Quiz 3 Philosophy Sherman GCU
Two primary types of Ethical Relativism and particular features of each type (various course materials)
subjectivism and conventionalism
The greatest commandment, according to Jesus (various course materials)
"'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' This is the first and greatest commandment.
The two core (central) types of moral reasoning in Christian Ethics and the content of each type (class lectures/notes)
1. Deontological — the Mosaic law 2. Utilitarian — occasional in the Wisdom Lit (e.g., Proverbs and "good consequences" produced)
Plato's view of ethics in terms of morality (various course materials)
1. Descriptive 2. Normative (or Prescriptive) 3. Metaethics 4. Aretaic (Virtue Theory)
The four broad categories of ethics and definitions/descriptions of each (various course materials)
1. Descriptive •A sociological discipline that attempts to describe the morals have a particular society, often by studying other cultures. Anthropology, for instance 2. Normative (or Prescriptive) •The discipline that produces moral norms or rules as its end product •Identifying the universal principle(s) of morality to which all persons ought to appeal to guide or to justify their behavior; i.e., an ideal or true code of morality. Prescribes moral behavior for individuals and society ▪Both generally and in specific situations ▪Most debating about ethics involves questions about normative ethics •Spiderman's Ethical Dilemma 3. Metaethics: • Analyzes or describes the way(s) in which moral judgments are actually used • Investigates the meaning of moral language (e.g., "right," "good," "just") • Investigates the epistemology of ethics• Investigates the justification of ethical theories/judgments 4. Aretaic (Virtue Theory) •Concerned with matters of virtue and character •Focuses on the virtues produced in individuals, rather than the morality of specific acts •Emphasis on "being" rather than "doing"
Definition of Ethical Relativism (various course materials)
1. Ethical Relativism ➢Denial of any "universally valid principles: all moral principles are valid relative to culture or individual choice"(Audi, 1999, 790). ➢Right and wrong? Not absolute and unchanging, but rather relative to one's culture (or individual preference) ▪Conditional and Provisional i. Conventionalism •Moral principles are only valid"relative to the conventions of a given culture or society" (Audi, 1999, 790) • Two subtypes of ethical relativism (first type) (cont.)•Two thesis comprise conventionalism: 1) Diversity Thesis •Concerned with the descriptive fact that moral rules differ from society to society ➢Therefore, there are no moral principles accepted by all societies • Two subtypes of ethical relativism (first type) (cont.)• Two thesis comprise conventionalism (cont): 2) Dependency Thesis •"All moral principles derive their validity from cultural acceptance" (Audi, 1999, 270). ➢Thus, there are no normative (or universal) standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions ➢No "principles" or "The Ought" or "The Good" that applies to everyone and for all times. • Two subtypes of ethical relativism (second type): ii. Subjectivism• Individual choices determines the validity of a moral principle. ➢"Morality lies in the eyes of the beholder."• Denies the real existence of ethical properties of an external world ➢"And everyone did what was right in their own eyes" (Judges 21:25) Ethical Systems (cont.) ii. Subjectivism (cont.)•No basis for objectivity or external criteria ➢To say "Jane is a good person" is simply a feeling or impulse projected by an individual about Jane ▪Thus, ethics is not a source for objective truth or reality. • Protagoras, Hume, Sartre (advocates) Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.)• Ethical Relativism (cont.) ➢The Bases for Relativism claims (summary):• Different cultures often exhibit radically different moral values• There are no universal moral values shared by every human society ➢Therefore, we should refrain from passing moral judgments on beliefs and practices characteristic of cultures other than our own. ▪Notice the word "should" above - is that really consistent with Ethical Relativism?
The three main subcategories under the highest level or division of ethical systems, and the description/characteristics of each main subcategory (various course materials)
1. EthicalRelativism 2. Deontological Ethics 3. Teleological Ethics
Criticism of Kant's "ethics of duty" claim (various course materials)
Critics of Kant: cite that this is exactly the problem: we cannot always be certain of what constitutes our duty! ▪ Christians instead should look to the "biblical command to love" as a more foundational rule than Kant's. • The problem that arises, though: we are not always certain just what the "loving" act is or would be. (i.e., Joseph Fletcher). We need instruction on this.
Various claims/aspects of Deontological ethical theory (various course materials)
Deontological Ethics •Based on principles in which actions (or character, or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong; there are three primary deontological systems: i. Divine Command Theory ii. Natural Lawiii. Ethical Rationalism 2. Deontological Ethics (cont.) •Definition: deon (Gk. "what is due")• Intrinsic rightness or wrongness of an act and our duty to do that act•Based on principles in which actions (or character, or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong 2. Deontological Ethics (cont.) • Key Aspects of Deontological Ethics 1. Morality is objective 2. Morality of any act generally resides in the act itself (not dependent on the motive or character of the doer, but which might also be included) 3. The intrinsic nature of each act determines moral rightness / wrongness
The three primary Deontological ethical systems and key characteristics, claims, and problems associated with each (various course materials)
Divine Command Theory Natural Law Ethical Rationalism
The two major Teleological systems, including basic content, claims, and weakness associated with each type (various course materials)
Ethical Egoism - seeking to advance one's own good and welfare: all is for the self Strong version - it is always moral to promote one's own good, and it is never moral not to promote it. • Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 3. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) • Weak version - although it is always moral to promote one's own good, it is not necessarily never moral to not. ➢ That is, there may be conditions in which the avoidance of personal interest may be a moral action. Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 3. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) • Conditional Egoism ➢ Self-interested behavior can be accepted and applauded if it leads to the betterment of society as a whole; ➢ The ultimate test rests not on acting self- interestedly but on whether society is improved as a result. Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 3. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.)❑ Conditional Egoism Example ➢ Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, in which Smith outlines the public benefits resulting from self-interested behavior. Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 3. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) ▪Ethical Egoism may or may not be compatible with Christian teaching ➢Positively: carefully seeking to live by the Bible to ensure the greatest balance of good over evil in the long-term (eternity!) ➢Problem: it can degenerate into using people as a means to our own ends. For instance, I will help you because in some way doing so helps me. utilitarianism: Utilitarianism •Theoretically, seeks to accomplish "the greatest good for the greatest number," based on happiness or pleasure (Hollinger, 2003, 31). • Seeks to bring about the greatest balance of good over evil in the world as a whole ➢Part of the scientific method and rational calculation focused. • Examples of Utilitarian Views of the Good ▪ Hedonism ➢ Jeremy Bentham answered this question by adopting the view called hedonism. According to hedonism, the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure (or happiness). Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) • Actions right or wrong based on tendency to promote happiness, usefulness, or harm • Utilitarians reject moral codes or systems that consist of commands or taboos that are based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural beings. ➢Problems: potential loss of justice for the individual (and groups in the minority) Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) ▪J.S. Mill refines earlier utilitarianism (J. Bentham) ➢Quality (rather than mere quantity) of happiness. ▪Grounds ethics in a nonmoral framework, but fell in line with religious ethics, interestingly! 3. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) •Two versions of utilitarianism since Mill: i. Act utilitarianism ii. Rule utilitarianism Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) i. Act Utilitarianism•Focuses on results accruing from particular given act in a situation (situational ethic) ➢The effects of individual actions Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) i. Act utilitarianism (cont.)▪Example: John Wilkes Booth's assassination of Abraham Lincoln. • The individual action resulted in a "bad consequence," and thus was "wrong" or "immoral." Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) i. Act utilitarianism (cont.) [Criticism: This claim appears based on some underlying assumption or worldview as to the "badness" or "evil" of President Lincoln being assassinated. Would all people in the South have agreed that it was wrong?] Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) ii. Rule utilitarianism➢Focuses on establishing rules that humans "need" to guide them in moral decisions •But still based on consequences envisioned Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) • Summary & Main Ideas➢Utilitarians frequently reject moral codes or systems ▪Commands or "taboos" based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural beings. Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.)• Summary & Main Ideas (cont.) ➢Morality is true or justifiable based on its "positive contribution" or "results" toward human beings (and perhaps non-human as well). Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.)• Summary & Main Ideas (cont.) ➢Happiness is the only thing that is intrinsically good ➢Pain is the only thing that is evil in itself
Distinctions between what is meant by ethics and what is meant by morality (class lecture/notes)
Ethics: -The philosophical study of morality (Audi, 1999, 284) -The general study of good, and right action -The process of determining right and wrong -Moral reasoning [theories, reflection, analysis] -Both an art and a science Morality: -The actual content of right and wrong -Moral knowledge -The end result of ethical deliberation
The highest-level classification or division of ethical systems (class lectures/notes)
action oriented or virtue based
Four specific considerations involved in making moral judgments (class lectures/notes)
-The action itself -The motive of the person ("moral actor") performing the action -The consequences of the actions and decisions -The character of the moral actor
Three proposals, including their characteristics and claims, offered as ways to resolve Divine Command conflicts or dilemmas (class lectures/notes)
1. NonconflictingAbsolutism• Claiming that no real/actual conflict actually faces the person/believer ➢Appeal to God's providence➢Differentiate "lying" from "justified deception" Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 2. Deontological Ethics (cont.) • Proposed Ways to Resolve Divine Command Conflicts/Dilemmas (cont.) 2. Lesser of Two Evils • Claiming real conflict/dilemma exists ➢Appeal to God's grace and mercy ➢No good choice / fallen world ➢Duty to do the lesser of two evils ➢God will forgive the sin (confess) Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 2. Deontological Ethics (cont.) • Proposed Ways to Resolve Divine Command Conflicts/Dilemmas (cont.)3. Graded Absolutism / Hierarchialism •Claiming real conflict/dilemma exists ➢The choice is a "morally justifiable" option, not sin Topic 6: Grounding and Determining Morality and Moral Conduct Ethical Systems (cont.) 2. Deontological Ethics (cont.) • Proposed Ways to Resolve Divine Command Conflicts/Dilemmas (cont.) 3. Graded Absolutism / Hierarchialism (cont.) ➢Duty to choose the "greater good" ➢God's laws are absolute, but there are "higher" and "lower" laws ▪Example: preaching/sharing the gospel is a higher "law" than obeying the state (Acts 4:13-20)
Definition of Eudaemonism (various course materials)
According to eudaemonism, happiness is equated with human flourishing, the general fulfillment of a human being's significant capacities. The termeudaemonism, which comes from ancient Greek, was originallya religious notion. In Greek, Eu is the root for "good" and daemonwas a guiding spirit who oversaw an individual's life. Thus, theoriginal idea is that if one's life is going well and one is flourishing, one has a guiding spirit that is doing a good job. In eudaemonist moral theories, however, the religious overtones faded into the background, and the term came to refer to any moral view that saw individual human flourishing as the ultimate good.
The three versions of Kant's Categorical Imperative (CI) and the supporting claims/arguments for each version (class lectures/notes)
Formulation #1: ➢"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it shouldbecome a universal law." ▪The only objective basis for moral value: the rationality of the good will, expressed in recognition of moral duty. Formulation #2: ➢"Act in such a way that you always treat humanity ... never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an ends" • People are not instruments to other people's happiness ▪They are valuable in themselves! Formulation #3: ➢ "Act in such a way that the maxims proceeding from your own legislation can harmonize with apossible kingdom of ends" • We all should choose moral laws • Obeying these make us truly free Ethical Rationalism (cont.) •So, Kant believes we ought to always act in such a manner that is motivated by the sincere belief that we are doing the right thing (and as anyone seeking to act properly would do). ➢ Ultimately, this is an ethics of duty - "do your duty" (32).
Claims/content regarding God as the Ground of personal existence and meaningfulness of life (class lectures/notes)
God is also the One who bestows personal meaning upon us - we receive this derivatively (from God) before intrinsically. ➢This meaning is related to the purpose or destiny that God intends us to have!
The ultimate source and grounding for morality from a Christian worldview (class lectures/notes)
God's character
Definition of Hedonism (various course materials)
Hedonism ➢ Jeremy Bentham answered this question by adopting the view called hedonism. According to hedonism, the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure (or happiness). Teleological (Consequentialism) (cont.) 2. Utilitarianism (cont.) • Actions right or wrong based on tendency to promote happiness, usefulness, or harm • Utilitarians reject moral codes or systems that consist of commands or taboos that are based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural beings. ➢Problems: potential loss of justice for the individual (and groups in the minority)
What Matthew Carey Jordan argues as it concerns the question of God and morality (textbook)
Jordan defends the view that the most viable foundation for the existence of moral facts is found in the commands of God.
The basic position/argument of Kant's Ethical Rationalism perspective (various course materials)
Kant's General Argument (in a nutshell): ➢Human understanding is the source of the general laws of nature that structure all our experience ➢Human reason gives itself the moral law, which is our basis for belief in God, freedom, and immortality
The relationship between "natural truths" and "moral truths" (various course materials)
Many philosophers, in fact, contend that an action's rightness or wrongness cannot be fully grounded in any of its physical prop- erties and thus conclude that it is not possible to give what philosophers call a natural- istic account of moral value. A naturalistic account, in this context, refers to any account that uses only properties and principles that are recognized by and employed within the natural sciences. In the next section, we consider one highly influential argument for concluding that there can be no satisfactory naturalistic account of moral value.
Description and main elements of Natural Law ethical theory (various course materials)
Natural Law Ethics •General revelation - applied to moral values (Macquarrie) •"Objective" and widely-shared ("universal") moral values exist [outside the pages of the Bible [and special revelation] (Rae) •This norm for objective behavior is deemed binding on all human beings. ➢Because it coheres with the human essence, or with the structure of the universe, as legislated by God ▪E.g., justice, fairness, respect for dignity, truth-telling 2. Natural Law Ethics (cont.) •The portion of the eternal law ➢Eternal law: founded in God's wisdom and being, and is the eternal source of all reality and other forms of law ➢Natural law: known by all human beings, through which we gain self-evident principles Natural Law Ethics (cont.) •Application of Natural Law ➢Guiding us in the practical realities of everyday life ➢Toward the common good and moral responsibility before God ➢Special codified moral rules - tied to what is "natural in creation" (Catholic teaching) ▪E.g., reproduction, sexuality
The primary bases, virtues, and concerns of New Testament Ethics (class lectures/notes)
New Testament Ethics➢The preeminent emphasis in the NT: "A morality for the church" (38).▪Still, there is concern for social change and justice, but in new ways with the coming of Christ and the superseding of the Law. ▪The mandates for social change "can all be envisioned under the general heading of the Great Commission (Matt.28:19-20)." ➢A Christian Ethics of Virtue —Becoming Like Jesus • The "Gospels and Epistles never envision the moral life as simply doing the right thing—as the religious leaders emphasized—apart from developing character and virtue" (synonymous with becoming more like Christ) (Rae, 2009, 40-41). • Ideally, the person will imitate Jesus Christ. ▪Imitating his humility and obedience to the will of the Father (Phil. 2:5-11) ▪Emulating him in his suffering and death as a model for submission to authority (1 Pet. 2-22-24) ▪Even imitating others [e.g., Paul] as they imitate Christ (1 Cor. 11:1) ▪Imitators of God (Eph. 5:1) • New Testament Ethics (cont.) ➢Christian Ethics of Virtue (cont.)• An Ethic of Love (42) ▪Love is the central [ultimate] virtue of NT ethics [in following Jesus]:• Love for God and one's neighbor (Matt. 22:34-40; Luke 10:25-29).• The Apostle Paul states that love fulfills the Law (Rom. 13:8-10; Gal. 5:14). ➢Principles Reapplied, With Virtues (42-44) • Jesus himself "aimed for a deontology that accurately applied the Law, combining a commitment to principles with the virtue of compassion for people" (43). • For the Apostle Paul, his "primary ethical goal was to accurately represent Jesus' teaching and apply it to relevant problems in the church" (43). ➢Members of the Kingdom — People of the Cross/Resurrection (44-45) • "Ethics [in the NT] follows from what membership in the kingdom demands" ▪Ethics and discipleship overlapped. ➢"Little distinction is made between the moral and the spiritual life, except that the former deals mainly with the believer's responsibility to the church and the world, while the latter relates to one's worship of God" (44). • New Testament Ethics (cont.) ➢A Special Place for the Poor (45-46) •This emphasis is in Jesus' teaching especially (and the Epistles) ▪Consistent with the OT prophetic admonitions of a preferential place of the poor and vulnerable (2 Cor. 8:1-7, 9:1-15; Jam. 2:1-13) • New Testament Ethics (cont.) ➢A Special Place for the Poor (cont.) •The church is called to take care of the poor, vulnerable, and those with deeply challenging situations (2 Cor. 8-9, Jam. 1:27) ▪As a sign of God's love being in us (1 John. 3:17-18). • New Testament Ethics (cont.) ➢The Dynamic — The Indwelling Holy Spirit (46-47) •The role of the Spirit ▪Setting apart and transforming believers who "live by the Spirit" ➢Essential for living morally and for increasing spiritual maturity in the life of the Christian community and individual Christ- followers (Rom. 8; Gal. 5:16, 22-23).
criticisms of the 4 dimensions of the meaning of life
Nihilism (cont.) • Criticisms➢The livability question—can one really live consistently this way? ➢The intuition question—does this really fit with our intuitions about the world and ourselves? Subjective Naturalism (cont.) • Criticisms➢ Many protest that surely simply deep care and love are not sufficient to confer meaningfulness on life. ➢ Is a function of one getting what one strongly wants, or by achieving self-established goals, or through accomplishing what one believes to be really meaningful? ➢ What if someone claims to find meaning in life counting blades of grass, or reading and re-reading the phone book, or worse, torturing people for fun? ➢ Grounding value inter-subjectively (in community) has been proposed by some but doesn't answer the issue Objective Naturalism (cont.) • Criticisms➢This view wrongly combines different kinds of value (or at least some elements therein) ▪ For example, mixing meaning and morality, which are not identical. Supernaturalism (cont.) • Criticisms➢The Problem of Evil undermines meaning ▪ So-called "gratuitous suffering/evil" renders supernaturalism suspect or false
The four dimensions of the Meaning of Life, including content and claims for each dimension (various course materials)
Nihilism (pessimistic*) Nihilism Denies that a meaningful life is possible because, literally, nothing has any value. Posits (i) that God or some supernatural realm is likely necessary for value and a meaningful existence, but (ii) that no such realm exists, and therefore nothing is of ultimate value. • Boredom sufficiently infuses life so as to make it meaningless. • Human lives lack the requisite amount of satisfaction to confer meaning upon them. • From the most distant, detached viewpoint, nothing we do seems to matter at all. Subjective Naturalism (optimistic**) Posits a meaningful life is possible, but denies a supernatural realm is necessary for such a life. What constitutes a meaningful life varies from person to person Simply caring about or loving something deeply has been thought by some to confer meaningfulness to life. Objective Naturalism (optimistic**) Posits a meaningful life is possible, but denies a supernatural realm is necessary for such a life • Life in a purely physical world (devoid of finite and infinite spiritual realities) is sufficient for meaning. Topic 7: The Meaning of Life Meaningfulness: What gives life meaning? (cont.) 3. Objective Naturalism (cont.) • Claims that a meaningful life is a function of appropriately connecting with mind- independent realities of objective worth (external to the individual). • Something is meaningful, at least partly, in virtue of its intrinsic nature, irrespective of what is believed about it. ➢E.g., courage, honesty, happiness, giving, care Supernaturalism (optimistic***) Posits God's existence, along with "appropriately relating" to God ➢This is both necessary and sufficient for securing a meaningful life. • Three dimensions (distinct yet related): metaphysical, epistemological, ethical 1) Metaphysical ▪ God's existence is necessary in order to ground a meaningful life. ▪ Conditions necessary for securing a meaningful existence like objective value are most plausibly anchored in an entity like God. ▪ One must relate to God in some relevant way. 2) Epistemological ▪Knowledge of right belief (orthodoxy) to some degree. 3) Ethical ▪Right practice (orthopraxy) to some extent.
Claims/content concerning finding meaning through "openness to the world" (class lectures/notes)
Philosophical Theology Perspective on Meaning • Finding meaning through "openness to the world" 1. Involves the unique human ability to experience the world/environment always in new sorts of ways. • Biological basis - humans having the most plasticity and adaptability among all the animals in existence (Ashley Montagu) • Ability to control much of the world reflected in the structure of the human body and mind ▪However, there is no biological role that "explains our purpose for existence" (Grenz, 2000,131). 2. Entails human ability to "transcend" the finite ordering of the environment. • Max Scheler (after Hegel) attributes this to the spirit as the source of this capacity • Humans always attempting therefore "transformation" to a new shaping and reformation of our environment • We are never completely satisfied in our attempt to create a "home" for ourselves 3. "Openness to the world" appears to point to the "infinite dependence of humankind" - some reality beyond our finitude. Humans cannot find fulfillment in their biological framework and the world or environment we create for ourselves. "Infinite dependence" entails that we humans are directed toward a goal beyond our world. ▪ Points humans in the direction of God - the ultimate answer to the human quest for meaning "Openness to the world" appears to point to the "infinite dependence of humankind" - some reality beyond our finitude (cont.) iii. Moves us from openness to the world to the concept of God as the source of our identity. iv. This follows Augustine's early dictum: "Our hearts are restless until they find rest in thee, O God" (Confessions 1. 1). ▪ A "God-shaped vacuum" in the human heart (attributed to Pascal) ▪ "We are designed to find our meaning and identity in relation to, and only in relation to, God" (Grenz, TCG, 132). ▪ Switchfoot, Restless 4. God: the Ground of Our Personal Existence and Meaningfulness of Life • We are (i.e., exist) simply because of God's free graciousness and his gracious freedom having bestowed existence upon us. ▪ "For in him we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28), as Paul stated to the Athenians quoting from an ancient Greek poet.
Definition and key aspects of Ethical Objectivism (class lectures/notes)
Problems with Ethical Relativism:• Exaggerating the degree of diversity among cultures ➢Superficial differences often mask underlying shared agreements (e.g., 99.9% of cultures/people agree that torturing innocent children for the fun of it is wrong) • Overlooks a necessary core set of universal values that any human culture must endorse in order to flourish (or survive) • Self-referential incoherence➢Claiming no universal moral norms exist while appealing to a principle of tolerance as a functional universal norm. • Implies the harmful consequence that "anything goes" ➢Slavery may be just according to the norms of a slave society ➢Sexist practices may be right according to the values of a sexist culture ➢"Whatever works for me," regardless the cost to others ➢Ethical Objectivism - the Opposite of Ethical Relativism •Holds that "although cultures may differ in their moral principles, some moral principles have universal validity" (Audi, 1999, 790). ➢E.g., refraining from gratuitous (pointless, unwarranted) harm is right, whether the culture adheres to this or not. ➢ Ethical Objectivism - Opposite of Ethical Relativism (cont.) •Strong or absolute form ▪One true moral system with specific moral rules (e.g., ancient Israel) ➢ Ethical Objectivism - Opposite of Ethical Relativism (cont.)•Weak or modest form ▪A core universal morality exists (e.g., prohibitions against such actions as murder of innocents, stealing, promise-breaking, lying, etc.)
Teleological Ethics theory and definition (various course materials)
Right and wrong is based on the end result produced by the action rather than any inherent aspects Definition: telos (Gk. "purpose" or "goal") ➢Consequences of an act and our duty to do the act that brings about the greatest (amount of) good and the least (amount of) evil ➢Right and wrong is based on the end result (consequences) produced by the action rather than any inherent aspects
The central concerns and different aspects of Old Testament Ethics (class lectures/notes)
The Law is the Core of OT Ethics (Rae, 2009, 29-30) ▪ The "Law sets out the fundamental principles and commands for Israel and consists of three primary parts": 1.The moral law (or 10 Commandments) 2.The civil law (social relations and institutions governance) 3.The ceremonial law (governing Israel's worship of God [and cultic practices]) The Ten Commandments are Moral "First Principles" • Found in Exodus 20:1-17, Deut. 5:1-22. ▪The purpose for the two deliveries of the Ten Commandments and the rest of the law being: "to shape the nation of Israel into a society that would reflect God's righteousness and compassion both individually and culturally." • Old Testament Ethics (cont.) ▪First tablet — the first four commands outlining obligation to God [worship and relationship- focused] ▪Second tablet —six commands outlining obligations to others and the community Obedience = Personal Loyalty to God • Emphasis on loyalty to God set the Law apart from other codes of the ancient world in that the Law is "person-centered" [relationship-centric]. • The Law points to the God who stands behind the "codes" rather than merely to the codes themselves. (The style was "Suzerainty treaty.") • Old Testament Ethics (cont.)➢Overlap of Personal and Social Ethics •Largely because Israel was a theocracy, personal and social ethics were regularly overlapping • Old Testament Ethics (cont.)➢The Social Dimension of OT Ethics •Deeply focused on relationship and humane treatment of others ▪Based on Israel's covenant relationship with God, grounded in God's own character. • Old Testament Ethics (cont.)➢Pursuit of Justice: constant calls for justice to be done from the people of Israel ▪Reflecting God's heart for the poor and vulnerable, and his desire to see the oppressed rescued and the weakest cared for through the structures the law put in place. ▪Injustice, demonstrates a society whose character has gone astray from God's will. • Old Testament Ethics (cont.)➢Holiness - Unifying Theme of OT Ethics ▪The "central concept that unifies Old Testament ethics is holiness," meaning "set apart" as a nation to "reflect the character of God in their worship, their social relations, and their institutions" (32) [as a witness/light to the world/pagan nations]
Leo Tolstoy's autobiographical meaning in life perspective (textbook)
The road to faith as Tolstoy experienced it was neither quick nor easy, but it provided the solace he needed. "I should long ago have killed myself," he says, "had I not had a dim hope of finding Him. I live, really live, only when I feel Him and seek Him." Tolstoy saw that religious institutions can be used to manipulate the poor and oppressed. And he was appalled by the fact that the gospel's message of peace and love had been largely ignored by the churches. Rather than preach nonviolence, the clergy stressed the patriotic duty to serve the czar by destroying the enemies of mother Russia
Philosopher Søren Kierkegaard's argument for life's meaning (textbook)
faith is not based on reason at all Kierkegaard—Either/Or onMySearchLab.com but is a "leap" beyond rationality in a move that acknowledges utter Chapter 25 • Introduction to Philosophy of Religion 319 dependence on a power greater than ourselves. A consideration of the relation between faith and reason also points us toward another question relating to the source of our religious knowledge. Do we learn about the religious life from authority figures, from scripture, from religious experience, or are we completely dependent on reasoning and arguments? On the other hand, are arguments—such as those for the existence of God— really compelling without faith?
Claims/content of a distinctly Christian understanding of the meaning of life (class lectures/notes)
• God provides the only ultimate meaning of creation [and life].• For Christians, the whole of reality (God's plan) is meaningful• The eternal goal of history is revealed in Jesus Christ ➢Through commitment to Jesus as Lord, we find meaning in union with Christ.
Description/emphasis of Virtue Ethics (various course materials)
•Concerned with matters of virtue and character •Focuses on the virtues produced in individuals, rather than the morality of specific acts •Emphasis on "being" rather than "doing"
The Achilles' heel (i.e., weakness) of all teleological theories (class lectures/notes)
•The Achilles' heel of all teleological theories: ➢Requires our ability to anticipate the results of our actions
Major criticisms or problems associated with Ethical Relativism (class lectures/notes)
➢Problems with Ethical Relativism:• Exaggerating the degree of diversity among cultures ➢Superficial differences often mask underlying shared agreements (e.g., 99.9% of cultures/people agree that torturing innocent children for the fun of it is wrong) • Overlooks a necessary core set of universal values that any human culture must endorse in order to flourish (or survive) • Self-referential incoherence➢Claiming no universal moral norms exist while appealing to a principle of tolerance as a functional universal norm. • Implies the harmful consequence that "anything goes" ➢Slavery may be just according to the norms of a slave society ➢Sexist practices may be right according to the values of a sexist culture ➢"Whatever works for me," regardless the cost to others
