's sampling efforts and is an example of how you can apply the principles of survey research to qualitative research.
Voluntary Participation
This is when a research participant freely consents to participate in a study.
Semi-structured interview
This kind of interview uses both closed and open-ended questions.
Qualitative Research: Unstructured or Intensive Interviewing
This method allows the researcher to ask open-ended questions during an interview. Details are more important here than a specific interview procedure. Respondents use own words as much as possible. Here lies the inductive framework through which theory can be generated.
Interviews
This method refers to questioning someone to discover their opinions, attitudes, and/or experiences on a given topic.
Census Sample
This refers to a count or survey of 100% of a population.
Reflexive Science
This refers to a critical self-reflective and aware view of one's own social location, position, context, history, and more as a researcher.
Focus Groups
This refers to a group of people assembled to participate in a guided discussion, interview, etc. about a particular topic.
Theory
This refers to a system of ideas intended to explain something; an organized system of accepted (or not) knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a set of phenomena.
Quota Sample
This refers to a type of non-probability sample in which the researcher selects people according to some fixed proportion, level, or strata.
Convenience Sample
This refers to a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close at hand; sometimes called opportunity sampling.
Independent Variable
This refers to a variable that is varied, manipulated, or controlled by the researcher; the presumed cause.
Transcription
This refers to a written or printed representation of something like an interview.
Hook
This refers to an approach interviewers take to draw the interviewee into the study.
Open-Ended Questions
This refers to an approach often during in-depth interviewing when a question is asked that allows for the participant to give an extended answer, opinion, etc. For example, "Describe your experience with substance abuse?"
Schemas
This refers to an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world.
Semi-Structured Interviews
This refers to an interview method that is open and allows for new ideas to be brought up during the interview often as a result of what the interviewee says; though a framework of themes is generally explored.
Reliability/Validity
This refers to both consistency of observation such that the same results are obtained each time the observation is repeated, and whether the researcher is measuring exactly what they are claiming to measure.
Mutually Exclusive/Exhaustive
This refers to categories or values of close-ended, fixed-response questions that are not overlapping and in which every possible value is listed.
Ordinal Data
This refers to data that have a hierarchy, but we cannot measure the distance between or among the listed items. For example, very poor, poor, fair, good, excellent.
Nominal Data
This refers to data that have no logical way of measuring between or among them. For example, comparing ice cream flavors.
Interval Data
This refers to data where the distance between and among data points is meaningful and consistent throughout the scale. For example, the distance between an IQ of 100 and 110 is the same as the distance between 110 and 120.
Operationalization
This refers to defining a variable in such a way so as to tell what goes into that variable and what does not; a very defined variable.
Vulnerable Population
This refers to groups that are at greater than minimal risk and may not be freely available to grant voluntary consent. For example, minors, impaired, gravely ill, developmentally delayed, etc.
Longitudinal Study
This refers to information about an individual or group gathered over a long period of time; uses data gathered at several points in time.
Informants
This refers to key people who know what is going on in the community one is studying, or have first-hand knowledge about the community. For example, community leaders, professionals, or residents
Theory Testing
This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a large sample size and is quantitative (surveys).
Theory Generating
This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a small sample size and is qualitative (interviews).
Confidentiality
This refers to personal information intended to be kept secret; indicating that what one says is private or secret; entrusted with private or restricted information.
Selection Effects
This refers to pre-existing differences that lead certain people to be in certain groups.
Leading Questions
This refers to questions phrased in such a manner so as to suggest the desired answer; it can serve as a form of persuasion. For example, "What do you think of the horrible effects of pollution?"
Replicability
This refers to repeating a particular scientific experiment or trial to obtain a consistent result.
Causation
This refers to the action of causing something to happen.
Sampling Frame
This refers to the complete "list" of the population you are surveying in a study.
Values
This refers to the elements of a variable. For example, if the variable is family status, this would be: single, foster, married still living together, etc.
Population
This refers to the entire collection of items under consideration from which samples can be drawn.
Unit of Analysis
This refers to the major entity or element that is being analyzed in a study. For example, groups of people, institutions, etc.
Generalizeability
This refers to the possibility of a randomly selected sample having external validity or being more widely or generally applicable; making general statements by inferring from specific cases.
Random/Probability Sample
This refers to the possibility that each element in the population has a statistically equal chance of being in a sample.
Epistemology
This refers to the theory of knowledge especially with regard to methods, validity, and scope; beware that the rules for knowing what we know are socially created.
Snowball Sample
This term refers to a non-probability sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.
Representative
This term refers to the outcome of a random sampling technique.
Conceptualization
This term refers to the process of defining, describing, and/or mapping out an idea or topic of interest; an important first step in formulating a research topic.
Cartesian argument from illusion
Throws doubt on always believing what our senses tell us. His argument from dreaming throws doubt on all sense perception, and therefore, on whether physical objects exist. His argument from the evil demon makes this more vivid
Quantitative research typically has a __________ structure.
Tightly controlled
infallibilism
To be knowledge, a belief must be certain. If we can doubt a belief, then it is not certain, and so it is not knowledge
Goal of semiotics?
To learn the meaning of language, symbols and behavior within a social setting. Also focuses on dramaturgy of everyday life
Confidence marker 2
Transparency and clarity - explicitness about research methods
T/F qualitative data collection and analysis takes place concurrently
True
T/F the researcher will take anyone who fits the inclusion-exclusion criteria in convenience sampling?
True
T/F: Using computers in qualititve research is analogous to value of word processor to creative writing
True
contradiction
Two claims that cannot both be true, and cannot both be false; or one claim that both asserts and denies something e.g. 'it is raining and it is not raining'
Inter-rater Reliability
Two raters should produce similar scores
Hermeneutics
UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING of art, text, object
Content Analysis Units
Units may be analyzed as full letters, paragraphs within letters or even individual sentences. The scope is determined by researcher.
Leverage
Used by Marx (1997) to describe ways of finding multiple publishing outlets for one piece of research.
Deduction
Using quantitative or qualitative data to test theory
Frame
Using the metaphor of a picture frame, Goffman (1974) applies this term to reference how people treat what is currently relevant and irrelevant. Such treatment defines the frame through which a setting is constituted.
Equivocation
Using the same term with different meanings.
Review of quantitative analysis.
Usually has a concise focus, specific hypothesis (research question), interested in causality, deductive reasoning and tests the theoretical framework, utilizes a lot of control and manipulation, uses reliable and valid instruments, statistical analysis.
Hume's fork
We can have knowledge of just two sorts of claim: the relations between ideas and matters of fact
Data Outcropping
We go and look for something because theory tells us that the "thing" we are looking for is likely to be there. In other words, choosing a place you're likely to find a lot of people that can speak to your research question(s)/interest.
KTA - Five main question
What should be disseminated? To whom should it be disseminated? By whom should it be disseminated? How should it be disseminated? With what effect should it be disseminated?
immediate objects of perception
What we are directly aware of in perception, which may be physical objects or sensations of these
Define researcher triangulation.
When different researchers are used to make sure that the results remain the same even when the person conducting the experiment has changed.
Contradiction or inconsistency
When one statement denies another.
Contradiction or inconsistency.
When one statement denies another.
Trustworthiness
When the findings of the research reflect the intended meanings of the participants.
When are qualitative methods used?
When there is little known or understood about a subject
What do we mean when we talk about "inter-rater reliability?"
When two or more people look at the results, tools, survey - and agree that they will accurately measure the results.
22. Prudence:
Wisdom that expresses itself in our day-to-day thinking and acting. This is practical wisdom as opposed to contemplative wisdom. An intellectual virtue from which we receive counsel regarding what is good for us.
constant comparison
[grounded theory research] newly gathered data are continually compared with previously collected data and its coding in order to refine the development of theoretical categories. purpose -- test emerging ideas that might take the research in new and fruitful directions.
Gestalt
a German word meaning literally "form" or "shape" and is used in many European languages to refer to an integrated system or culture where the whole is more than a sum of its parts.
Rene Descartes: life spent in search of certainty
a How can we be certain, the question of skeptics b.Geometric method of knowledge: can know something through intuition and deduction i.Geometry uses theorems and proofs ii.He uses intuition and deduction iii. What can man know with 100 % certainty then deduce all from that
Scene
a catch-all term that refers to the field, sites, settings, and groups of participants.
safety
a condition of knowledge according to which S knows that p only if S would believe that p only if p were true
coding
a data reduction process for a researcher to break down data into discrete themes or patterns - cycles of analysis become increasingly refined (Saldana, 2013)
Axiology
a discipline dealing with the values associated with an area of research and theorizing (e.g., the values of social justice are emphasized by the critical paradigm).
paramnesia
a disturbance of memory in which reality and fantasy are confused; includes things like deja vu and deja entendu
16. Infinite regress:
a fallacy in which the argument proposes an explanation, but the mechanism proposed stands just as much in need of explanation as the original fact to be explained — and indeed it stands in need of the same kind of explanation
delusion
a false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality, that is firmly held despite objective and obvious contradictory proof or evidence
jamais vu
a false feeling of unfamiliarity with a real situation that one has previously experienced (opposite to deja vu)
fausse reconnaissance
a false recognition - a feature of paramnesia
audible thoughts/Gedankenlautweden
a form of auditory hallucinations in which everything the patient thinks or speaks is repeated by the voices, also known as thought echo
magical thinking
a form of dereistic thought thinking similar to that of preoperational phase in children (See piaget) in which thoughts, words or actions assume power
Non-basic beliefs
a higher order, less foundational belief
Knowledge:
a justified true belief
aphasia
a language disturbance (comprehension or expression)
Postmodern/Poststructural paradigm
a paradigm that approaches knowledge and power as dispersed, unstable, and plural, highlighting occasions of domination and self-subordination, but also avenues for resistance and change.
compulsion
a pathological need to act on an impulsive that if resisted produces anxiety
obsession
a persistent and recurrent idea, thought or impulse that cannot be eliminated from consciousness by logic or reasoning
belle indifference
a person showing disinterest in his or her physical complaint
Patiche
a postmodern term that refers to the endless imitation, appropriation, and recycling of older cultural forms (e.g., much of what is fashionable today layers trends from the past).
cryptographia/cryptolalia
a private written language/spoken language
8. Coherence Theory:
a proposition is true if it coheres with other true propositions, if it doesn't fit together with what we "know" already
Pragmatic Theory:
a proposition is true if it is successful in explaining phenomena or in achieving desired consequences William James, "truth is expedience" Used in explaining scientific theories Strengths Appeals to areas of religion and moral If religion gives my life meaning then it is true for me Recognizes relativity of truth claims
nonconclusive reason
a reason that does not logically entail its conclusion; inductive and defeasible reasons
conclusive reason
a reason that logically entails its conclusion; does not solve problem of perception
Nuremberg Code
a research ethics code that arose in repsonse to the Nazis' inhumane experimentation; the code includes clauses on voluntary and informed consent, freedom from coersion, comprehension of the potential risks and benefits of the research, and a scientifically valid research design.
thick description
a rich recording of environment, circumstances, meanings, intentions, strategies, and motivations that characterize a particular observation. - Contributes to trustworthiness (Morrow, 2005)
What is the exhaustive ist of all the Cali RNs an example of
a sampling frame - all possible individuals withing the target population
Ideology
a set of doctrines, myths, or beliefs, which guide or have power over individuals, groups, or societies.
melancholia
a severe depressive state characterised by anhedonia, or lack of mood reactivity. also 3 of depression that is subjectively different from grief or loss, severe anorexia, psychomotor changes, early morning wakening, excessive guilt and mood that WORSE in the morning
twirling
a sign in autistic children who continually rotate in the direction in which their head is turned
Incommensurability
a situation where choosing one paradigm or way of seeing the world precludes another paradigm or way of seeing the world. (e.g., the positivist notion of a single true reality is incommensurable with the postmodern view that reality is multiple).
traditional problem of induction
a skeptical argument presented by Hume that proceeds as follows: 1. The premises of an inductive argument do not logically entail the conclusion. 2. If the premises of an argument do not logically entail the conclusion, then it is not reasonable to believe the conclusion on the basis of the premises. 3. Therefore, inductive reasoning is illegitimate—one cannot acquire knowledge of general truths by reasoning inductively.
A proposition
a statement that is either true or false used to determine a conclusion
paranoia
a syndrome marked by gradual development of a highly elaborate and complex delusional system, generally involving persecutory or grandiose delusions, with few others signs of personality disorganization or thought disorder
Grounded Theory
a systematic inductive analysis of data (i.e., an analysis from the ground up, or a "bottom-up" analysis) developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and extended by Strauss and Corbin (1990) and Charmaz (2006).
sensus divinitatis
a term first used by John Calvin to describe a hypothetical human sense; sense organ alleged to give humans a knowledge of God
Ethnography of Communication (EOC)
a theoretical framework developed by Dell Hymes, which is concerned with linguistic rules and how communication reveals norms of identity, relationships, or culture.
doxastic theory
a theory conforming to the doxastic assumption, i.e. the assumption that if one holds precisely the same beliefs in two possible circumstances, then no matter how those circumstances differ with respect to things other than what one believes, there will be no difference in what beliefs are justified under those circumstances
Sensemaking
a theory developed by Karl Weick and typified by the three-part process of enactment, selection, and retention; it emphasizes meaning making, ambiguity, and identity.
Epistemology
a traditional branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge.
Ontology
a traditional branch of philosophy, which is concerned with the nature of reality.
Interpretive paradigm
a way of seeing both reality and knowledge as constructed and reproduced through communication, interaction, and practice.
Critical paradigm
a way of viewing the world based on the idea that thought is fundamentally mediated by power relations and that data cannot be separated from ideology.
4. A priori / a posteriori:
a. A priori (literal meaning prior to): knowledge gained not from senses, knowledge or justification is independent of experience b. A posteriori (posterior to): knowledge gained through experience or the senses, knowledge that proceeds from observations or experiences to the deduction of probable causes. c. A priori/a posteriori: (put forth by Kant) The terms a priori ("prior to") and a posteriori ("posterior to") are used in philosophy (epistemology) to distinguish two types of knowledge, justifications or arguments
5. Analytic/synthetic knowledge:
a. Analytic knowledge: knowledge of definitions and mathematics, unrelated to knowledge of the "real" world. Kant said if a statement is analytic, then it is true by definition. b. Synthetic knowledge: Knowledge about the real world. Kant said, knowledge determined by relying upon observation and experience; not upon logic and analysis
.Coherence Theory: a proposition is true if it coheres with other true propositions, if it doesn't fit together with what we "know" already
a. Reject as false all propositions that do not cohere with established truth systems b. Strengths: i.Helps establish truths in areas where we do no have all truths ii. Many systems and nonfactual areas work this way already (moral) c Criticism: i. Coherence is necessary but not sufficient ii. How do you judge truthfulness of a system iii. How do you start a new system iv. Not linked to reality v. * simply not adequate
zoophobia
abnormal fear of animals
nymphomania
abnormal, excessive, insatiable desire in a woman for sexual intercourse (c.f. satyriasis)
blocking
abrupt interruption in train of thinking before a thought or idea is finished; after a brief pause the person indicates no recall of what was being said or was going to be said
flat affect
absence or near absence of any signs of affective expression
Concurrence
acting together as of agents or circumstances or events, agreement of results or opinions, competition, the temporal property of two things happening at the same time
Co-constitution
active participants in creating our lives. Both shaping and shaped by.
automatism
activity carried out without conscious knowledge
shostrum
actualizing therapy
panic
acute, intense attack of anxiety associated with personality disorganized; impending feelings of doom
analytic coding
addresses the meanings and meaning making evident to the researcher in his or her textual data
2. becoming
admit experience. be aware of yourself. being available to others when they need it. we have potential to grow and think about our growth.
Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their
aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
labile affect
affective expression characterized by rapid and abrupt changes, unrelated to external stimuli
blunted affect
affective presentation where there is severe reduction in the INTENSITY of externalized feeling tone
floccillation
aimless plucking or picking, usually at bedclothes or clothing - commonly seen in dementia/delirium
Empiricism:
all knowledge ultimately derived from sense experience
Basic Beliefs
also known as foundational beliefs are more foundational beliefs from which more complex ones are determined.
argument from perceptual relativity
an argument advanced by Roderick Firth in 1950 that attempts to refute the possibility of phenomenological analysis; proceeds by noting that being in circumstances of type C must logically entail that if x is red and I look at it then it will appear red to me; there can be no phenomenal circumstances that have this entailment; no matter what is proposed for C, we can always imagine elaborate conditions under which the putative entailment will be falsified; x's looking red to S under circumstances of type C entails that x is red
genetic argument
an argument for which all of the premises cannot be used to reach the conclusion in one's mind at one time; some premises forgotten
8. Skepticism:
an attitude of doubt or a disposition (leaning toward) to incredulity (disbelief) either in general or toward a particular object Common sense, Philosophical, Unmitigated, Mitigated, Metaphysical
incorrigibility
an attribute of a proposition if and only if (1) it is necessarily true that if S believes P then P is true, and (2) it is necessarily true that if S believes ~P then P is false
Descarte
an example of global skeptic
idea of reference
an idea of reference is a misinterpretation of incidents and events in the outside world as having direct personal reference to oneself; occasionally observed in normal persons but frequently seen in paranoid patients. If present with sufficient frequency of if organized and systematized they constitute delusions of reference
mannerism
an ingrained, habitual involuntary movement
-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in
an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions.
A Data Display
an organized presentation of data that enables researchers and their audiences to draw some conclusions from the data and to move on to the next stage of the research.
Qualitative methods
an umbrella phrase that refers to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of interview, participant observation, and document data in order to understand and describe meanings, relationships, and patterns.
What is the foundation of ethnographic method?
anthropology
Noesis (Husserl)
any act of the subject directed towards an intentional object (the subject pole of experience)
clouding of conscioussness
any disturbance of consciousness in which the person is not fully awake, alert and orientated
Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings Common difficulty with qualitative accounts is that they contain statements about how many people have said something. View of the book:
any numerical or statistical inference based on qualitative research is likely to be at best misleading and at worst erroneous because qualitative samples are not designed for such purposes. If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in order to explain why such patterns occur.
fluent aphasia
aphasia characterised by inability to understand the spoken word (syn. wernicke's and receptive aphasias)
when the sample is a more acurate represenation of the population the sample statistics witll what?
approximate the population more precisely
Developmental outputs:
are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
Memos refers to
attempts at theorizing: the researcher writes down ideas about the meanings of the codes that are emerging from the data and the relationships between the various codes.
neurological amnesia
auditory amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend sound or speech tactile amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend or judge shapes of objects by touch verbal amnesia - loss of ability to remember words visual amnesia - loss of ability to recall or recognize familiar objects or painted words
dereism
autistic thinking
apperception
awareness of the meaning and significant of a particular sensory stimulus as modified by one's own experiences knowledge, thoughts and emotions
Length in written accounts There is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some findings out, otherwise readers will simply
be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail.
Anxiety (Heidegger)
becoming anxious is an awakening that occurs as one's world is no longer meaningful, and the means by which we define ourselves come into question. This crisis provides the opportunity for becoming authentic
acting out
behavioural response to an unconscious drive or impulsive that brings about temporary partial relief of inner tension; relief is attained by reacting to a present situation as if it were the situation that originally gave rise to the drive or impulse
Interpretive Phenomenology/Phenomenological Hermeneutics
being is partly hidden and in darkness and therefore more than phenomenological description is called for. Interpretive process of existence to allow Being to uncover itself
Ontology
branch of metaphysics dealing with being or reality. Heidegger is concerned with 'the to-be of whatever is' rather than the nature of specific objects/persons
analysis
breaking down a data set and then reassembling it into meaning that informs your research question
what types of questions are asked with interviewing
broad and open ended
Qualitative research does not have hypothesis but rather what?
broad research questions
causalgia
burning pain that may or organic or psychic in origin
overvalued idea
by definition a false or unreasonable belief or idea that is sustained beyond the bounds of reason, held with less intensity than a delusion
grandiosity
by definition are exaggerated feelings of one's importance, power, knowledge or identity
irritability/irritable mood
by definition is abnormal or excessive excitability, with easily triggered anger, annoyance or impatience
judgement
by definition is the mental act of comparing or evaluating choices within the framework of a given set of values for the purpose of electing a course of acting
free floating anxiety
by definition is the severe, pervasive, generalized anxiety that is not attached to any particular idea, object or event.
anorexia
by definition this is a loss or decrease of appetite
member validation
check with sampled to see if right
social penetration theory
circle chart, deeper you go more intimate. topics get wider and deeper as relationship develops
Fideism
claims that faith is the precondition for any correct thinking about religion
Neutralism
claims that our critical thinking will be likely to help us toward the truth only if completely impartial and unbiased (no precondition of belief)
ambivalence
coexistence of two opposing impulses at the same time
global aphasia
combination of grossly non fluent aphasia and severe fluent aphasia
Epistemology
comes from the Greek word for knowledge
What is non-participant observation
commonly used in psychology studies were the researcher observes only
How else in simplke random sampling can a list of random numbers be generated?
computer
Critical Theory
concerned with a CRITIQUE of society and the envisioning of NEW POSSIBILITIES
laconic speech
condition characterized by a reduction in the quantity of spontaneous speech; replies are brief and unelaborated, common in MDE/SCZ; also called POVERTY of SPEECH
waxy flexibility
condition in which a person maintains the body position into which they are placed
deja pense
condition in which a thought never entertained before is incorrectly regarded as a repetition of a previous thought
command automatism
condition in which suggestions are followed automatically
synesthesia
condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality is perceived as sensation in another modality e.g. a sound produces a sensation of colour
introspection
contemplating one's own mental processes to achieve insight
Action
contextual talk, texts, and interactions (e.g., documents, emails, verbal routines, text messages, and comments.
stereotypy
continuous mechanical repetition of speech or physical activities
- Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the
contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Unlike the quantitiatve focus on reliability and valididty for scientific rigor, qualitative designs focus more on the _______ or ______ of the data.
credibility or relevance
Philosophy of Religion
critical reflection of religious questions and beliefs engaged in by thinkers who are not at all religious. Not so much religious thinking as it is thinking about religion
thought insertion
delusion that thoughts are being implanted into one's mind
erotomania
delusional belief that someone else is in love with them
pseudodementia
dementia like disorder that can be reversed by appropriate treatment not caused by organic brain disease
existence proofs
demonstrations that a given psychological phenomenon can occur
The use of illustrative material Illustrative material:
depending on the type of data collected, this can include verbatim quotations, summaries or pen portraits of particular cases, extracts from documents, sections of researchers' observational notes, photos, drawings and other images.
context
describes the settings, conditions, background, and/or history given in a particular research study
Emergent Design
design changes as researchers research and make decisions about WHAT THEY'VE LEARNED
purposeful sampling
designed to get the richest data possible by carefully selecting participants
decompensation
deterioration of psychic functioning caused by a breakdown of defense mechanisms
conversion phenomena
development of symbolic physical symptoms and distortions involving the voluntary muscles or special sense organs that cannot be explained by a physical disorder
adler
did whatever works
initial insomnia
difficulty falling asleep
dyscalculia
difficulty in performing calculations
dyskinesia
difficulty in performing movements (e.g. EPSE)
dyslalia
difficulty in speaking due to faulty articulation
dysarthria
difficulty in the articulation of words
dysgraphia
difficulty in writing
dysphonia
difficulty or pain with speaking
ultimate value is placed on
dignity of the person
mydriasis
dilation of pupils
What is it called with the researcher can not control the many variables in research? (ie pts with a number of pre-existing pathology that are undergoing a number of therapies?
dirty research
Grounded theory research Focuses on the
discovery of a basic PROBLEM that a DEFINED GROUP START WORKING ON THE GROUND AND BUILD THEORY
pseudologia phantastica
disorder characterised by uncontrollable lying in which patients elaborate extensive fantasies that they freely communicate and act on
asyndesis
disorder of language in which the patient combines unconnected ideas and images
catalepsy
disorder where a person maintains the body posture into which they are placed - seen in catatonia, c.f. waxy flexibility
akataphasia
disordered speech form where thoughts cannot be expressed directly but are expressed indirectly such as by making a similar sound (displacement paralogia) or by being derailed into another thought (derailment paralogia)
acataphasia
disordered speech in which statements are incorrectly formulated. patients may express themselves with words that sound like the ones intended but not appropriate to the thoughts, or they may use totally inappropriate expressions
fugue
dissociative disorder/dissociative amnesia. period of almost complete amnesia, during which a persona actually flees from an immediate life situation and begins a different life pattern; apart from amnesia all other mental faculties are intact
Phenomenon
distinctive type of experience
pathology
distortion and defense
dysmegalopsia
distortion in which size and objects are misperceived - alice in wonderland syndrome
circumstantiality
disturbance in the associative thought and speech processes in which a patient digresses into unnecessary details and inappropriate thoughts before communicating the central idea
expressive aphasia
disturbance of speech in which understanding remains bu ability to speak is grossly impaired
amnestic aphasia/anomi\c aphasia
disturbed capacity to name objects even thought they are known to the patient
twilight state
disturbed consciousness with hallucinations
demand characteristics
do participants feel they HAVE TO give a certain answer
ineffability
ecstatic state in which persons insist that their experience is inexpressible and indescribable and that it is impossible to convey what it is like to one who never experienced it
Other factors that influence the adequacy of the sample size in the power analysis include
effect size
If there is considerable differnce between the groups who does this affect affect size?
effect size is large, hence detecting is easy and requires only a small sample and vice versa
ego-alien
ego-dystonic - aspects of a person's personality that is viewed as repugnant, unacceptable or inconsistent with the rest of the personality
goleman
emotional intelligence
inappropriate affect
emotional tone out of harmony with the idea, thought, or speech accompanying it.
Which type of qualitative research is describes cultural groups and beliefs and is based on cultural anthropology?
ethnographic
-Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the
exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
hypervigilance
excessive attention to and focus on all internal and external stimuli
emotional lability
excessive emotional responsiveness characterised by unstable and rapidly changing emotions
aerophagia
excessive swallowing of air
hyperpragia
excessive thinking and mental activity
catatonic excitement
excited, uncontrolled motor activity seen in catatonic schizophrenia
external validity (ecological)
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
catastrophic reaction
extreme emotional state characterised by restlessness, irritability, crying, anxiety and uncooperativeness
hyperalgesia
extreme sensitivity to pain
hyperacusis
extreme sensitivity to sounds
hyperaesthesia
extreme sensitivity to touch/tactile stimulation
delusions of grandeur
false belief that one is of great importance, has great talents or is in a position of great power
delusions of reference
false belief that the behaviour of others refers to oneself or that events, objects, or other people have a particular or unusual significance
delusion of self-accusation/delusion of guilt
false feeling of remorse or guilt
command hallucinations
false perception of orders that a person may feel obliged to obey
hallucination
false sensory perception occuring in the absence of any relevant external stimulation of sensory modality involved
August comte
father of sociology, logical positivism
parapraxis
faulty act such as the slip of the tongue or misplacement of an article; freudian slip
erythrophobia
fear of blushing
ailurophobia
fear of cats
acrophobia
fear of high places
agoraphobia
fear of open places or leaving the familiar setting of home
algophobia
fear of pain
anxiety
feeling of apprehension caused by anticipation of danger, which may be internal or external
exaltation
feeling of intense elation and grangeur
unio mystica
feeling of mystic unity with an infinite power
rollomay
felt dehumanized in hospital. after that decided that anxiety was repose to threat of core values.
gloria films
films in which roger, perls, and ellis separately try to help patient using different therapy method
negative signs of schizophrenia
flat affect, alogia, abulia and apathy
Feminist Research
focuses on GENDER DOMINATION AND DESCRIMINATION within particular societies
Narrative Analysis
focuses on STORY of the object of inquiry
Critical Ethnography
focuses on raising consciousness in the hope of EFFECTING SOCIAL CHANGE
nomothetic
formulate question, find group to which this question applies, take sample, divide in experiment, measure, average, compare
When the sampling is the most representative what does it allow more of
generalization to the target population
If the sampling procedure is random what can researchers appropriately do?
generalize beyond the study's sample and back to the total population
- Developmental outputs are designed to
generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
quantitative tests theory while qualitative
generates theory
Foundationalism
genuine knowledge must consist of truths which are known with
wholism
gestalt-kurler. the whole is greater than the sum of it's parts
purposive sampling & symbolic representation
get the specific group members so you can generalize
What is the most frequently used method in nursing?
grounded theory
What is the systematic procedure known as constant comparison method that facilitates the development of a substantiative theory.
grounded theory
focus groups
groups with common experiences interviewed together
The key objective is to find a form of presentation that
has an underlying and authentic narrative and somehow compels the reader to want to find out more.
availability
heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds "off the top of my head" -K 1st or 3rd letter
in nursing and clinical studies, researchers need to make their sample as ______ as possible
homogenous
personal reflexivity
honest about own biases & adjust for them
Epistemology
how is it that people come to have knowledge about the external world
What does effect size tell you?
how much difference there is between the groups
Befindlichkeit (Heidegger)
how we find ourselves in terms of mood and orientation.
data collection should focus on __________
human experience & describe data collection methods
Innate ideas
ideas from birth
Unreal objects
ideas or objects we imagine
Example of cluster sampling
if researcher wants to sampling to select RNs in the US step 1: choose states at random step 2: then randomly choose a cluster or 3 hospitals from each district
- Structuring around a typology =
if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
• Structuring around different populations:
if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
- Structuring around different populations =
if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
• Structuring around a typology:
if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
when can one use a one-tailed?
if there is good evidence of support in the theoretical framework
impractical to live that way:
if you have to constantly question the truth of everything how will you be sure light is green to pass thru intersection
dysamnesia
impaired memory
Das Man (Heidegger)
impersonal authority what 'what believe or do,' or common sense as an escape from our awareness of ourselves as individuals who are responsible for our own lives.
Incorrigible
impossible for you to believe contrary (feel pain)
Foundationalism
in Noetic structure most beliefs are related together in a system so that they support one another; 2 theories Foundationalism and Coherentism. Foundationalism state 2 belief categories: basic and non-basic
One context in which number can be helpful is
in describing the basic characteristics of the achieved sample. In terms of interpreting the findings and considering how applicable they are likely to be, either to the population from which they were drawn or to other populations.
holistic coherence theory
in order for S to have reason for believing P, there must be a relationship between P and the set of all of his beliefs (where this relationship cannot be decomposed into simple reason relationships holding between indi- vidual beliefs)
kelly theory of personal constructs
in our formative years we evolve certain personal constructs and revolve our life and choices around them. to understand people you have to understand those constructs. behavior is based on both created and objective reality
Simulacrum
in postmodern theory, this term refers to a representation that is a copy of something that never actually existed (e.g., Disneyland's "Main Street").
scotoma
in psychiatry a figurative blind spot in a person's psychological awareness
Sampling Considerations
in qualitative, random sampling not usually used
Indefeasible
in the absence of something that can defeat or contradict my belief I am justified in believing it
astereognosis
inability to identify familiar objects by touch
amimia
inability to make gestures or comprehend gestures of others
adiadochokinesia
inability to perform rapid alternating movements - neuro deficits, particularly cerebellar lesions
motor aphasia
inability to produce words in a fluent manner, also known as broca's aphasia or non fluent aphasia. understanding remains intact
somatopagnosia
inability to recognise a part of one's body as one's one (also autotopagnosia)
anosognosia
inability to recognize a physical defect in oneself (e.g. denying that limb is paralyzed)
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize familir faces
visual agnosia
inability to recognize objects or persons
spatial agnosia
inability to recognize spatial relations
alogia
inability to speak
astasia abasia
inability to stand or walk in a normal manner
agnosia
inability to understand the import or significance of sensory stimuli; cannot be explained by a defect in sensory pathways or cerebral lesions
la belle indifference
inappropriate attitude of calm or lack of concern about one's disability - seen in conversation disorders
word salad
incoherent essentially incomprehensible mixture of words or phrases
hyperphagia
increase in eating
pressured speech
increase in the amount of spontaneous speech
Because there is not random selection used with nonprobability sampling each subject does not have what?
independent chance of being included in the study
a priori
independent of experience; on the basis of reason alone
qualia
individual instances of subjective, conscious experience
jung
individuation
a posteriori
informed by experience
Lewis's four ethical concerns
informed consent / anonymity / confidentiality / harm
Descriptive Phenomenology
insists on the careful PORTRAYAL OF ORDINARY EXPERIENCE of everyday living, seeing, hearing, feeling, believing, etc.
Sensitizing concepts
interpretive devices that serve as jumping-off points or lenses for qualitative study.
Narrative analysis:
interviews, life histories, autobiographies, letters, and other personal materials are used to form a detailed account of a person's life or circumstances.
participants in quota sampling are divided how?
into strata based on specific characteristics the quota is computed according to the proportion and subjects are solicited through nonrandom sampling
coprolalia
involuntary use of profanities
- The analytic story =
involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature.
neuroticism
irrationality. obstructs our growth
David Hume
is local skeptic
Epistemology
is the study of knowledge
Why is nonprobability used in nursing and medical research?
it is not feasible, economical, timely, or ethical to collect a random sample
Jamison's four observation-specific ethics issues
justification of not getting informed consent / participants can remove data after research / those in power can't abuse it / - 'deviants' break laws
Prima facie
justified, self presenting, face value, given no reason to doubt
knowledge
justified, true belief; divided into perceptual, moral, a priori, that of other minds, induction, and memory
Formula for probability with systematic sampling
k = N/n N=the accessible populaiton n= the sample size
What are the people interviewed called
key informants
1. being
knowing yourself is not automatic, you have to grow into yourself. being available to your own experience
A priori
knowledge not based on experience
Rationalism:
knowledge of reality gained through reason independent of sense experience
Modest Foundationalism
known as weak foundationalism says a belief must meet 1 of the following to be a true belief
anergia
lack of energy
acathexis/decathexis
lack of feeling associated with an ordinarily emotionally charged subject; in psychoanalyses it denotes the patient's detaching or transferring of emotion from thoughts and ideas
anhedonia
lack of interest in and withdrawal from all regular and pleasurable activities
akinetic mutism
lack of movement AND speech in a patient who is otherwise alert
ageusia
lack or impairment of sense of taste
Why is nonprobaility used?
less expensive and complicated
existentialism
life is meaningless/absurd. we humans have the capacity for freewill and by making choices we create meaning for ourselves
Dependability
listed THEME AND STATEMENTS ,keeping records of coding and findings
If probability in systematic sampling the individuals in the sampling frame need to be....
listed randomly
What may present some study background but does not have the literature background as in quantitative?
literature review
Prereflective
lived experience prior to reflective thought. the ongoing stream of experience that is already there
equipollent
logically equivalent in any of various specified ways
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events preceeding the onset of dementia
acenesthesia
loss of sensation of physical presence
aphonia
loss of voice
Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings The purpose of qualitative research is to
map range and diversity and to explore and explain the links between different phenomena. In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.
Krieken et. al 2006 on positivism
matter can be explained as a reaction to external stimuli because it has no consciousness. Because people actively construct their own reality it is inadequate at dissecting their behaviour
3. Tabula rasa:
means blank slate, Argument of empiricist Locke that we are born knowing nothing, everything must be learned through experience
Surveys
measure opinions, attitudes
retrospective falsification
memory becomes unintentionally distorted by being filtered through a person's present emotional cognitive and experiential state
folie a deux
mental illness shared by two persons, usually with common delusional system (3 - folie a trois)
The researcher could inductively deleope a theory and model and follow it with what in the development of an instrument?
methodological triangulation
grounded theory
methodology seeking to create a theory based on findings
18. Immoral intelligence: ends.
mischievous intelligence or wicked intelligence, using knowledge for purposes other than virtuous gain. Must look at motives and ends.
most nursing studies are considered to have ____ effect sizes
modest
lethologica
momentary forgetting of a name or proper name
harlow
monkey experiment. contact comfort
egomania
morbid self-preoccupation or self-centeredness, narcissism
satyriasis
morbid, insatiable sexual need or desire in a man
Why is cluster sampling used?
more economical and time consuming
theory triangulation involves:
multiple theories support research
The decription of power analysis in a research article should include
name of statistical test lecel of the one-tailed or 2 tailed statistical significance level of the power effect size (should include the rationale for the effect size selected).
What types of settings are used in qualitative
natural settings
epistemic justification
necessary condition for knowledge
Epistemic humility:
need to recognize the limitations of my cognitive abilities
sensory extinction
neurological sign operationally defined as failure to report one of two simultaneously presented sensory stimuli despite the fact that either stimulus alone is correctly reported
neologism
new words whose derivation cannot be understood
Describe theoretical saturation
no new ideas or points of view are emerging and the study is considered complete
inconguence
not yourself/contradict yourself
etic
one end of a spectrum describing the insider perspective of a phenomenon.
etic
one end of a spectrum describing the outsider perspective of a phenomenon
Basic Social Process (BSP)
one type of core variable, process of RESOLVING CONFLICT, GOAL OF GROUNDED THEORY
Qualitative research is inductive
opening up the line of inquiry to draw conclusions from lived experiences through interpretation and observation
If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in
order to explain why such patterns occur.
mutism
organic or functional absence of the faculty of speech
labile mood
oscillations in mood between euphoria and depression or anxiety
Natural Attitude
our everyday naive acceptance of the existence of the world and objects and that they are as we experience them
Being-in-the-world
our existence is inherently relational.
phenomenology
our unique subjective experience. built on all experiences we've had
Explaining methods A number of writers have stressed the importance to giving a clear account of research methods as part of displaying the credibility of the evidence. It is important for outputs to
outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put.
cryptoplegia
paralysis of the muscles in accommodation of the eyes, observed at times as an anticholinergic side effect of medications c.f. mydriasis
dependability
part of the four trustworthiness characteristics; stability of data over time; if the study were repeated would you get the same result? Example would be method and analysis sections.
confirmability
part of the four trustworthiness criteria; establishing the fact that data collected in a study is true to the participants voice and the interpretations of data were not made up; member check is an example
localized amnesia
partial loss of memory; amnesia is restricted to specific or isolated experiences (syn. lacunar amnesia/patch amnesia)
Grounded Theory Sampling
participants who can BEST CONTRIBUTE to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)
kleptomania
pathological compulsion to steal - see DSM
polyphagia
pathological overeating
perseveration
pathological repetition of the same response to different stimuli
What is the numerical effect size for Pearson correlation and t-test
pearson correlation = r t-test = d
peer check
peer review of the research to assess whether the findings are plausible based on the data set.
perls-gestalt
people are gestalt but parts of them are being ignored or not there
5 researcher behaviors with quantitative research
perceiving reacting interacting attaching meaning recording
macropsia
perception that objects are bigger than they actually are
micropsia
perception that objects are smaller than expected
trailing phenomenon
perceptual abnormality associated with hallucinogenic drugs in which moving objects are seen as a series of discrete and discontinuous images
illusion
perceptual misinterpretation of a real external stimulus
Positivist paradigm
perhaps the most common paradigm among traditional scientists, it suggests that there is only one true reality "out there" in the world - one that already exists and is waiting to be discovered.
phobia
persistent, pathological, unrealistic, intense fear of an object or situation
qualitative often gives what details about an individual
personable, subjective experience
Religious Philosophy
philosophical thinking which is religious in inspiration or direction. Not identical to philosophy of religion.
What is the foundation of phenomenological method?
philosophy
Phenomenology
philosophy that places experience at the center of the human struggle with freedom and responsibility. Systematic reflection and study of the structures of consciousness and the phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness.
Phenomena
plural form of Phenomenon that encompasses multiple types or experiences (ex: phenomena of silence)
The capacity to reject the null hypothesis is also known as
populaiton
The ability of the research to detect differences in the relationships that actually exist is called?
power
Grand narratives
powerful systems of stories suggesting that people or processes unfold in a particular way (e.g., the notion that aging equates with decline).
Paradigms
preferred ways of understanding reality, building knowledge, and gathering information about the world.
Challenging in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to
present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audience
Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to
present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
another name for random sampling
probability
what are the 2 basic approaches to sampling?
probability and non-probability
the p value referes to ....
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
Besides open ended questions what else does the interview guide have?
probes
method
procedure to collect data
abreaction
process by which repressed material (particularly painful experience or conflict) is brought back to consciousness; in this process, the person not only recalls but also relives the repressed material with an affective response
recall
process of bringing stored memories to consciousness
Reflexivity
process of reflecting on one's self and attending to PERSONAL VALUES that could affect data collection and interpretation, primarily used by qualitative researchers e.g. maintain journal through research
Comprehensive outputs:
provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implication from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts. Summary outputs: provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
Summary outputs:
provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
substitution
psychoanalysis term - a person replaces an unacceptable wish, drive, emotion or goal with one that is more acceptable
symbolization
psychoanalysis term - an idea or object comes to stand for another because of some common aspect or quality in both; based on similarity and association; the symbols formed protect the person from the anxiety that may be attached to the original idea or subject
suppression
psychoanalysis term - conscious act of controlling and inhibiting an unacceptable impulse, emotion or idea
devaluation
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person attributes excessively negative qualities to self or others
regression
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person undergoes a partial or total return to earlier patterns of adaptation
rationalization
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which irrational or unacceptable behaviour, motives or feelings are logically justified or made consciously tolerable by plausible means
denial
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which the existence of unpleasant realities is disavowed
dissociation
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism involving the segregation of any group of mental or behavioural processes from the rest of the person's psychic activity
reaction formation
psychoanalysis term - development of a socialized attitude or interest that is the direct antithesis of some infantile wish or impulse that is harboured consciously or unconsciously.
sublimation
psychoanalysis term - energy associated with unacceptable impulses or drives is diverted into personally and socially acceptable channels; unlike other defense mechanisms it offers some minimal gratification of the instinctual drive or impulse
secondary process thinking
psychoanalysis term - form of thinking that is logical, organized and reality orientated and influenced by the demands of the environment
primary process thinking
psychoanalysis term - mental activity related directly to the functions of the id and characteristic of unconscious mental processes; marked by primitive, prelogical thinking and by the tendency to seek immediate discharge and gratification of instinctual demands
incorporation
psychoanalysis term - primitive unconscious defense mechanism in which the psychic representation of another person or aspects of another person are assimilated into oneself through a figurative process of symbolic oral ingestion; special form of introjection and earliest mechanism of identification
repression
psychoanalysis term - unacceptable mental contents are banished or kept out of consciousness
displacement
psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism by which the emotional component of an unacceptable idea or object is transferred to a more acceptable one (common in phobias)
projection
psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism in which persons attribute to another those generally unconscious ideas, thoughts, feelings and impulsses that are in themselves undesirable or unacceptable.
cathexis
psychoanalytic term - a conscious or unconscious investment of psychic energy in an idea, concept, object or person
What type of sampling is used to identify the key informants?
purposeful (theoretical) sampling
JTB Justified Ttrue belief
put forth by Plato
Whay type of nonprobability sampling is simialr to stratified random sampling?
quota sampling
What is often confused with random sampling?
random assignment
what are the two types of sampling methods?
random or pobability nonrandom or non-probability
Define probabolity sampling
randomized method of selecting subjects for a research study who are the most representative of the target population
what part of probability sampling offers the best advantage of being the most representative?
randomness
flight of ideas
rapid succession of fragmentary thoughts or speech in which content changes abruptly and speech may be in coherent, seen in mania
pseudocyesis
rare condition in which a non pregnant patient has the signs and symptoms of pregnancy
Reflective
realm of experience we consciously attend to and think about (bending back on experience)
It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be
reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.
abulia
reduced impulse to act and to think; associated with indifference about consequences of action
constricted affect
reduction in INTENSITY of feeling tone that is less severe than that of blunted affect
restricted affect
reduction in intensity of feeling tone that is less severe than blunted but clearly reduced
Retroduction
refers to developing a hypothesis that would, if true, best explain a particular set of observations. Similar to inductive reasoning
Etic Perspective
refers to the OUTSIDERS of the experiences of that culture
Relevance in qualitative research
refers to the extent to which the research is viable
Rhizomatic
refers to the idea that meaning is root-like and therefore interconnected, interdependent, and complex.
Emic Perspective (members)
refers to the way the MEMBERS POV
Reflective remarks on field notes:
reflections, interpretations, connections, or other thoughts that occur to the researcher while transcribing field notes or coding the data.
interviewing does not use principles of ____ & _____
reliability and validity
logoclonia
repeated use of the same word (syn. perseveration)
echolalia
repeating words of one person by another
anacasm
repetitious or stereotyped behaviour or thought usually used as a tension-relieving device; synonym for obsession
What is good quantitative research?
representativeness, reliability, validity
symbolic representation
represents larger group
long term memory
reproduction, recognition or recall of experiences or information that was experienced in the distant past
Case Study
research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period -- helpful in providing existence proofs - study rare or unusual phenomena that is difficult to reproduce in the lab - CANT RELY ON TOO HEAVILY
Quantitative methods
research methods that use measurement and statistics to transform empirical data into numbers and to develop mathematical models that quantify behavior.
Phronetic Research
research that is concerned with practical contextual knowledge and is carried out with an aim toward social commentary, action, and transformation.
Narrative inquiry
research that views stories - whether gathered through field notes, interviews, oral tales, blogs, letters, or autobiographies - as fundamental to human experience.
What is the triangulation method
researcher inductively develops a theory after completion of a theory the data is drived into the development of a psychosocial instrument
participant observation
researcher role is to activity participate as well as conduct the research study
Symbolic interactionism
researchers using this theoretical approach (which was developed by Herbert Blumer) investigate how meaning and identity are co-created through interaction.
Second-order interpretations
researchers' interpretations or explanations of participants' interpretations or explanations.
Appraisal tools for good qualitative research in systematic reviews
responsiveness to social context, flexibility of design, evidence of theory or purposive sampling, ethics, adequate description, quality of data, theoretical adequacy
poverty of speech
restriction in the amount of speech used; also known as laconic speech
noesis
revelation in which immense illumination occurs in associated with a sense that one has been chosen to lead or command
What is essential with historical method
review of all essential documets, critical presentation, evaluation, interpretation, and to authenticate all data
metaskills
self awareness
bradykinesia
slow movements
bradylexia
slowed reading
bradylalia
slowed speech
Qualitative research explores
social meaning, the importance of context, understanding of long term processes
Sedimented
solid and difficult to remedy; the term is used by poststructural scholars, who argue that the examination of power relations is necessary in order to understand why some problems and ideas are held with more merit than others.
Weak Foundationalism
some knowledge is properly basic or foundational but it isnot claimed to be known with absolute certainty
Self-Evident
something we immediately see as true, a belief that needs nothing else to provide justification
dyslexia
specific learning syndrome affecting ability to read
- Selective outputs provide accounts of
specific parts of the evidence
cluttering
speech disorder - disturbance of fluency involving an abnormally rapid rate and erratic rhythm of speech that impedes intelligibility and the individual him/herself is unaware of communicative impairment
true insight
state of insight where the understanding of objective reality coupled with the motivational and emotional impetus to master the situation or change behaviour
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 2
statistical correlations may be based upon variables that are arbitrarily predefined by the researcher
What step of simple random sampling is the researcher identifying the target populaiton such as all the RNs in Cali
step 1
Describe the steps fo proportional stratified sampling with gender
step 1: the target population consists of 3000 men and 7000 women step 2: the sample size is calcualated proportionally 30% men and 70% women step 3: therefore in a sample of 100 subjects would consist of 30 men and 70 women
What step of simple random sampling is the researcher getting an exhaustive list of all the cali RNs from the BON?
step 2
what step of simple random sampling is after the sample frame has been created that each individual is given a number?
step 3
What step of simple random sampling is a random process of choosing subjects through a table of random numbers?
step 4
posturing
strange, fixed and bizarre bodily positions held by a patient for an extended time
What are variables such as ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level called?
strata
Methodology
strategies for gathering, collecting, and analyzing data.
What type fo sampling method is used when you want to ensure the representative nature of certain groups in the population?
stratified random sampling
automatic obedience
strict obedience of command without critical judgement.
Immanuel Kant:
strives to reconcile rationalism and empiricism a. We are born with innate categories of understanding that allow us to sort and use sense experience b. Not truly innate knowledge but basic cognitive abilities to understand things like i. Causality ii.Time/space c. Reality provides raw data (noumena) through our senses which our mind manipulates and organizes into knowledge (phenomena) d. Synthetic: knowledge of real world experienced e. Analytical: knowledge by definition or mathematics, not experienced f. A priori: meaning prior to, knowledge gained prior to the functioning of our senses
Noetic Structure
structure of ones systems of beliefs. Focuses on how are beliefs related and how do they support one another. 2 types: foundationalism and coherentism
The 4 strengths of qualitative research methods are
study in context / sometimes cant experiment / deals with experiment's limits / helps with triangulation
epistemology
study of the nature of knowledge; how you know what you know
Qualitative research is typically subjective or objective?
subjective
akathisia
subjective feeling of motor restlessness manifested by a compelling need to be in constant movement
In nonprobability sampling what can the researcher only talk about
subjects actually tested
othello syndrome
subtype of delusion of infidelity where one beliefs their spouse is unfaithful and associated with morbid jealousy. can end in violence like othello
intellectual insight
subtype of insight - the knowledge of the reality of a situation without the ability to use that knowledge successfully to effect an adaptive change in behaviour or master the situation
cataplexy
sudden loss of muscle tone - common in narcolepsy
philosophical skepticism
surround the skeptical thesis that says "no one know anything"
10. Philosophical Skepticism:
surrounds skeptical thesis, "no one knows anything . 2 types mitigated and unmitigated
-Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be
swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
What is the foundation of grounded theory?
symbolic interactionism
what does grounded theory use as its philosophical model guiding the researcher?
symbolic interactionism
Grounded theory must use what two things
symbolic interactionism and comparision method
What type of smpling can either be probability or nonprobability sampling?
systematic
Descriptive Qualitative Study
tend to be eclectic in design and method and are used on the GENERAL PREMISES of constructivist inquiry, NO SPECIFIC DISCIPLINE OR ROOTS
Response sets
tendencies of research subjects to distort their responses
Overconfidence
tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions - can lead to confidence in false conclusions
In any study where two populations are compared, the null hypothesis states what?
that there si no difference between them OR zero
The typical alpha refers to .05 which means
that% probability of there is a 5% probability of obtaining an inaccurate result or a 95% probability of obtaining an accurate result
The primary data-gathering instrument is _.
the researcher herself or himself
Structure
the 'what' of a particular phenomenon
The research question determines
the TYPE OF STUDY (what is birth trauma-qualitative, how can we prevent birth trauma-quantitative)
Eidetic Reduction (Husserl)
the act which leads from particulars to the uncovering of the universal/general essence of a phenomenon (essence= central/core pattern inherent in example of that experience)
Naturalistic inquiry
the analysis of social action in uncontrived field settings.
Hierarchy of themes
the arrangement of codes so that some codes (sometimes called sub-codes or children) at a particular level are associated with one code (sometimes called a parent) at the immediately higher level.
fromm
the art of loving. love is not just romance, it's inherit and gets better with practice. was formerly psychoanalyst
Explaining the boundaries of qualitative research It is important to ensure that
the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do.
Resoluteness
the authentic mode of being-towards-death where one is open to abyss present within oneself. Humans find freedom when we acknowledge both our capacity for decisions and our finitude
15. Natural Intellectual Ability:
the basic abilities that which we are born with that allow us to excel in a particular area, like perfect pitch in a musician
- The rationale and purpose of the research determine
the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Explaining methods It is important for outputs to outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put. Explain why particular qualitative approaches and methods were chosen to meet the aims of the research and provide practical detail about how the research was conducted. This can be done in
the body of the report or in a technical appendix. Audit trail: allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.
-Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in,
the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
internal validity
the degree to which we can draw cause-and-effect conclusions
impaired judgement
the diminished ability to understand a situation correctly and to act appropriately
impaired insight
the diminished ability to understand the objective reality of a situation
the interview guide does not use pschometric principles of relaibility and validity but can be modified in what direction?
the direction of the evolving conceptualizations as the study proceeds.
Hermeneutics
the discipline of interpreting texts by empathically imagining the experience, motivations, and context of the speaker/author, and then by engaging in a circular analysis that alternates between the data texts and the situated scene.
Life World (aka Lebenswelt) (Husserl)
the encompassing world of our immediate experience which can be recovered from the world using bracketing of assumptions about the world.
Representativeness
the extent to which conclusions can be confidently generalised to wider population
validity
the extent to which the instrument captures what it is designed to measure
reliability
the extent to which the test is internally consistent and yields the same results
Participants
the focal people of the study.
Phenomenological Reduction
the goal of this reflective method is to see the experience in a fresh way by setting aside 'common sense,' including bracketing concern with whether what is given in experience is real or not.
Social construction
the interpretive idea that reality and knowledge are constructed and reproduced by people through communication, interaction, and practice.
In purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling the researcher makes a judgement regarding what?
the key informants (not called subjects in qualitative research)
Phenomenon
the locus or topic of study.
Quantitative criticisms generally
the methods employed in biomedical and natural sciences are often inappropriate when studying human experiences, processes and behaviour
Noema (Husserl)
the object or content toward which consciousness is directed (the object pole of experience)
Coherentism
the opposing view of foundationalism. There is only 1 category of belief. There are none that are foundational but some more central. Relies of Doxastic assumption that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs
conation
the part of a person's mental life concerned with cravings, strivings motivations, drives and wishes as expressed through behaviour and motor activity
Culture is the way a group of people live
the patterns of activity and the symbolic structures (for example, the values and norms) that give such activity significance.
autoscopy
the perception of seeing oneself
Displaying diversity The ability to identify the range and diversity associated with
the phenomena or topic being studied. Inclusively requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes.
bias
the philosophical, cultural and individual lenses through which each participant brings into a research study.
saturation
the point of redundancy in data collection, at which the researcher is no longer gaining new information; No new themes are emerging.
a priori intuitionism
the position that a priori truths are self-evident
ethical intuitionism
the position that ethical truths are self-evident
Hyperreality
the postmodern idea that many representations or signifiers are constructed and consumed, but lack a specific or materially authentic referent.
Self-reflexivity
the practice of carefully considering the ways in which the researcher's background, points of view, and role impact the researcher's interactions within and interpretations of the research scene.
Bricolage
the practice of making creative and resourceful use of a variety of pieces of data that happen to be available.
problem of projectibility
the problem of determining which predicates are projectable (i.e., can be used in lawlike generalizations that serve as predictions) in induction
problem of perception
the problem of determining why the inference that sense data corresponds with an objective reality is justified
new riddle of induction
the problem of giving an accurate formulation of principles of induction; dubbed by Nelson Goodman (1955)
problem of other minds
the problem of providing a satisfying account of how we know that there are other minds in the world
problem of the basing relation
the problem of providing an informative philosophical analysis of the basing relation
epistemic ascent
the process of reasoning from basic beliefs in the foundationalist model to nonbasic beliefs
being
the question of being "is the that of what it means for anything to be" (existing and experiencing)
- Summary outputs provide
the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
What is essential to question in critiquing research?
the representative nature of the sampling procedure
immediate memory
the reproduction, recognition or recall of perceived material within seconds after presentation (before transfer into short term memory)
Iterative Approach
the researcher alternates between considering existing theories and paying heed to emergent field site data.
epistemic norms
the rules describing the circumstances under which it is epistemically permissible to hold beliefs
What is the major disadvantage of nonprobability sampling?
the sample may not be representative of the larger populaiton
Transcendental Enquiry (Husserl)
the search for what which makes experience possible rather than the nature of particular experiences
13. Mitigated Skepticism:
the skeptical thesis is true that no one knows anything and I believe it is true (don't know but believe)
- The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on
the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Setting
the specific parameters of the space of study within a field and a site (e.g., the basement).
Define effect size
the standardized numerical index of the magnitude or size of a research finding, including the magnitude of a correlation between the variables or the magnitude of difference between the groups.
Ethnonursing Research
the study and analysis of the local and indigenous people's viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about the nursing care behavior and process of designated cultures
qualitative research
the study of a certain phenomena of interest using a variety of means associated with qualitative inquiry, including case study research, interviewing, narrative inquiry, participant observation, discourse analysis, and phenomenological research. Any research project that uses one of the aforementioned methods.
Hermeneutics
the study of understanding, especially the task of understanding texts/the interpretation of life
affect
the subjective and immediate experience of emotion attached to ideas or mental representation of objects. the outward manifestation of mood
Bracketing
the suspension of the question of whether or not something exists, aka the suspension of judgment about truth.
Autoethnography
the systematic study, analysis, and narrative description of one's own experiences, interactions, culture, and identity.
11. Skeptical Thesis:
the theory that no one is capable of really knowing anything, there is no knowledge
third force
the third force in psychology
member check
the validation of data gathered from interview by calibrating findings with participants in the project
Solicitude
the various ways we relate to and feel about others
dialetheism
the view that dialetheias exist; a dialetheia is a sentence, A, such that both it and its negation, ¬A, are true; a sentence which is both true and false; opposed to law of noncontradiction
phenomenalism
the view that the problem of perception can be solved by finding definitions of sense data that proceeded entirely from appearances; the view that physical objects cannot justifiably be said to exist in themselves, but only as perceptual phenomena or sensory stimuli
containment thesis
the view that the state of thinking that one is appeared to in a certain way merely contains the state of being appeared to in that way as part of it, and similarly for thinking that one is not appeared to in that way
the identity thesis
the view that there is no difference between the state of being appeared to in a certain way and the state of thinking you are appeared to in that way; used to establish incorrigibility of appearance beliefs; incorrect
positioning statement
the way in which a researcher explains his stance, role, and bias
Naturalism
the world as a whole is conceived of as being either physical of psychical and thus
The researcher needs to convey what in the theoretically coneptualized data?
their own experience
What are the number of key informants dependent on?
theoretical analysis and what is needed in the conceptualization, satuaration and not on specific number
culture-bound theories involves:
theory based in only one culture
method-bound theories involves:
theory based in only one methodology
methodology
theory of how inquiry should proceed
constructionism
theory of qualitative research that believes knowledge and reality are built on human interaction and experiences within a social context
critical inquiry
theory of qualitative research that emphasizes power relationships in society and uncovers issues of hegemony and injustice
Interpretivism
theory of qualitative research that seeks to understand and explain the phenomena in the research study
The reasoning of qualitative research is inductive in the development of what?
theory or conceptualization
change
therapeutic conditions-conditions through which growth takes place
warmth and genuineness
therapist must be approachable and warm. must be congruent
non-directive therapy
therapists don't know whats in your OVS so they can't tell you what to do. if therapist directs then would cause conditions of self worth
humanism/human potential
there are ways we are different than animals
Care
things matter to us in some way, and we use them. Even indifference is understandable only as a variation of care.
In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to
think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
- The hypothesis story =
this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
16. Intellectual skill:
this is an acquired ability rather than a natural ability, a learned skill
- The mystery story =
this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Structuration theory
this theory directs the researcher's attention to the relationship between individuals and institutions; it focuses on the ways cultures, organizations, and social systems are constituted or created through the micro-practices of individual people.
Convience sampling involves what type of particiapants?
those who are easily accessible to the researcher and who meet the criteria of the study
Not good enough
to say I am possible wrong before I believe I am wrong
13. Application Virtues:
traits that allow us to apply our beliefs or knowledge in order to secure specific goods and purposes a. Organization b. Problem solving c. Foresight
Epoché
transcendental reduction utilizing bracketing, allowing the observer and the observed to have a place together as intersection. For Husserl, this process allows for us to access phenomena in their essential structure.
Confidence marker 1
triangulation and reflexivity - question yourself and inbuilt systems of questioning
T/F the level of statistical significance is specified for a one-tailed or 2 tailed
true
representational generalization
true (generalizable) outside sample
inferential generalization
true outside study conditions
theoretical generalization
true to behavior beyond theory
intropunitive
turning anger inward toward oneself - seen commonly in depressed patients
What tests need a greater sample size?
two tailed-statistical tests
when relationship is modest then large sample sizes are need to avoid what?
type II errors
enumerative induction
type of induction in which one examines a sample of objects of some kind, A, observes that all the A's in the sample have another property, B, and infer on that basis that all A's are B's
statistical induction
type of induction in which one observes that some proportion m/n of A and B are B's and then infer that the probability of an arbitrary A being a B is approximately m/n
confabulation
unconscious filling of gaps in memory by imagining experiences or events that have no basis in fact
-Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience
understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
glossolalia
unintelligible jargon that has meaning to the speaker but not the listener - seen in SCZ
Constructivist Grounded Theory
used by nurses, positivist tradition
Theoretical sampling
used in grounded theory where the researcher selects experiences that will help the researcher test ideas and gather complete information about developing the concepts. Researchers knowledge of the population and its elements are used to select the sample and sampling is stopped with theory saturation or redundancy occurs.
Describe qualitative research
uses broad research questions, does not have variables or a hypthesis
holophrastic
using a single word to express a combination of ideas
negativism
verbal or non verbal opposition or resistance to outside suggestions and advice; commonly seen in catatonic schizophrenia
Profiles:
vignettes of a person's experience.
10. Acquisition Virtues:
virtues needed to acquire knowledge. a. Motivational virtues i. Interest ii. Commitment b. Inquisitiveness c. Teachableness d. Intellectual honesty e. Tenacity of belief
11. Maintenance Virtues:
virtues needed to maintain truth a. improving upon initial deposits b. defend it when beliefs under attack c. this virtue is counterpart in the intellectual realm to loyalty in the moral realm
catatonic posturing
voluntary assumption of an inappropriate/bizzare posture maintained for long periods of time
middle insomnia
waking up after falling asleep without difficulty
idiographic
wants to know what each individual is like. no averages
Naturalistic Observation
watching behaviour in real-world settings - high in external validity, low in internal validity
Authentic (Heidegger)
we are authentic insofar as we take ownership of our existence as ours, and that includes owning our finitude, individuality, and agency.
Thrownness
we are born into a world not of our making and we live under conditions over which we have limited control, yet we are not just passive.
Existential Phenomenology
what are the basic components of all human experience? (Time, things, self, space, world, others...)
form quality
what makes a loaf of bread different than pile of ingredients.
- Structuring around different time periods =
when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
• Structuring around different time periods
when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
When and how is snowball sampling used?
when a researcher is looking for particualr people that is difficult to find such as Progeria The researcher identifies a few parents of children with Progeria and those parents refer the researcher to other parents they know who have children with Progeria.
frustrated needs/unrecognized choices
when becoming is blocked then important aspects of ourselves don't grow
What is participant observation?
when the researcher actually participates as well as observes
when is data collection ended
when there is enough informants = when no one is telling the researcher anthing new Theoretical saturation
When is qualitative used?
when there is little understanding of the phenomenon or when you want rich details
Infinite regress of knowledge claims:
where one builds on another but no proposition takes responsibility of being true or not, no ultimate
What else needs to be determined with sampling
whether the sample size was large enough
Qualitative research outputs Different kind of research outputs:
written report, thesis or monograph, present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
Can the interview be modified as the study proceeds?
yes
3 Necessary and needed conditions to say you know something
you must believe proposition is true proposition must be true you must have good reason (justification) to believe
base rate
~ how common a characteristic or behaviour is in the general population ~ must consider how similar a person is to person in that same category (comp sci major) and also the base rate
standard deviation
~ how far each point deviates from the mean
Meta-Analysis
~ investigation of the consistency of patterns of results across large numbers of studies conducted in different labs - no single study provides all the answers to a scientific question
central tendency
~ measure of the central scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster
Heuristics
~ mental shortcuts that help us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world - we are all mentally lazy and trying to conserve our mental energies by simplifying the world - heuristics cause problems when we use them too often or in inappropriate situations - oversimplification
Prefrontal Lobotomy
~ surgical procedure that severs fibres connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus - many health professionals were convinced that this procedure was an effective treatment for schizophrenia - evidence of effectiveness was based almost entirely on subjective reports
Analytic Induction (AI)
• Building causal explanations • Progressive redefinition of the phenomenon - Collect data, refine, redirect à redirect hypothesis, collect data
Despite different warnings like, the readability of a research, verbatim passages do have a crucial role in terms of 'grounding' complex ideas and analyses in participants' accounts. General principles to use quotations:
• Demonstrate the type of language, terms or concepts that people use to discuss a particular subject. • Illustrate the meanings that people attach to social phenomena • Illustrate people's expressions of their views or thoughts about a particular subject • Illustrate different positions in relation to a model, process or typology • Demonstrate features of participants' presentation of phenomena such as strength, ambivalence, hesitancy confusion or even contradictory views • Amplify the way in which complex phenomena are described and understood • Portray the general richness of individual or group accounts
Other options for structuring a report based on substantive, cross-sectional thematic analysis of the kind described in this book include:
• Structuring around a typology: if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
Strategies to avoid numeric or quasi-numeric statements
• Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. • Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of responses can be seen. • Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form - clustering responses into a number of groups • Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur.
Qualitative Research: Triangulation
"the expansion of research methods in a single study or multiple studies to enhance diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish specific goals" Purpose is to increase the credibility and validity of the results. By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single method, single-observer and single-theory studies.
Reliability
'The degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions' (Hammersley, 1992: 67) (see validity).
Definition of Qualitative Research
'the investigation of phenomena, typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design'
Hindsight Bias
("I knew it all along") - tendency to overestimate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes (e.g., "I knew they were the perfect couple")
Coding
(1) the sorting of raw data, such as responses to open-ended questions or field observations, into categories (2) for computer analysis, coding consists of assigning numbers or symbols to variable categories
14. Pyrrhonic Skepticism:
(also Unmitigated skepticism) the skeptical thesis that no one knows anything is true and I know it is true. Problem, if no one knows anything how do you know it isn't true
12. Unmitigated Skepticism:
(global, absolute, Pyrrhonic) the skeptical thesis that no one knows anything is true and I know it is true. Problem, if no one knows anything how do you know it isn't true
unmitigated
(global, universal, Pyrrhonic): the skeptical thesis is true and I know it is true. Problem If no one knows anything how do we know it isn't true
17. Intellectual Virtue:
(intellectual) qualities considered good and desirable in a person. For example wisdom, prudence, foresight, understanding and discernment
18. Intellectual Virtue:
(intellectual) qualities considered good and desirable in a person. For example wisdom, prudence, foresight, understanding and discernment
alexia
(loss of ability) inability to read
agraphia
(loss of ability) inability to write
17. Virtue:
(moral) quality considered morally good or desirable in a person. For example generosity, compassion, courage, temperance and patience
19. Metaphysical Wisdom:
(one of 3 parts of Christian wisdom) Deals with exploring the ultimate causes at work in the world through reasoning on the basis of objects. Fails to disclose God. Not wrong but incomplete.
20. Theological Wisdom:
(one of 3 parts of Christian wisdom) Knowledge revealed directly by God through the scriptures, and church.
21. Mystical wisdom:
(one of 3 parts of Christian wisdom) Knowledge we will have of God when we meet him face to face. Knowledge by sight not by faith.
12. Communications Virtues:
(pedagogical virtues) those virtues needed to communicate our beliefs a. Those virtues that let us share info about our beliefs b. Knowledge of something does not make up good communicators or teachers c. Include emotion, style, maturity
Natural Theology
(philosophical theology) theologian attempts to say what can be
Types of Sampling
- Convenience sample Widespread invitation - first come basis Strength: easier to recruit Weakness: Hard to ensure will get relevant information - Snowball sampling Early participants recommend others Strength: relatively easy to recruit, trust based on referral Weakness: could be small group of friends with one perspective - Theoretical sampling Used in grounded theory Sample is identified as the study proceeds to 'develop theory as it emerges' Strength: sample will inform theory Weakness: requires complete immersion in data to identify next target sample - Purposive sampling 1. Maximum variation sampling Informants have diverse ethnicity, gender, viewpoints. Strength: common themes can emerge regardless of variation Weakness: may need larger sample size 2. Homogeneous sampling All members similar Strength: smaller sample size, more focused Weakness: not sure if themes are only limited to this group
Components of a Practice Guideline
- Evidence Component Typical effect of this intervention on the typical patient Must be valid and up-to-date - Detailed Instructional component Here is exactly what to do with this patient Must have relevance to patient population
3 Cs of Assessment:
- Is it coherent? - Is it complete? - Is it correct? (These, therefore, are the 3 Cs of assessment: coherence, completeness, and correctness)
Respect for Persons how to apply: - Autonomy - Ability to give or refuse their consent to participate. - Practical application: Consider participant autonomy in research design Consider factors that can diminish participant autonomy Consider how to respect the dignity of those lacking autonomy
- It is unacceptable to treat individuals solely as means (mere objects or things) to an end (a research goal). - The welfare and integrity of the participant must take priority over all else in human research. - Respect for Persons includes: individuals or groups directly involved in research as participants individuals or groups involved in research through the use of their data or biological materials
Know when someone would use a t-test or chi-square
- Know that t-test is used when you have continuous Dependent Variable and categorical Independent variable with only 2 categories - Know that Chi-square is used when you have a categorical DV and categorical IV
Justice How to apply: In research design and REB review, it is important to address the following issues: - Who are the participants? Why this group and not others? - Are any participant groups over- or under-represented because of their vulnerable circumstances? - Are there measures in place to treat people in vulnerable circumstances justly in the context of the research? - Is there an imbalance of power between participants and researchers?
- Obligation to treat all people fairly and equitably. - Fairness is treating all people with equal respect and concern for their welfare - it does not necessarily mean treating everyone the same. - Equity involves the distribution of the benefits and burdens of research participation. No segment of the population should be unfairly burdened with the harms of research. Nor should any individuals or groups be neglected or discriminated against in the opportunity to benefit from knowledge generated by research.
Belief Orientation:
- Past oriented: - Present oriented: - Future oriented:
Rigour vs Validity Vs Trustworthy
- Prolonged engagement Multiple interviews Interviews long enough - Persistent observation ethnography - what is 'enough' time? - Reflexivity strategies Self-interrogation & reflection Journaling/diary Notes during coding Interview self or 'bracketing' interview to expose personal perspectives - Data triangulation Uses multiple data sources Time triangulation - multiple times Space triangulation - multiple sites Person triangulation - multiple types - Methods triangulation Eg interviews, observations & documents - Audit trail Raw data Theoretical notes Process notes Instrument development (pilot versions) Drafts of final report - Member checking *quiz* Show participants data & get feedback Face to face or via writing take findings and bring back to participants. Ask "is this true for you?" - Triangulation Investigator triangulation - More than 2 people make coding decisions Theory triangulation - Use competing theories to analyze data Analysis triangulation - Two or more analysis methods used on same data - Confirming/disconfirming evidence Others review data Negative case - Peer review & debriefing Sessions with peers to assess for bias - Inquiry Audits Do data support findings
Reporting voice and language Flick (2009) refers to van Maanen's classification of three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:
- Realist tales the author is absent from the text, observations are reported as facts etc. (experience-distance) - Confessional tales authors expressing the role they played in what was observed. Mixture of descriptions of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. - Impressionist tales written in the form of a dramatic recall, often via narratives. The tone and style of language that will be appropriate will vary according to the objectives and the target audience.
Statistical significance via p-values
- Research is trying to prove that the difference in groups (or the strength of relationship) did not happen by chance, but is instead the result of the intervention being studied. - alpha =0.05 indicates: Standard that is used unless otherwise indicated there is 5 in 100 (1 in 20) chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 5%. - alpha =0.01 indicates: there is 1 in 100 chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 1%. - alpha =0.001 indicates: there is 1 in 1000 chance that you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 0.1%.
Threats to External validity
- Selection biases and effects Generalizability Need representative sample population - Reactive effects e.g., Hawthorne effect (is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.) - Measurement effects pre-test may influence post-test responses
Levels of transcription
- Semi-transcription: just the important stuff - Full transcription: all the words (often "cleaned up") - Colloquial transcription: all the words, using spellings that approximate colloquial pronunciation --> Pauses, interjections, prosody (rhythm, stress, intonation)
Other options of structuring a report:
- Structuring around a typology = if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
Ethnography
- Studies of people in natural settings or "fields" - Study social meanings and ordinary activities. - Extending understandings of how humans live. - The interconnection of the empirical, the analytical, and the theoretical.
Qualitative research outputs There is no standard format for reporting qualitative research. Researchers may choose, or be required, to present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Comprehensive outputs provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implications from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts.
- Summary outputs provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
Threats to Internal Validity
- Temporal ambiguity Independent variable may not clearly precede DV. - History other activities taking place that might confound findings (cant tell the intervention made a difference. Eg. Natural disaster) - Maturation biological processes that would impact outcomes - Testing repeat tests might influence survey responses. ( - Instrumentation changes in measurement techniques between study subjects - Mortality/Attrition loss of study subjects (death or drop out) May increase sample size to anticipate drop outs - Selection bias e.g., only highly motivated subjects enrolled. Preaching to the converting
Deciding on a narrative and structure Much thinking had to take place before writing begins in earnest so that the writer has a clear idea of how the journey through the research evidence is to be made. Silverman (2010) suggests three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key themes and concepts emerging from a study:
- The hypothesis story = this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Factors that will determine the forms of research outputs:
- The rationale and purpose of the research: will determine the basis of the reporting strategy. - The audience: the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audience being addressed. -Silverman identifies four key audiences for qualitative research: o Academics: theoretical factual or methodological insights o Policy-makers: practical information relevant to current policy issues o Practitioners: framework for understanding their clients better and practical suggestions for better procedures or practice o General public: new facts, guidelines for how to get better services, and assurances that others share their experiences or problems. o Additional audience: study participants - Meeting contractual/ other obligations: the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produces will be agreed at the contractual stage with the client funder. - The resources available
In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research. Specific strategies include:
- Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. - Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of response can be seen. - Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form, clustering the responses into a number of groups (rather than cases). - Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur. These are a few ways that the use of numbers or statements of prevalence can be avoided in qualitative reporting.
debriefing
- after study, participants are informed about the purpose of the study
Error of central tendency
- an unwillingness to provide extreme ratings (low or high)
Pseudosymmetry
- appearance of scientific controversy where none exists while purporting to provide "balanced coverage"
Reliability
- consistency of measurement
Sharpening
- exaggerating the central message of the study
Validity
- extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure
Statistical significance
- finding would have occurred by chance less than 1 in 20 times p<.05
Placebo effect
- improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement -Subjects must be blind - unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group -Placebos show many of the same characteristics as real drugs
Inferential statistics
- mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the population
Standard deviation
- measure of dispersion that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean
Experimenter expectancy effect
- phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias a study outcome
Practical significance
- real-world importance
Leniency effect
- tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous
Halo effect
- tendency of ratings of one positive characteristic to spill over to influence the ratings of other positive characteristics
Epistemology
- the study of knowledge and how individuals gain knowledge (method)
Conclusions and Verification (redo this flashcard)
-Are conclusions based on thorough description and interpretation of the situation? -Consider negative evidence and deviant cases. -Assess desires, values, and expectations of the data analyzer. -Do others analyzing same data come to the same conclusions? -Compare field observation conclusions to those reached via other research methodologies. -Consider how the condition of the observer might influence observations and conclusions. -Look for behavior that is illegal, stigmatizing, potentially embarrassing, or risks punishment. -If possible, make a video or audio recording of the scene. -Assess the representativeness of the individuals, groups, informants, and observational sites. -Evaluate whether the subjects of the research agree with or support the conclusions.
Critique of Guidelines - 4 B's
-Burden of illness Expected Event Rate (EER) -Beliefs of individual patients -Bargain cost-effective? -Barriers geographic or other
Practice Guidelines as Evidence-based Information
-Definition Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate healthcare for specific clinical circumstances (Institute of Medicine, 1990) -Science based -Explicit, yet flexible -Developed by practitioners -Subject to revision
How is qualitative data analysis similar to quantitative analysis?
-Description, explanation, and evaluation -Generalizing beyond the data to more abstract and general concepts or theories
Non-systematic Reviews
-Discusses available research in broad terms -No clear indication of: evaluation of research methods study quality assessment
Knowledge to Action process:
-Identify a problem that needs addressing -Identify, review, and select the -knowledge or research relevant to the problem (e.g., practice guidelines or research findings) -Adapt the identified knowledge or research to the local context -Assess barriers to using the knowledge -Select, tailor, and implement interventions to promote the use of knowledge (i.e., implement the change) -Monitor knowledge use -Evaluate the outcomes of using the knowledge -Sustain ongoing knowledge use
NCLEX Definitions of Informatics
-Informatics stores, translates, links, and aggregates clinical data. -Computer patient records and clinical information systems -Wireless and portable devices -Physician order entry minimal informatics competencies that nurses should possess?: a. Implement policies to protect privacy and confidentiality b. Maintain security of information c. Record data relevant to the nursing care of patients -Telehealth removes time and distance barriers from the delivery of health care services or related health care activities. -Standardizing electronic data interchange -Information technology improves patient care through comprehensive evaluation of the safety, effectiveness, and cost/benefits.
Alerts Used to prevent errors when doing computerized provide order entry
-Notification of potential problem -Common application is adverse drug event prevention: Dosage Drug-drug interaction Allergy Drug-laboratory value interaction -Frequently tied to computer-based provider order entry (CPOE)
Tools for Patient-specific Consultation
-Provide custom-tailored assessments or advice based on sets of patient-specific data e.g., decision analysis, DXplain, guideline or protocol eligibility -Can be Knowledge-based or Model-based -Knowledge-based systems QMR, Mycin, DXplain -Model-based expected value decision making
RE-AIM
-Reach Target audience (individual level) -Efficacy maximize efficacy (individual level) -Adoption Maximize adherence (organizational level) Targeted audience (organizational level) -Implementation Intervention fidelity (organizational level) -Maintenance Sustained delivery (individual & organizational level)
RE-AIM Questions
-Reach What proportion of the target population participated in this intervention? -Efficacy What is the success rate if implemented as in protocol? -Adoption What proportion of settings, practices and plans will adopt this intervention? -Implementation To what extent in the intervention implemented in the real-world -Maintenance To what extent is the program sustained over time?
How to measure each factor:
-Reach The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of individuals who participate in a given initiative, intervention or program. -Representativeness refers to whether participants have characteristics that reflect the target population's characteristics. For example, if your intent is to increase physical activity in sedentary people between the ages of 35 and 70, you wouldn't test your program on triathletes. -Effectiveness/Efficacy The impact of an intervention on important outcomes. This includes potential negative effects, quality of life, and economic outcomes. -Adoption The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of settings and staff who are willing to initiate a program or approve a policy. -Implementation At the setting level, implementation refers to how closely staff members follow the program that the developers provide. This includes consistency of delivery as intended and the time and cost of the program. -Maintenance At the setting level, the extent to which a program or policy becomes part of the routine organizational practices and policies. At the individual level, maintenance refers to the long-term effects of a program on outcomes after 6 or more months after the most recent intervention contact.
Clinical Pathways (aka - integrated care pathways)
-Structured, multidisciplinary plans of care designed to support the implementation of clinical guidelines and protocols -Designed to support clinical management, clinical and non-clinical resource management, clinical audit and also financial management -Provide detailed guidance for each stage in the management of a patient (treatments, interventions) -Define specific condition over a given time period, and include progress and outcomes details
Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence:
-Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions. -Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in, the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
Reminders Are softer than alerts, used to remind about a guideline
-Typically guideline-related -Preventive care: Mammograms Immunizations Diabetic care Hypertension management -Generally improved clinician compliance with guideline recommendations -Some positive impact on patient outcomes
What four things do you not do with qualitative research
-do not combine various qualitation methods -do not combine the philosophical underpinnings of one type with another -combine qualitative and quantitative research designs within a study -do not use any numerical counting to qualitative: such as word stress was used how many times during the interview
To enhance trustworthiness of results:
-more than one person independently code data and compare results -peer debriefing among researchers -member checking
Example of systematic sampling with probability
-population consists of 5000 people -you need a sample of 500 -Formula: 5000/500 yields a k of 10 -the starting number is randomly chosen selecting a nuumber 1-10 -If 9 chosen then every 10th subject such as 9, 19, 29, 39 and so forth
Name the 4 major types of probability sampling
-simple random sampling -stratified random sampling -cluster sampling -systematic sampling
Negative Cases
...
When a sample is randomly chosen it is more what of the populationcaurate representation
...
grounded code
...
guilt
...
hallucination
...
known about God or the divine apart from any commitment to any religion or belief
...
techniques for identifying codes
...
What are Cohen's bench marks for effect size?
.20 is considred small .50 is medium .80 is large and the sample size is adequate
most nursing studies cannot expect effect sizes to be in excess of
.50 most .20-.40
Strengths of qualitative research
1. Collects "rich", meaningful data that is often detailed and in-depth. 2. Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues. 3. Can be helpful in establishing underlying causes that may be missed in the quantitative approach. 4. Can be used to generate new theories. 5. Often has increased ecological validity as people are studied in their own environment.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research that Apply ACROSS Disciplines, and now recognized in Health Care:
1. Flexible, capable of adjusting to what is being learned during data collection; 2. Requires the researcher to become intensely involved over extended lengths of time; 3. Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies (data mainly in text form); 4. Tends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole; 5. Typically involves a merging together of various data collection strategies; and 6. Study participants typically described as informants.
Deciding on a narrative and structure Three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key elements and concepts emerging from a study:
1. The hypothesis story: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Formula for Dasein's being
1. ahead-of-itself (focused on future) 2. already-in (the world) 3. being alongside (entities encountered in the world)
epistemological revolution
200 years ago, the dominant epistemological lens was religion. During the industrial revolution, science replaced religion. In the 20th century there was an epistemological revolution where began to question the relevance of scientific method in understanding human behaviour
What is often considered the minimum sample size?
30, but really too small
1. The hypothesis story
: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
hebephrenia
= disorganized schizophrenia - characterised by wild or silly behaviour, or mannerisms, inappropriate affect and delusions and hallucinations that are transient and unsystematized
haptic hallucination
= tactile hallucination = hallucination of touch
Rationalism.
A belief in reason as being authoritative in the pursuit of truth.
What is an instrumental case study?
A case study which can be used to describe other situations or build up relevant theories.
relational property
A characteristic that something has only in relation to another thing e.g. being taller than Jane or being in love with Ben
Assent
A child's permission - understanding regarding an intervention / needed in addition to a parents informed consent.
clear and distinct idea
A clear idea is 'present and accessible to the attentive mind'; a distinct idea is clear and also sharply separated from other ideas so that every part of it is clear
Membership categorization device
A collection of categories (e.g. baby, mommy, father = family; male, female = gender) and some rules about how to apply these categories.
Preference organization
A concept derived from conversation analysis which suggests that recipients of actions recognize a preference for what they should do next.
Postmodernism
A contemporary approach which questions or seeks to deconstruct both accepted concepts (e.g. the 'subject' and the 'field') and scientific method. Postmodernism is both an analytical model and a way of describing contemporary society as a pastiche of insecure and changing elements.
Interview
A data collection technique in which an interviewer poses questions to the interviewee.
Describe what we mean when we talk about "thick description?"
A deeper, more detailed description - feelings, behaviors, of an experience
illusion
A distortion of sense experience that means what we perceive is different from what exists
Spurious Relationship
A false relationship between two variables (A, B). A and B may appear to be causally related, but they are actually affected independently by a third variable (C). For example, U.S. cities with the highest number of art museums (A) also have the highest concentrations of smog (B). What might explain this? City size.
Credibility
A feature that describes how correct or valid conclusions are about the functionality of a relationship between two variables, such as a procedure and changes in behavior; addresses the validity of the answer to the question.
Heterogenous Focus Group
A focus group where participants are different.
Chicago School
A form of sociological ethnography usually assumed to originate in the 1920s when students at the University of Chicago were instructed to put down their theory textbooks and to get out on to the streets of their city and use their eyes and ears. It led to a series of studies of the social organization of the city and of the daily life of various occupational groups.
Abstraction or abstract idea
A general idea without particulars e.g. chair (vs. that or those chairs) or redness (vs. that or these red thing). Many think abstractions exist only in the mind.
Control group
A group not given some stimulus provided to another group; a control group is used for comparative purposes.
interview guide
A list of topics to be covered in an interview. Similar to a questionnaire, but much less structured, and without multiple-response questions. Used mainly in semi-structured interviews and group discussions.
in depth interview
A method of data collection in which a participant is interviewed in detail about a certain research participant. In this format, the interviewer leads the discussion flexibly along some pre-structured topics, but also allows the participant to expand upon topics in-depth and to explore new avenues of discussion.
Emotionalism
A model of social research in which the primary issue is to generate data which give an authentic insight into people's experiences. Emotionalists tend to favour open-ended interviews (see Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).
Constructionism
A model which encourages researchers to focus upon how phenomena come to be what they are through the close study of interaction in different contexts. It is opposed to naturalism.
hallucination
A non-veridical perception experience that is not coherently connected with the rest of our perceptual experience
Qualitative Studies: Case Studies
A particular case study may be the focus of any of the previously mentioned field strategies. In depth description of dimensions and processes of a phenomena, close scrutiny and understanding. The case study is important in qualitative research, especially in areas where exceptions are being studied. Example: A patient may have a rare form of cancer that has a set of symptoms and potential treatments that have never before been researched.
sensible quality
A property that can be detected by the senses
Hypothesis
A proposal or tentative insight into the natural world intended to explain certain facts or observations; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena.
Ad hoc
A proposition added to a theory to make it work.
true
A proposition is true if things are as it states, e.g. the proposition 'The grass is green' is true if the grass is green, and otherwise it is false
veridical
A proposition that is true or an experience that represents the world as it actually is
necessary
A proposition that must be true (or if false, it must be false); a state of affairs that must hold
Conversation analysis
A qualitative approach based on an attempt to describe people's methods for producing orderly talk-in-interaction. It derives from the work of Harvey Sacks (1992).
What is an observation?
A qualitative/quantitative method of research conducting without manipulating any variables and instead merely watching to receive results.
Social survey
A quantitative method involving the study of large numbers of people, often through the use of questionnaires.
Rewriting of history
A term used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to the way in which any account retrospectively finds reasons for any past event.
Idiom
A term used by Gubrium and Holstein (1997) to describe a set of analytical preferences for particular concepts, styles of research and ways of writing (see model).
Grand theory
A term used by Mills (1959) to describe highly abstract speculation which has little or no use in research.
Social structure
A term used in sociology and anthropology to describe the institutional arrangements of a particular society or group (e.g. family and class structures).
Paradigmatic
A term used in structuralism to indicate a polar set of concepts or activities where the presence of one denies the existence of the other (e.g. a red traffic light).
Syntagmatic
A term used within semiotics to denote the order in which related elements occur (e.g. how colours follow one another in traffic lights).
What does Cronbach's alpha measure?
A test of reliability regarding internal consistency
Hypothesis
A testable proposition often based on an educated guess.
What is a raw-theme?
A theme that has naturally arisen from the data. A theme such as, "I enjoy working at home..."
Substantive theory
A theory about a particular situation or group. Can be used to develop formal theory.
7. Correspondence theory:
A theory of truth that says a proposition is true if it corresponds to the facts of reality
Grounded theory
A theory which involves three stages: an initial attempt to develop categories which illuminate the data; an attempt to 'saturate' these categories with many appropriate cases in order to demonstrate their relevance; and the attempt to develop these categories into more general analytic frameworks with relevance outside the setting.
Interactionism
A theory, commonly used in qualitative sociological research, which assumes that our behaviour and perceptions derive from processes of interaction with other people.
Coherence theory of truth
A thing is deemed to be true if it is consistent.
Inductive content analysis
A type of analysis in which researchers derive themes and constructs from the data without imposing a prior framework and without counting.
Phenology
A type of qualitative study that focuses on "lived experiences"
De facto
Actually, as a matter fact.
Qualitative Research: Interview: + and -
Advantages: Researcher able to observe for clues in non-verbal behavior as they answer questions Better response rate than questionnaires, as subject does not have to write down answers Access to vulnerable populations (children or people who are unable to complete questionnaires) Allow for a richer and more complex data to be collected especially in the case of unstructured or semi-structured interviews Researcher controls the order of questions for all participants (makes sure all questions asked). May add new question to future interviews as new information disclosed Disadvantages: Social desirability: people are known to answer questions in a way that makes a favorable impression The researcher assumes the subject is telling the 'truth'. Not always the case Interviewer must be trained to prevent interviewer bias (adding in own views) Potential reaction to interviewer-will this affect my care? Did I pass?
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 3
After the fact speculation about the meaning of correlation can result in the common-sense reasoning that science is trying to avoid
time-lag argument
Against direct realism: because it takes time for us to perceive physical objects, we don't see them directly, e.g. as light takes eight minutes to reach the earth from the sun, if you look at the sun you are actually seeing it as it was 8 minutes ago. Therefore you are not perceiving the sun directly
argument from perceptual variation
Against direct realism: different people perceive the same physical object differently. Therefore, what each person perceives is how the object appears to them. This appearance is mind-dependent sense-data. Physical objects are therefore not perceive directly
argument from hallucination
Against direct realism: the possibility of hallucinations that are subjectively indistinguishable from a veridical perception means that we don't immediately perceive physical objects, but sense-data
Critical theory
Aka: critical social theory Concerned with critique of society Looks at power hierarchies in social systems Form of action research Researcher focused on sociopolitical action Critical ethnography Raises consciousness to produce social change
Foundational Similarities between quantitative and qualitative research
All qualitative data can be measured and coded using quantitative methods. Quantitative research can be generated from qualitative inquiries. Example: Patient reported outcomes (PRO) Tools that are used to gain insight from the patient's perspective into the perceived effects that the impact of the disease and treatments have on aspects of their health, their lifestyle and subsequently their quality of life.
Berkeley's idealism
All that exists are minds and ideas. What we think of as physical objects are, in fact, bundles of ideas. The immediate objects of perception are ideas, mind-dependent objects. Esse est percipe (aut percipere) -- to be is to be perceived (or to perceive)
What is a strength about a case study?
Allows you to study a specific/rare situation. Case studies are useful because the data recieved is very rich. Rich data means that the data is extensive and thorough.
Participant expectation
Also called reactivity; the participants' ideas of the research and the researcher which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. Ex. The participant acts in a such a way that he/she thinks they're helping the researcher.
CPHS
Also known as the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects which serves the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and aims to ensure the protection of the rights and welfare of all human participants in research conducted by university faculty, staff, and students.
Hermeneutics
An approach concerned with interpretation (originally derived from the study of biblical texts).
Romanticism
An approach taken from nineteenth-century thought in which authenticity is attached to personal experiences (see emotionalism).
Empiricism
An approach which believes that evidence about the world does not depend upon models or concepts (see positivism).
Tautology
An argument that is true by definition. Not a very strong argument (e.g. 1 is a number therefore a number is 1).
Reason:
An aspect of analysis involving the power of moving logically from one idea to another, of seeing connections of logic or cause and effect, and of inferring conclusions from given premises.
property
An attribute or characteristic of an object, e.g. the property of being green or tall
Appeal to authority.
An informal logical fallacy characterized by appeals to experts.
Appeal to pity
An informal logical fallacy characterized by the use of pity.
Appeal to the crowd
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by appeal to emotions and prejudice.
Appeal to ignorance
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by basing a proof on the lack of contrary evidence.
Distraction
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by distracting the opponent from the central issues.
Genetic fallacy
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by focusing on origins or causes.
Circular reasoning or begging the question
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by having a form of the conclusion in one of the premises.
Appeal to force
An informal logical fallacy that is characterized by intimidation and pressure.
Observation
An information-gathering technique that involves watching people by using other people or by using a camera.
Semi-structured interview
An interview in which the interviewer determines the major question beforehand, but allows sufficient flexibility to probe into other areas as needed to evaluate an applicant's personality.
What is an intrinsic case-study?
An intrinsic case study is a case study that are of interest purely for their own sake, there is no need to generalize beyond the situation at hand.
Continuer
An utterance which signals to a listener that what they have just said has been understood and that they should now continue (see conversation analysis).
Artifacts
Anything that was important to the subject; WWII vet keeps things from the war.
Homogeneity
Are the elements similar? To what degree?
Memos
Are to SELF; reminders, why did I choose these themes?
Dialectic
Arriving at truth be means of dialogue, especially questions.
Logical Positivism
Assumes reality is independent of the knower If the researcher is careful, it is possible to arrive at unbiased truth
Social Constructionism
Assumes researchers construct knowledge that is influenced by the social context of their inquiry (Berger and Luckmann) There is no such thing as pure, "unbiased" truth, it always from a perspective
Cognitive anthropology
Attempts to understand the structures that organize how people perceive the world. This leads to the production of ethnographies, or conceptually derived descriptions, of whole cultures, focused on how people communicate.
Dependability examples;
Audit trail again, multiple interviews, data saturation, coding checks that show agreement, uniformity of responses across subjects
Confirmability examples;
Audit trail, knowing potential bias, accurate record keeping
perception
Awareness of apparently external objects through use of the senses
Considerations before, during and after interview
BEFORE: Relevant sampling methods Training of the interviewer Choice of interviewer How the data will be recorded How the data will be transcribed (verbatim/postmodern) DURING: To establish rapport between interviewer and patient Positioning of recording device The use of an active listening technique AFTER: Debriefing of participant Reading of transcripts by participant Feedback from participant
Transferability
BETTER QUOTES used, internet used to recruit sample
Empirical
Based on evidence through observation or experiment.
In qualitative analysis, _ reduces and simplifies the data, but retains words and their essential meanings.
Coding
descriptive coding
Coding to codes that simply refers to surface features of the people, events, settings etc in a study. Much descriptive coding can be done using variables in MAXqda or attributes in NVivo. Families in Atlas.ti can server a similar purpose.
name a book to help with power of analysis?
Cohen's Statistical Power of Analysis for the Behavioral science later she talks about "A Power Primer"
Sophism or sophistry, sophist
Concerning argumentation that only appears to be convincing. One who makes only apparently strong arguments.
Confidence Intervals (CI)
Confidence Intervals are used to describe the precision of the estimate: -Narrow confidence intervals, more precise - Wide confidence intervals, less precise NOTE: your result (which is a point estimate) always lies in the middle of the 95% CI
Quality + Quantity + Consistency = ?
Confidence to ACT
Give some ethical considerations of interviews.
Confidentiality.
The term that describes the rigor used by a researcher doing a qualitative study in terms of methodology and audit trail is?
Confirmability
Statistical Significance via Confidence Intervals
Continuous Data --> e.g., Mean Differences: HINT: the means are being subtracted from each other TIP: if both the low end and the high end of the 95% CI have minus signs, then it is always LESS THAN and statistically significant or vise versa RULE: if the 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) includes "0", the result is not significant, i.e. there is no difference between the groups EXAMPLE: Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (-1.1 to 8) Not Significant Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (2 to 8) Significant Discrete Data --> Categorical results (e.g., Ratios): HINT: the proportions are being divided TIP: if both the high end of the CI and the low end of the CI start with 'zer0' (i.e., a decimal), then 95% CI DOES NOT cross '1' therefore statistically significant and ALWAYS LESS LIKELY and vice versa RULE: if the 95% CI includes "1", the result is not significant and there is no difference between the groups Example Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (0.5, 6.4) Not Significant Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (1.5, 6.4) Significant
Qualitative Research: Credibility (internal validity)
Credibility Refers to confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of that data Description must be plausible and recognized by participants Enhanced by: Prolonged time in the field repeatedly observing and interacting with participants Using different data sources, methods, data type Conducting member checks = Involving other investigators in the study
Explain "credibility" in qualitative research. (Lincoln and Guba)
Credibility is like internal validity. They focus more on whether or not the researcher has reached the right conclusion according to the rich data.
trustworthiness
Credibility, in the rhetoric of qualitative research (Morrow, 2005)
CAT
Critical Apprasial Table
Ethnography
Culture; What are the self-breast exam practices of Amerasian women?
Correlational - examines relationships amoung variables
Data collection methods - questionnaire, survey / scales / biophysi
The Vision for Clinical Informatics
Data should be: -Captured as a byproduct of the care process -Entered only once (and verified if needed) Use and re-used for: 1.Data Sharing (view reports and others' notes) Pros: Remote & Asynchronous viewing Multiple concurrent viewers Decrease repeat tests (cost savings) Cons: Potential for privacy breach Requires national standards for health information exchange Info-structure costly to implement Presumes digital literacy 2.Real time decision support (guideline integration, knowledge translation) Pros: Supports guideline adherence Prevents some adverse events (e.g., drug-drug interaction) Can be used for quality data tracking Cons: Complex & time consuming to develop Alert fatigue Technology induced errors if user interface confusing Presumes data collection complete from previous users Requires comprehensive infostructure and standards 3.Administrative reporting (must know what you will get OUT of system) Pros: Automated reports: reduce time to get administrative data Reduce cost of medical records department Near to 'real-time' administrative reporting (currently there is a time lag due to manual data abstraction) Cons: Data collection pushed to front-line person Uncertain how data is used for decision making Information overload --> not using data? Can't get data out unless planned during system design May require additional time/expertise when building system 4.Research 5.Practice-based evidence (knowledge discovery) Pros: for 4 and 5 Big Data (Massive data) Larger data sets Have full population data Data mining techniques can be applied Time to get data faster because no need for manual data extraction Cons: for 4 and 5 Potential for Privacy breach if mining identifiable data Can't get data out if system not designed for it Can take longer if data are 'dirty' Qualitative data might not be used Might miss context of quantitative data
Qualitative Research: Triangulation: types
Data triangulation: using a variety of data sources in a study-different settings, different collection times, methods Investigator triangulation: investigators or evaluators are from different backgrounds Theory triangulation: different theoretical approaches to the interpretation of the data Methodological triangulation: different methods used to study the data Interdisciplinary triangulation: other disciplines increase the understanding of the phenomena
Researcher-provoked data
Data which are actively created and, therefore, would not exist apart from the researcher's intervention (e.g. interviews, focus groups).
Naturally occurring data
Data which derive from situations which exist independently of the researcher's intervention.
Operational Notes
Deal with methodological issues - ideas and reminders about coding process itself
What is quantitative methodology?
Deductive, draws small conclusions from big ideas. Answers in numbers, tries to establish a cause and effect relationship by manipulating variables.
Ethnographic Data Analysis Methods
Definition: - Analysis of individuals' behaviour (data collected through participant observation) and thoughts (data collected through key informant interviews) to identify patterns and ultimately describe cultural symbols Procedures/methods - During participant observation - make field notes including early identification of patterns - Draw flow charts or others pictures to show relationships between people and/or the things they say and/or the things they use (artefacts) - Identify and categorize descriptors - Discover repetitive patterns in the context of the culture - Abstract the patterns into themes
Grounded Theory Data Analysis Methods
Definition: - Constant comparative analysis of mostly narrative data to identify categories and relationships between categories (to identify a theory) Procedures/methods: - breaking down sentences, observations or incidents described by participants - Assign codes to data (words or sentences) - Specify the relationships between the codes by constantly comparing to other participants codes and to the participants own codes - Identify emergent theory/conceptual description
Qualitative Content Analysis Methods
Definition: analysis of the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes Procedures/methods: Read transcripts Break down interviewees words into smaller data units Name the units according to the content they represent Group the units based on shared concepts
Cogito ergo sum
DesCartes: "I think therefore I am."
the cogito
Descartes' first certain knowledge 'I think'
Descriptive
Describes HUMAN EXPERIENCES → descriptive themes (Husserl)
Phenomenological Data Analysis Methods
Description: - interpretation of the narrative stories to identify themes and present a holistic description Procedures/methods: - Read transcripts - Identify 'meaning units' from data (could be a full sentence or only a word) - Organize 'meaning units' into themes - Integrate results into a thorough description of the phenomenon
_ codes: involve fairly directly observed behaviors or events.
Descriptive
Quantitative
Descriptive (correlational, . . .) Experimental
Two Types of Phenomenological research
Descriptive and Interpretive
Explain the three types of questions used in interviews.
Descriptive questions: Questions which are like "tours" they require the interviewee to describe something themselves. Questions like this include, "describe your day at school." Structural questions: Questions that are searching for a specific answer, they are structured. It might be the interviewees have to arrange words into an order or they are asked yes or no questions, etc. Contrast questions: Questions where interviewees are asked to compare different things in order for the interviewer to gain some perspective on their opinions.
Methods of Evaluating Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness
Developing standards of quality Lincoln and Guba's classic work shed light on how to assess truth in a qualitative report Offered four alternate tests of quality that reflect the assumptions of the qualitative paradigm: Credibility Dependability Transferability Confirmability
intuition
Direct non-inferential awareness of abstract objects or truths
Ethnographic Research
Disciplinary root- cultural anthropology & sociology Seeks to understand human behavior by studying it from the perspective of individuals within that culture. (learning cultural patterns) Includes knowledge, beliefs and activities of group under study combining the EMIC perspective (insiders view) with the ETIC Perspective (researcher's view) Researcher enters the world and attempts to make sense of it. Ex: "How Northern Saskatchewan Families with Preschoolers Define and Practice Health" would tell us about cultural norms and knowledge and other contextual behaviors that would influence the health experience of a particular population in this specific setting-
Grounded theory
Discovering how people describe their own reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions in a social scene. Code certain reactions into different categories (ex. coping with a seriously ill child). The core of grounded theory analysis is based on three related processes: description, coding and connecting themes to produce an account.
Appraising qualitative research: Trustworthiness of Data
Do the results accurately portray participants' experiences? Rigour- quality of study reflected in the believability of study findings. Was the right approach used to answer the research question with the patient population? Was data rich and did it show that a relationship existed between themes ?
Textual data
Documents and/or images which have become recorded without the intervention of a researcher (e.g. through an interview).
Quality of Qualitative Studies
Does replication make sense for qualitative studies? - Not necessarily, b/c we're looking for the particular, not the general Is there a fundamental social reality against which results can be checked to assess validity? - Not trying to find a "truth", often looking for something that's "interesting"
YES
Does sample size matter?
Skepticism
Doubt, or more strictly, the belief that absolute truth or certainty cannot be attained.
Turn Signals
During an interview, this refers to a marked shift in the flow of the discussion. For example, "Up to now we've been talking about X; now I'd like to explore Y."
Internalism
Epistemic obligation says we have a duty in being responsible for what we believe. Internalism say that we have to have introspective access to the reason for my belief to which I must appeal to for justificationEvidentualism: most common form of Internalism. I appeal to evidences for reasons why I believe something to be true
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Structure of Study
Ethnographers make their own beliefs explicit and bracket (set aside) their personal biases as they seek to understand the worldview of others and to avoid leading the participant to issues that may be only important to the researcher. Ex. Suppose that a nurse conducting research does not personally believe in homeopathic medicines curing disease- believes in traditional health care. Own beliefs will have to be carefully bracketed and recorded along with observations and reports from researcher's sample. Sample Selection- cultural group that is living the phenomenon under study. Data is collected from both key informants and general informants. Key informants- individuals that possess special knowledge, status, or communication skills and are willing to teach ethnographer about the phenomenon. Purposive Sampling- participants specifically selected because they are knowledgeable on the subject under study. Identified by the Researcher in advance from thoughtful inquiry. Snowball Sampling- asking key informants to identify other key informants they know as friends, relatives, others who have information to share
impression
Experiences that we are immediately and directly aware of, which can either be impressions of 'sensation' or impressions of 'reflection'. Impressions of sensation derive from our senses; impressions of reflection derive from the experience of our mind, including emotions
Data Collection: Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Focus group interviews Joint/dyadic interviews Life histories Oral histories Critical incidents Diaries & Journals Think aloud Photo elicitation Data from the Web - Participant observation Physical setting Participants Activities & interactions Frequency & duration Precipitating factors Organization Intangible factors - Recording observations Notes/tools
Fieldwork Gaining trust/gaining entrée Pacing Reflexivity Emotional involvement Non verbal is important too -Recording, transcribing & storing data audio/video recordings Transcription: Professional transcription or transcription by researcher/research team Transcript verification Review for non-verbal cues
Purposive sampling usually used
Finding people with "typical" experience or with different or extreme examples
Representational generalization
Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study.
Representational generalization
Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to similar populations outside the population of the study as the populations, not the settings, need to be similar.
Inferential generalization
Findings of the study can also be applied to settings outside the setting of the study.
Qualitative Research: Summary: Advantages and Limitations
Focus on the whole of the human experience and the meanings ascribed to them by participants They provide the researcher with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces Participants true reality is likely to be reflected Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and generalizability Researchers become the research tools and may lack objectivity
Propositional knowledge
Formal and explicit - derived from research and scholarship
Anecdotalism
Found where research reports appear to tell entertaining stories or anecdotes but fail to convince the reader of their scientific credibility.
Pattern Discovery Process
Frequencies (How many?), Magnitudes (How much?), Structures (To whom?), Processes (Order), Causes (Why), Consequences (Outcome)
Grounded theory: social processes
Grounded theory focuses on 'social processes related to human interactions'. Foundation of Grounded Theory- social science (sociology) and symbolic interaction Developing a theory based on observations. Inductive approach- process of reasoning from specific observations to more general rules Used to construct theory where no theory exists, or when the existing theory fails to explain a set of circumstances.
Ethics
Guidelines or principles relating to good professional practice.
What is theoretical sensitivity?
Having data collection and analysis closely guided by emerging theoretical issues
Power analysis
Helps with validity. How many people do we need in the study before we begin?
Constructionist view
Humans don't crease knowledge; but rather they find it thru interactions; grounded theory
Projection
Humans live toward the future, and this is the realm of freedom, emerging of the new.
relations of ideas
Hume: relations of ideas are established by pure thought or reflection and are 'intuitively and demonstratively certain'. The negation of a relation of ideas is a contradiction
knowledge as truth claims (propositional knowledge)
I know Kennedy was president in 1962 Always in form of proposition that is true or false Epistemology is concerned with this type of knowledge
metaphysical:
I know something's exist (analytical truths and empirical truths) but cannot know other things (metaphysical truths) known as local skeptics
Case Study
IN DEPTH investigation of one single entity or a small group
Integrating Memos
Ideas about how to organize axial codes into a coherent account of the data
Theories
Ideas which arrange sets of concepts to define and explain some phenomenon.
Analysis
Identify KEYWORDS AND PHRASES that stick out (anger- "just about murdered that woman")
Code Notes
Identify code labels and meanings to researcher
disjunctive theory of perception
If something looks a certain way, then one of two quite different things is going on: either I directly perceive a mind-independent physical object that is F, or it appears to me just as if there is something that is F, but there is nothing that is F
Dependability
If the findings are true? Are they true all the time?
Intervention and advocacy
If there is an issue with a study, are you willing to do something about it?
Name two journals that frequently publish qualitative research?
Image Advances in Nursing Science
Sampling; inclusion criteria
Imposed by the researcher; must include
Externalism
In response to epistemic obligations externalism says that I can believe what I want as long as I came to the belief through the proper cognitive process (warranted rather than justified is the chosen word)Regress argument: an attempt to conclude an argument with another conclusion which itself need justification
Response Rate
In survey research, this refers to the number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample; it is usually expressed in the form of a percentage. For example, 1,000 surveys sent by mail, 257 were completed and returned, response rate would be 25.7%.
Reflexivity
Involves a researcher analyzing and critically considering their own role in, and affect on, the research.
Content Analysis Coding
Involves assigning artifacts to one or more categories
Theory triangulation
Involves the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data.
Researcher triangulation
Involves using more than one observer, interviewer or researcher to confirm the findings by comparing and checking data collection and interpretation.
Explain: "representativeness"?
Is the sample, representative of the population - measured.
Hume and Descarte focus on the need to equate certainty with knowledge.
It is not necessary but defeasibility is. In the absence of defeaters or the unlikelihood of defeaters I am justified in saying I know that proposition to be true/
What is reflexivity?
It refers to the researcher's need to be constantly reflective during the entire qualitative process. All personal beliefs and biases must be acknowledged and the method itself must be assessed. This can be done by keeping a diary or being interviewed by a fellow researcher. All of this must be included in the final report.
acquaintance knowledge
Knowing 'of' someone or some place e.g. I know the manager of the restaurant or I know Bristol well
propositional knowledge
Knowing 'that' some claim - a proposition - is true or false e.g. 'I know that Beijing is the capital of China'
6. Synthetic A Priori knowledge:
Knowledge about the real world truths gained without the need of experience. Used the analogy of a computer where the data that is inputted is then put together in new ways to yield new information
a posteriori
Knowledge of propositions that can only be known to be true or false through sense experience
a priori
Knowledge of propositions that do not require (sense) experience to be known to be true or false
innate
Knowledge or ideas that are in some way present from birth
A priori
Knowledge that is inferred through language rather than experience
Finding qualitative data helps the researcher?
Labels/ simplifies the data - clustering/ helps to be able to analyze the data later
tabula rasa
Latin for blank slate. Locke claims that at birth our mind is tabula rasa, meaning we have no innate knowledge or dieas
Non sequitur
Latin for it does not follow. (Think not non sequential sequitur.)
Why use CAT's?
Lend credibility to your own research - get the basic information on the table, highlight the important data
GOLD STANDARD OF DATA
Level - A product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
Levels of measurement
Phenomenology
Lived experience; What is the lived experience of a woman dying from breast cancer?
reflection
Locke: our experience of the 'internal operations of our minds', gained through introspection or an awareness of what the mind is doing. More generally, thinking
Electronic Guidelines/Pathways
Logic of guideline/pathway embedded into clinical information system: -Alerts at appropriate time points based on relevant data -Improve adherence to guidelines E.g., flu vaccine for >65
participant observation
Logs (field diaries). Field notes, Descriptive (observational) notes
Quantitative research typically is _______.
Low reflexivity
Member/Respondent validation
Minimize researcher bias by consulting the research participants regarding raw data, codes, interpretations, etc.
Constant Comparison of coders
Minimize researcher bias by ensuring consistency and completeness.
Negative Cases
Minimize researcher bias by exploring cases that are contrary to the emerging or prevailing perspective.
Inter-rater reliability
Minimize researcher bias by minimizing researcher bias
Trustworthiness
Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.
Trustworthiness
OVERALL INTEGIRTY of study's evidence, equivalent to internal validity
unperceived objects
Objects that exist when not perceived by anyone
Covert observation
Observation in which the observer's presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed.
What research methods are used in qualitative research?
Observations, case studies, interviews.
Naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
linear coherence theory
On a linear theory, if we trace the reasons for a belief, and the reasons for the reasons, and so on, we can never reach a stopping point. If there were a stopping point, it would have to consist of episte- mologically basic beliefs, and coherence theories deny that there are epis- temologically basic beliefs. There are just two ways in which the tracing of reasons can go on forever—either there is an infinite regress of reasons, or eventually the reasons go around in a circle. Thus a linear positive coherence theory must acknowledge that justified belief can result from either an infinite regress of reasons, or from circular reasoning.
sufficient condition
One proposition is a sufficient condition for another when the first cannot be true while the second is false. For example, being a dog is sufficient for being an animal, because something can't be a dog without also being an animal
Involves unrestricted coding to produce concepts and dimensions that seem to fit the data fairly well.
Open Coding
Ethics; generalizing beyond scope of evidence
Over-interpretation, or under / wishful thinking
Ethnographic research Focuses on the
PATTERNS OF A CULTURE , understand a culture
Qualitative
POTENTIAL THEORY GOING INTO a study, it is developed after the study and inductive reasoning is used Informant, Phenomena, concepts, themes, Data (narratives), Patterns of association
Thick description
Part of sampling; must describe everything in the sampling; How ? of a description was there in the words that the sample was stating?
Qualitative Research: Data collection Multiple methods
Participant Observation The researcher literally becomes part of the observation. Example: One studying the homeless may decide to walk the streets of a given area in an attempt to gain perspective and possibly subjects for future study.
What is important in an Ethonographic reserach?
Participant observation is a particularly important source.
_ codes: identify an emergent theme, configuration, or explanation.
Pattern
Nodal Points
People who know a lot about the situation but may not be folks you gather data about (i.e., they are not the subjects of your study); important for understanding how to gain entrée or access for ethnographies.
Normative
Pertaining to a norm or value; prescriptive.
Phenomenology: Human experience
Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of participants-those living the experience Written or oral data Importance: Study a new topic or adding fresh perspective to new topic Examples: experience of men facing prostate surgery, experience of spouses of home dialysis patients in Saskatchewan
direct realism
Physical objects exist independently of our minds and of our perceptions of them, and the immediate objects of perception are mind-independent objects and their properties
Concept Mapping
Placing concepts into graphical format to help with organization
Relationship of sample to population (small to large)
Population, target population, accessible population, sample
Vulnerable population
Populations that do not have control over their SES; or health in the community - Willowbrook study
Steps to Determining Clinical Relevance vs Statistical Significance
Process of inquiry - Who is affected by the outcome of the research? - What is the impact of the change/outcome? - Do the benefits of the measured outcome warrant a change in practice? - What are the implications if practice remains the same?
Qualitative Data Coding
Process of transforming raw data into a standardized form using a conceptual framework - can be classified or categorized into either quant. or qual. categories
Grounded theory
Process; What is the process of recovery following breast cancer?
primary quality
Properties that are 'utterly inseparable' from the object, whatever changes it goes through, even if it is divided into smaller and smaller pieces. The object has these properties 'in and of itself'. Locke lists extension (size), socks, motion, number, solidity
secondary quality
Properties that physical objects have that are 'nothing but powers to produce various sensations in us' Locke lists colours, sounds, tastes and so on, later adding smells and temperature
Models
Provide an overall framework for how we look at reality (e.g. positivism, naturalism and constructionism). They tell us what reality is like and the basic elements it contains ('ontology') and what are the nature and status of knowledge ('epistemology'). See also idioms.
Tools for Information Management
Provide data and knowledge needed by the clinician, but do not help apply that information to the task e.g., Medline, Drug Reference Database, Infobuttons Infobuttons via WebCIS/Eclipsys
What sampling is based on the premise, needed to provide the most useful information about the phenomenon being studied?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling
What type of nonprobability sampling is most used in qualtitaive research?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling known by any of the three names
Ethnography
Puts together two different words: 'ethno' means 'folk', while 'graph' derives from 'writing'. Ethnography refers, then, to social scientific writing about particular folks.
Semantics - Quantitative = Validity
Qualitative = Credibility
Semantics - Quantitative = Reliability
Qualitative = Dependability
Semantics - Quantitative = Applicability
Qualitative = Transferability
Measurement error 2
Random and systematic
Qualitative Research: Saturation
Refers to a situation in data analysis where participants' descriptions become repetitive and confirm previously collected data An indication that data analysis is complete When data analysis is complete, data collection is terminated. "Once a preliminary conceptual framework was emerging from the data, a thorough review of the literature through the year 2000 was conducted to augment and help shape future theory development."
Personal Narrative
Researcher is removed, they may be speaking of observations they may have had only
Researcher bias
Researcher's own beliefs may influence the research process (possibly because the researcher does not pay enough attention to the participants).
Critical incident interviews
SPECIFIC INCIDENTS that had a discernible IMPACT on some OUTCOME
Test-retest Reliability
Similar scores over time
negative coherence theory
Some coherence theories take all beliefs to be prima facie justified. According to these theories, if one holds a belief, one is automatically justified in doing so unless she has a reason for thinking she should not. All beliefs are "innocent until proven guilty". This is the view expressed by the Neurath metaphor. According to theories of this sort, reasons function in a negative way, leading us to reject beliefs but not being required for the justified acquisition of belief
Innate ideas
Some ideas are inborn.
7. Belief:
Something one accepts as true or real; a firmly held opinion or conviction
Likert scales are examples of what kind of data?
Subjective / Ordinal data
Stratified random sampling
Subjects are grouped into categories by age for example; each classification must NOT have any overlap. Then pull samples from each of the groups.
Principles of Causation (Hill)
Temporal Relationship: Exposure always precedes the outcome Strength: The stronger the association, the more likely it is that the relation of "A" to "B" is causal Consistency: The association is consistent when results are replicated in studies in different settings using different methods Biological Gradient (Dose-Response Relationship): An increasing amount of exposure increases the risk Plausibility: The association agrees with currently accepted understanding of pathological processes Coherence: The association should be compatible with existing theory and knowledge. Experiment: The condition can be altered (prevented or ameliorated) by an appropriate experimental regimen. Consideration of Alternate Explanations: In judging whether a reported association is causal, it is necessary to determine the extent to which researchers have taken other possible explanations into account and have effectively ruled out such alternate explanations. Specificity: This is established when a single putative cause produces a specific effect
Horizon
That which surrounds us but which is also in the background and yet it provides the context for what we do and for our experience. Emphasizes meaning, not literal physical horizon
no false lemmas
The 'no false lemmas' condition is sometimes added to the tripartite theory of knowledge and says that for something to count as knowledge it must be the case that you did not infer it from anything false (A lemma is a claim part way through an argument)
Central Tendency (Mode, Median, Mean)
The (mode) refers to the most frequent observation or value; this (mean) refers to the arithmetic average of a set of values; this (median) refers to dividing the array of observations in half, such that half the elements fall above and half below.
