Quiz 5

A design where two independent variables have two conditions

2x2

183. Experimental designs are characterized by what

Random assignment to treatment

5. What is a more rigorous approach, random assignment or random selection?

Random assignment.

14. describe a placebo control group

includes individuals who are led to believe they are receiving a treatment of significant benefit when in fact the treatment that is actually given has been found to have no significant benefit

92. Single subject research is sometimes referred to as what

single system research

Design where there are three independent variables total two with two conditions and one with three conditions

2x2x3

design where one of the independent variables has three conditions and the other has two conditions

2x3

240. Describe multiple-treatment interference

A threat to external validity that occurs when a group of participants is given more than one treatment and treatments given earlier in an experiment might affect the effectiveness of treatments given to the same participants later

241. Describe the Dunning-Kruger Effect and give an example

A threat to external validity. A type of cognitive bias in which people believe that they are smarter and more capable than they really are. Essentially, low ability people do not possess the skills needed to recognize their own incompetence. The combination of poor self-awareness and low cognitive ability leads them to overestimate their own capabilities

2. In occupational therapy, all studies seeking to determine the effects of a given treatment approach involves what 4 things

A treatment, at least one outcome measure, categories of conditions into groups., and at least one point of comparison.

104. what type of withdrawal design has the most ethical appeal and why

ABAB because it does not end with withdrawing the intervention

212. in psychology of single group design in which treatments are alternated is often called what

ABAB design

10. What is the probabilistically equivalent

Although two groups may not be equal in all variables, any difference between the groups are likely to be based on chance rather than a systematic pattern of variation. So in other words, they are equally likely to have. Random errors.

222. Crossover designs should not be used if you think there will be ________ effects

Carryover

58. what is CONSORT

Consolidated standards of reporting trial statement

219. what is a demand characteristic

Cue that lets participants know the expected outcome of an experiment and can be a problem if participants attempt to please the experimenter

128. describe data graphs with single subject research

Ditto for each variable for each participant or system or graphed with the dependent variable on the Y axis and time on the X axis

11. Describe the pretest, posttest randomized experiment.

Experiment that is nearly identical to a typical Control treatment Experiment Except It also includes a pretest before the treatment is offered.

1. Quantitative research incorporates what three major design classifications?

Experimental, quasi experimental, and non experimental designs.

28. What are the several threats to validity when using a single group pretest posttest design

History, selection bias, experimenter expectancy, and maturation

180. how might using a pretest be a problem

It could lead to pretest sensitization also called reactive effect of testing which is where the pretest becomes part of the treatment because the participants learn how to take the test

3. What is the earmark of an experimental design?

It involves random assignment.

114. What are the three major strengths of multiple baseline designs

It rules out internal validity threat of history because the interventionist started at a different time for each individual, behavior or setting; support is provided for the demonstration of causal relationships because these designs can show that changes affected in multiple individuals, behaviors, or settings and it requires no reversal or withdrawal of the intervention; useful when behaviors are not likely to be reversible

38. what Are the problems that could arise from multiple dependent variable tests

Measurement of the first dependent variable could have an effect on the second dependent variable, and multiplicity could occur

231. Selection internal threat and example

Natural difference between the groups under study. More common in quasi-experimental studies. a study there are more older adults in the control group than in the experimental group, results show the experimental group had less decline but that could be due to having more young adults versus older adults.

157. Researchers __________ independent variables in nonexperimental studies

Observe as they occur

110. describe multiple baseline design across participants

One behavior is treated sequentially across matched participants for example if there are three male clients with limited grip strength or therapist might institute a squeeze both for the first on the eighth day for the second on the 16th day and for the third on the 26th day to compare grip strength before and after therapy

8. Describe the two group post test only randomized experiment.

Participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment group or the non treatment group.

156. Researchers ___________ _________ independent variables in experimental studies

Physically manipulate

238. Describe reactive effects of pretesting

Pre test may influence your response or sensitivity to treatment if you know what the researcher wants you to do/answer from the pretest questions

4. What is the difference between random assignment and random selection?

Random assignment is conducted without participants knowledge of the group or treatment condition to which they are being assigned to, and random selection is when participants are aware of the condition to which they are being selected.

221. What are the 3 characteristics of a true experiment

Random assignment, treatment and control group, and independent variable is independently manipulated by the researcher

163. Researchers try to produce definitions that are adequate to permit a....

Replication

199. how do you Control selection bias

Select the participants for an experiment at random from a population

233. Compensatory rivalry threat and example

Social threat to internal validity that exists when the study group not receiving the experimental treatment feels disadvantaged, disappointed, or left out and decides to obtain a similar intervention on its own. Example: A control group sees the reinforcement the experimental group is getting when they get an answer right, so the control group decides to work even harder to obtain more right answers than the experimental group to prove themselves.

235. Compensatory equalization of treatment threat and example

Social threat to internal validity where there is a treatment and control group, participants can sometimes become competitive when not included in the treatment group. As a result, they exert additional effort, which may improve the score on the dependent variable for the control group compared with normal conditions (i.e., compared with what is typical or expected for such a group).

232. Diffusion or imitation treatment threat

Social threat to internal validity. Diffusion of treatment occurs when a comparison group learns about the program either directly or indirectly from program group participants. Participants then adopt a different intervention from the one they were assigned because they believe the other intervention is more effective.

155. What does a research proposal include

Statement of the problem and objective, short literature review, detailed description, requirements for the schedule, budget, and ethical issues handling

102. ABA or withdrawal design has _______ internal validity than AB and ABC designs

Stronger

239. Describe reactive effect of experimental procedures and the Hawthorne effect

The Hawthorne Effect describes the participants' change in behavior due to the awareness of other people observing them. The reactive effect refers to the participants' behaviors changing due to the researcher of the study observing them. Sometimes, it is referred to as the observer's paradox.

220. What are levels of the independent variable

The different versions of the treatment

224. What is internal validity and give an example

The extent to which we may infer that an explanation for a particular phenomenon is true or a specific action or intervention has caused an effect; the extent to which the beverage (coke) increased endurance (number of jumping jacks).

174. In a pretest posttest randomized control group design yes the experimental group makes games the difference is attributable to only one of two causes. What are the 2 causes

The treatment or random error

96. how many common types of single subject research designs are they and what are they all based on

There are nine common types and they are all based on the A-B design

223. How are single subject designs different from case reports

They involve repeated measures and design phases

115. What is the primary weakness of multiple baseline designs

They require more data collection time because of the staggered starting times for the intervention phases

6. Why might you randomly assign people to comparison groups?

To reduce the chances of an uneven number of individuals with a certain factor. That may affect the outcomes of the study. Such as. BMI.

7. What are the two basic experimental designs?

Two group post test only randomized experiment and the two group pretest posttest randomized experiment.

118. when are alternating treatment designs not appropriate

When behavior is expected to take time to change, when effects are expected to be commutative, or when multiple treatment interference is anticipated

153. What is operationalization

When concepts are translated into constructs that are directly observable

105. Can you make causal inferences from withdrawal designs

Yes

207. Describe the non equivalent control group design

a commonly used quasi experimental design that has two intact groups and there is a pre test and post test for a treatment group and a control group

139. discard the randomization test

a conservative way to evaluate shifts in time series data and is ideal because it is robust and showing serial dependency and systematic trends in the data and it does not require a normal distribution

63. What is a counterbalance design

a crossover design in which it starts off like a basic experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to as many groups as there are conditions of the independent variable but each group then goes on to experience both conditions of the independent variable

51. what is randomized treatments by levels design

a different kind of factorial design that involves a randomized independent variable along with another independent variable that reflects two or more types of persons

52. what is a organismic variable

a fixed variable and non manipulated variable or a variable consistent of pre-existing conditions basically a variable that cannot be randomly assigned such as gender

46. completely randomized factorial designs randomly assigned participants to one of what four groups

a group that receives one independent variable only;a group that receives the other independent variable only;a group that receives both independent variables;and a group that receives no independent variables

86. What is the difference between a multigroup cohort design in a non randomized comparison group design

a multi group cohort design deals with the study of risk factors not under the researchers control and resulting in poor outcomes while a nonrandomized comparison group design deals with interventions under their control and hypothesized to have positive outcomes

70. Describe nonrandomized comparison group design

a non randomized trial when the dependent variable is a valued health outcome end users convenience create list in groupings as the method of assigning participants to conditions of the independent variable as opposed to randomization and is often called the nonequivalent group design

41. a researcher interested in multiple outcomes must clearly identify and justify what

a primary dependent variable in discriminant and statistical procedures between analysis of the primary dependent variable and secondary dependent variables

181. What is the Solomon Randomized four group design

a research design with four groups for the first two groups have a pretest in the last two groups only have a post test to rule out potential pretest sensitization

124. describe momentary time sampling

a response is recorded if it occurs precisely at a predetermined moment

126. describe whole interval recording

a response is scored if the behavior occurs during the full interval such as an entire 5 second interval

22. describe the one group post test only design

a single group of participants receives an OT treatment and then a post test is given to determine whether the treatment was successful. Not very rigorous

37. What is multivariate analysis of variance

a single test of the effectiveness of the intervention across all three dependent variables

97. what does ABC stand for in research

a stands for baseline B is for the intervention phase and C is for all other interventions and Conditions

44. what is a methodological hypothesis

a test of the validity of the research procedures

226. Maturation threat and example

a threat that is internal to the individual participant. It is the possibility that mental or physical changes occur within the participants themselves that could account for the evaluation results. As people become elderly, there can be a more rapid deterioration in certain physical characteristics such as hearing, vision, taste, and memory. This can negatively impact their performance during an experiment.

189. what is statistical regression

a threat that occurs only if participants are selected on the basis of their extreme scores

195. all threats to internal validity can be overcome by using what

a true experimental design in which participants are assigned at random to experimental and control groups

108. multiple baseline designs can be across what three things

across behaviors, across participants, and across settings

57. what is per protocol analysis

analysis that excludes dropouts with the rationale that inclusion of dropouts only causes random error and increases the chances of type 2 error

77. What are cross sectional designs helpful for

answering questions concerning the special characteristics of disability groups

35. the researcher using repeated measures should be clear in advance as to what

as to the primary most important endpoint the measurement that will be used to test the main hypothesis of the study

103. Describe ABA or withdrawal designs

baseline and intervention phase is reversed twice to the subjects are exposed to both conditions

160. why is a conceptual definition not adequate for effectiveness experiments

because it does not indicate that precise steps or researcher will take infer to identify the variable

87. Why do prospective multi group cohort studies generally have stronger claims to validity than retrospective studies

because measurements can be planned and possible confounding variables can be monitored

20. why are quasi experimental designs the most commonly employed designs in rehab research

because of their flexibility and relative rigor

127. why is the approach of marking this same mark regardless of whether the behavior is seen or not seen important in situations where two data collectors are in close proximity

because subtle sounds of writing and I or an 04 in or out my inadvertently provided Q to the other data collector possibly biasing results

130. what are the benefits of a standard behavior chart

behaviors with extremely high or low rates can be recorded on the chart in the graph progresses in semi log units thus facilitating the estimation of linear trends in the data

135. How can statistical change be evaluated with visual analysis

by playing a binomial test to determine whether or not a significant proportion of data points in an intervention phase fall above or below the celebration line projected from baseline

62. what are the main disadvantages of cluster randomized control trials

complexity given expanded training, fidelity issues, and ethical compliance within the rules and cultures of many different organizations, loss of power and statistical analysis caused by within site similarity

159. When a researcher wants to conduct an experiment on effectiveness what kind of definition is not adequate

conceptual definition

236. What is external validity

concerned with "to whom and under what circumstances can the results be generalized?"

16. what is a delayed treatment control group

control group in which participants are put on a wait list and sometimes receive periodic pretest assessments while waiting and then receive the treatment a period of time after the treatment group has already received the treatment

140. what is serial dependency

correlation among successive responses in one individual

40. what is a design strategy to deal with the problem of 1 dependent variable affecting another

counterbalancing of the dependent variables where the different variables are experienced in different sequences so each dependent variable sometimes occurs early in the testing protocol and sometimes occurs late

152. research requires precision and this includes what

creating well defined boundaries around the unit analysis and sample and the concepts being used and how they will be measured

81. what are the other names for case control designs

cross referent designs or case comparison designs

136. in visual analysis what does a dashed line across each phase mean

demarcating the mean

89. what are the two major types of quantitative research designs

descriptive research designs and group comparison designs

9. Why is there no pretest needed for the two group post test? Only randomized experiment?

design because the random assignment to groups renders the groups Probabilistically equivalent.

99. Describe the ABC changing criterion design

design characterized by having three or more phases with the criterion for success changing sequentially from one intervention phase to the next

71. just scribe the wait list control group design

design in which those at the top of the waiting list for an intervention are assigned to an intervention and those at the bottom of the list serve as the control group

27. describe the two group pretest posttest design

design that offers two types of comparisons in terms of outcomes one comparison between groups of participants and another comparison within each group of participants overtime

202. In general describe pre experimental designs

designs that use the elements of an experiment but lacked the necessary ingredients to be a quasi experiment or true experimental design that has limited value for investigating cause and effect relationship because of their poor internal validity

19. describe quasi experimental designs

designs that utilize random selection or other methods of non randomized assignment to groups based on convenience sampling in which participants may be fully aware of the group to which they are being assigned and researchers estimate that the groups are equivalent in terms of key features but they cannot be sure

78. what is a problem with cross sectional designs

difference on the dependent variable might well be due to some confounding variable meaning there is a type 1 error

144. what is the difference between direct replication and systematic replication

direct replication involves systematically applying the same procedures across different but similar individuals and systematic replication involves repeating the study with systematic variations where only one variable is changed at a time

112. Because baseline data collection typically is continued until a stable pattern emerges, it is recommended dropping our participant if his or her baseline data do not achieve what

do not achieve stability within the predetermined time for the participants baseline

121. what are the three primary strengths for alternating treatment design

does not require a lengthy withdrawal of the intervention which may result in a reversal of therapeutic gain, requires less time for a comparison to be made because of the second baseline is not required, and it is possible to proceed without a formal baseline

55. what is an intention to treat analysis

dropouts are sought out for outcomes testing even if they just continue the intervention to which they were assigned and even if they ended up experiencing the opposing intervention

68. describe the Latin square

each of the intervention occurs first once second once and 3rd once the Latin square uses three of the six possible sequences of an intervention

129. researchers graph data either within what 2 charts

either within an equal interval graph or using a standard behavior chart

177. what does X stand for in research

experimental treatment

143. Single subject study is weak relative to what kind of validity

external validity because you do not know the extent to which these findings generalize to other comparable individuals

72. what are the advantages to the wait list control group design

favored for humanitarian reasons, permits the study of expensive interventions without the researcher having to fund the intervention because all the persons on the waiting list will ultimately receive the intervention

151. Statistics allow the researcher to find what

find patterns and data into generalized findings from a sample to a population

210. describe the equivalent time samples design

has only one group or possibly only one participant the treatment conditions are alternated on a random basis as indicated in the design alternating in experimental treatment with a control condition or comparison treatment so the participants serve as both the control and the experiment

205. describe the static group comparison design

has two groups but participants are not assigned to the groups at random they are intact groups and one group receives the treatment the other does not

203. One group pretest posttest design may be confounded by what explanations

history, maturation, instrumentation, testing, and statistical regression

113. In multiple baseline designs when is intervention effectiveness demonstrated

if a desired change in level, trend, or variability occurs only when the intervention is introduced and the change in performance should be maintained throughout the intervention phase

120. alternating treatment designs require interventions that will produce what

immediate and distinct changes in behavior such as with splints positioning devices and assistive technology

164. what is a replication

in attempt to confirm the results of a study by conducting it again in the same way

53. what is a randomized controlled trial

in experiment where an important health outcome is the dependent variable a clinical interventionist part of the independent variable and research participants are recruited and randomly assigned overtime as they become available

214. what is a confound

in extra variable that creates confusion regarding the explanation for a given difference

146. What do quantitative research questions include

information on the target population, the attributes or variables to be studied and what the researcher wants know about them, and the type of analysis that will be used by the researcher to answer the question

100. the ABC changing criterion design is suited for interventions that are what

interventions that are modified in a stepwise manner because the criterion for success is changed incrementally with each successive intervention phase and is appropriate for situations in which the goal is stepwise increases or stepwise decreases

132. visual analysis of graphically presented data to infer conclusions about cause and effect involves what

involves looking for a change in level, trend, or variability between phases when treatment is instituted or withdrawn

196. internal validity is concerned with what question

is this treatment in this particular case responsible for the observed changes

23. What are the disadvantages to the one group post test only design

it does not include a pre test assessment of the participants before treatment is received, it does not include a control group where in any post test differences might reveal themselves when comparing controls

73. what is the potential problem with wait list control group designs

it is possible that the people at the top of the list are systematically different from those at the bottom

179. what is the advantage of using a pretest

it permits researchers to determine how much each group has gained not just whether they are different at the end of the experiment

34. why is repeated measures designed helpful in some cases

it provides important information concerning the duration required for the intervention to have an effect

64. What are the advantages of a crossover design

it reduces the chances of type 2 error because individual differences are controlled because each participant is compared to their self

122. what is the primary weakness of the alternating treatments design

its vulnerability to a validity threat relating to the influence of an intervention on an adjacent intervention so randomizing the order would allow for order effects to be identified if they do exist

182. what is the drawback to Solomon Randomized four group design

large subject pool

36. what is the difference between post tests and long term follow-up tests

long term follow-up tests occur after a period of no intervention

79. Why are aspects of cross sectional designs frequently combined with longitudinal approaches

longitudinal approaches allow for the same sample to repeatedly measure at planned intervals overtime and the idea is that it creates a high degree of confidence if the cross sectional and longitude approaches confirm each other

50. what are the main problems with factorial designs

many more subjects are needed to fill up all the groups

209. quasi experimental researchers often use what to increase the internal validity

matching

33. What is repeated measures design

measuring the outcome repeatedly over the course of an experiment

42. what is an argument in favor of multiple dependent variable studies

mechanisms of change which occurs when the researcher theorizes that the intervention understudy works in a chain reaction style in which the first one aspect of the person is affected which in turn influences some other aspect

123. what are the three common interval recording techniques

momentary time sampling, partial interval recording, and whole interval recording

95. information learned in the process of single subject research can be used in designing what

more costly group experimental studies involving numerous participants in multiple sites

45. Completely randomized factorial designs have more than one what

more than one independent variable

117. do alternating treatment designs need a baseline

no

172. can you substitute a research purpose for directional hypothesis

no

66. crossover designs are not recommended for what

not recommended for studies of interventions that are hypothesized to lead to enduring changes within the person and not recommended for studies in which the dependent variable involves certain kinds of learning

176. what does O stand for in research

observation or measurement whether pretest or posttest

204. describe the one shot case study

one group is given a treatment followed by a test not good for cause and effect because there is no comparison

26. describe the one group pretest posttest design

one group of participants is administered a pretest before the intervention occurs this group then receives the intervention and a posttest as administered thereafter

21. what are the four quasi experimental designs that are most commonly utilized

one group post test only design, two group post test only design, one group pretest posttest design, and two group pretest posttest design

161. are you defining a variable in terms of concrete or physical steps is called what

operationalizing a variable

185. describe the internal validity threat of history

other environmental influences on the participants between the pretest and posttest

186. describe the internal validity threat of maturation

participants mature by becoming older wiser or smarter during the period between the pretest and posttest

29. What is selection bias

participants self selecting into a study or condition out of self interest or researchers bias in assigning certain participants to a specific condition

15. describe a usual care control group

participants simply continue to receive what is considered to be the usual standard of care for their particular impairment

56. what is the rationale for the intention to treat analysis

participants who drop out or choose the opposite intervention might do so because of adverse side effects brought about by the intervention to which they were originally assigned

13. what are the four common types of control groups

placebo control groups usual care control groups delayed treatment control groups and no treatment control groups

187. describe the internal validity threat of instrumentation

possible changes in the measurement procedure from the time it was used as a pre test at the time it was used as a post test

228. Instrumentation threat and example

possible changes in the measurement procedure from the time it was used as a pretest to the time it was used as a posttest. particular observers who made the pretest observations may have been less astute at noticing signs of good self-concept than the observers who made the posttest observations

167. what is a simple research hypothesis

predicts a relationship between two variables

168. what is a directional hypothesis

predicts the direction of the outcome

206. pre experiment designs are useful for what

preliminary pilot studies in which are researchers goal is to try out potential treatments and measuring tools to learn more about their acceptability and accuracy not to obtain information on causal relationships

32. What are three variations on basic post test only experimental design

pretest post test experimental designs, use of a covariate to adjust for individual differences, and randomized match subject design

61. what are the advantages to cluster randomized controlled trials

prevention of bleeding from one condition to the other, differing skill levels and possible biases of those administering the interventions can be assumed to be more balanced across conditions

90. selection of a group comparison research design depends on what five factors

prevention of type one error, prevention of type 2 error, external validity, the resources available, and the theoretical or clinical importance of the research question

59. what does consort include

provides a checklist for essential items that should be included in a randomized control trial and a diagram for documenting the flow of participants through trial

31. describe non experimental designs

purely descriptive or observational in which variables that are thought to be associated with one another are analyzed statistically in the natural environment which can help describe correlational relationships

175. What does R stand for in research

random assignment to groups

138. what is one of the best and most underutilized statistical tests of her opiate for use in single subject research

randomization test

69. describe the random assignment to all sequences

randomly assigned the sample into six groups each of which experiences one of the six possible sequences

141. if a researcher plans to use randomization test to analyze data from single subject research it is important that the researcher does what

randomly assigns experimental conditions

107. describe multiple baseline designs

require repeated measures of at least three baseline conditions that depict clear implemented concurrently with each successive baseline being longer than the previous one

170. what can be substituted for a nondirectional hypothesis

research purpose or research question

147. What are descriptive or observational studies

research studies where the researcher observes are described with the subjects report and does not intervene with the treatment

91. What is single subject research

research that defines a group of related methodological approaches that involve in depth analysis of the behaviors of a single research subject or of a relatively small group of subjects that is considered collectively with the subject serving as their own controls

218. how do you prevent the John Henry effect

researchers should try their best to conceal the control group's knowledge of its status

82. Because the data collected referred to past events in case control designs they are termed what kind of studies

retrospective studies

106. withdrawal designs are most appropriate for behaviors that are _____

reversible

198. What are some threats to external validity

selection bias, reactive effects of experimental arrangements, reactive effect of testing, and multiple treatment interference

191. the possibility that the two groups are not initially the same in all important respects was called what

selection threat

65. what are the disadvantages of crossover designs

sequence can affect or carryover effect can prevent a clear interpretation that one intervention is superior regardless of order

234. Resentful demoralization threat and example

social threat to internal validity. This results in increased dropout rates because participants simply give up, or the difference in the scores on the dependent variable between the two groups is increased. A participant knows they are not in the treatment group and are seeing positive effects of the intervention in the treatment group. This causes the participation to become spiteful and drop out of the studies.

216. how can you control the Hawthorne effect

some researchers used three groups and experimental Group A control group that receives attention in a control group that does not receive special attention

169. what is a nondirectional hypothesis

states that there will be a difference with the author does not predict the direction of the difference

165. deciding if a variable has been sufficiently operationalized to meet the criterion of adequacy involves what kind of judgment

subjective

150. selecting a unit of analysis relates to the what

target population

25. describe the two group post test only design

test whether a certain therapy or other action led to a desired outcome by allowing for a direct comparison between a group of participants receiving the therapy and one not receiving the therapy however history maturation or other confounds can't affect the findings

67. if there are three or more conditions to the independent variable a counterbalance design offers what two options

the Latin square or random assignment to all possible sequences

213. typically when an ABAB design is used initial observations constitute what

the baseline which determines for typical variation in the behavior of participants overtime before any intervention

88. what are the problems with previously collected demographic data

the data were collected under different circumstances by different data collectors and the life experiences of prospective cohort are different from archival information collected at different points in time

43. fidelity defines the degree to what

the degree to which an intervention is loyal to itself in terms of the intended content and process of the intervention

188. how is testing a threat to internal validity

the effects of the pretest on the performance exhibited on the post test could contribute to participants learning how to interpret the questions differently

227. Testing threat and example

the effects of the pretest on the performance exhibited on the posttest. For instance, while taking the pretest self-concept scale, the participants may have learned to interpret the questions differently by the end of the test.

39. What is multiplicity

the increase in type 1 error due to multiple statistical tests on the same participant the more tests that are done the more likely that some of those tests will appear to be statistically significant

229. experimental mortality threat and example

the loss of subjects in the middle of a study. Those who stay in a project all the way to the end may be more motivated to learn and thus achieved higher performance

173. what is the null hypothesis

the null hypothesis is when the researcher tries to disprove it's the default position that no relationship exists and is a statistical hypothesis

217. what is the John Henry effect

the possibility that the control group might become aware of its inferior status and respond by trying to outperform the experimental group

83. what is the advantage to retrospective studies

the relative case with which possible causal or risk factors can be explored without waiting for years to see how events unfold

166. What happens if a researcher fails to provide operational definitions of all key variables in a research report

the report is vague at best and the results are often of limited usefulness

76. describe a cross sectional design

the researcher does not manipulate the assignment of subjects to groups as an experiment. An organismic variable is used

85. describe a multi group cohort design

the researcher matches a sample that has hypothesized risk factor to a sample that does not then the researcher picks a future point in time to see if the hypothesized risk factor truly predicts the disease or disability

30. what is experimenter expectancy

the researchers expecting that participants from the therapy group center would do better

109. describe multiple baseline design across behaviors

the same treatment variable is applied sequentially to separate behaviors in a single participant for example a researcher may make treatment to address swearing but not slamming and screaming well we are certain amount of time and then 10 days later address door slamming and then after 15 days address screaming

54. What is efficacy

the study of an intervention under nearly ideal conditions were random error is highly controlled where interventions have special training and where costs are not considered

211. what is a major disadvantage of the equivalent time samples design

there is a strong possibility of multiple treatment interference in which the second time the participant receives the treatment they have already been exposed to and possibly changed by the early exposure to the treatment

178. what is the symbol for the control group

there is no symbol it is just blank

84. what are the disadvantages to retrospective studies

they frequently depend on unreliable data such as self reports which become less accurate as distance in time increases and case control studies involve multiplicity in which the researcher investigates a host of past events some of which might discriminate between currently assembled groups by pure chance

49. What is an advantage to factorial designs

they tend to prevent type 2 error because they allow for statistical analysis through analysis of variance

194. how does selection interact with mortality

those in experimental groups may have a higher dropout rate

201. Describe the multiple treatment interference threat

threat that occurs when a group of participants has given more than one treatment causing generalization to be risky if treatments given early In an experiment might affect the effectiveness of treatments given later to the same participants

225. History internal vailidty threat and example

threat to internal validity because events in the natural course of history may have an unanticipated influence on outcomes. If a researcher was studying the effects of a public education campaign on building accessibility and, during the course of the study, the county passed a law that all doorways must be modified to be a certain width, history has clearly played a role in outcomes

230. Statistical regression threat and example

threat to internal validity that occurs only if participants are selected on the basis of their extreme scores. An example of this would be if a large group of students was administered a self-concept scale and those in the lowest 20% were selected for treatment in the experiment. Those who scored extremely low on a screening test will, on average, tend to have a higher score when they are tested again.

208. a nonequivalent control group design is subject to what threats

threats of mortality, selection, and interaction of selection with other threats

237. what are interaction effects of selection biases and intervention

threats to external validity. If a sample is biased, a researcher's ability to generalize to a population is greatly limited. If a biased sample of participants is used in an experiment (such as using the students who happen to be in one professor's class), a researcher will not know whether the effects of the treatment (observed in that class) can be expected if the treatment is administered to the entire population.

184. Alternative explanations to results in a research study are called what

threats to internal validity

145. generalizability in single subject research is achieved only through what

through replication with other individuals and other settings and with other therapists

133. incorporating additional descriptive information into graphs can be used to what

to augment visual data analysis

75. what is the purpose of a cross sectional design

to compare different types of persons in terms of some immediately measurable dependent variable

142. what is the purpose of assessing social validity

to evaluate the acceptability or viability of an intervention and it's important because it is possible for an intervention to result in desirable changes in the dependent variable but still be identified by research participants or other stakeholders as being unacceptable

80. what is the purpose of a case control design

to find out if some specific variable from the past discriminate between people who today have a disease or disability and people who do not

158. Why might a researcher want two independent variables instead of 1

to get more information by looking at two independent variables in one study them by looking at each independent variable in a separate experiment because you can see how do independent variables work in combination

74. what is an important design strategy when conducting non randomized designs

to match the groups at the outset on potentially confounding variables

154. What are some reasons why you might write a research proposal

to obtain funding, to get instructor approval, for an Institutional Review Board

12. What is the primary way of maintaining blinding

to offer participants who are assigned to the no treatment condition of placebo treatment

197. external validity is concerned with what question

to whom and under what circumstances can the results be generalized

162. true or false you can never completely operationalize a variable

true

101. true or false width AB and ABC designs no causal statements can be made

true there are too many threats to internal validity

193. describe selection maturation interaction

two groups on average were at somewhat different developmental stages at the time of the pretest

60. what is a cluster randomized controlled trial

type of RCT and which clinical sites are randomly assigned to arms conditions of independent variables as opposed to randomly assigning individual participant

148. at the design phase, a researcher must decide the ___________ and ensure that it is appropriate to the question being asked

unit of analysis

116. describe the alternating treatments design/multielement baseline design/randomization design/multiple schedule design

used to compare the effects of intervention and no intervention or they can use to compare the effects of two or more distinct and involve a fast alternation of two or more different interventions or conditions

134. Describe the split middle technique

used to describe data and predict outcomes given the rate of change and used to facilitate the examination and comparison of friends in two or more phases

94. Single subject research methods are useful for what

useful for answering questions regarding the effectiveness of specific interventions for specific individuals by providing experimental control and by contributing to clear and precise clinical documentation, appropriate for use when the therapist has one or at most a few clients, work with individuals with a low incidence diagnosis or impairment, and it does not require the withholding of treatment from a no treatment control group

18. what control conditions are often utilized in quasi experimental studies

usual care, delayed treatment, and no treatment control conditions

111. what is the non concurrent multiple baseline design across individuals

we're different individuals are studied at different times a feature that makes it ideal for clinical settings where it is often impractical to start multiple clients in a study simultaneously

192. describe selection history interaction

when a selection of participants for the two groups is not at random so they may systematically be subjected to different life experiences

119. alternating treatment designs are useful in situations when what

when change is expected in the dependent variable overtime because of factors such as a disease process or a natural recovery process effects from these changes largely they are controlled because each intervention is instituted within a short period of time.

215. describe the Hawthorne effect

when participants don't necessarily respond to the change of the independent variable but instead to the attention of being observed by the researchers

190. how can groups be a threat to internal validity

when researchers use two comparison groups that are not formed at random such as intact groups

137. How can the dashed line contribute to missed interpretations of the data

when the data reflect either an upward or downward trend when there are few data points within a phase and when data points within a phase are highly variable

47. when does an interaction occur in a randomized factorial design

when the effects of 1 intervention depend on the effects of the other intervention

200. what is the reactive effects of experimental arrangements threat

when the experimental setting is different from the natural setting

17. what is a no treatment control group

when the participants are either naive to any treatment for their particular impairment or have independently withdrawn from or have been deliberately withdrawn from treatment for purposes of the study

24. when is it beneficial to use the one group post test only design

when the prior history and information of the situation before the treatment can be inferred and understood and might reveal useful information characterized by a signature cause that is so unique that it would be impossible to link the outcome to any other explanations

131. what factors should be taken into account when determining estimates for phase lengths prior to study implementation

whether or not he or she intends to use statistical analysis, in situations where change is expected consider making the lengths of baseline and intervention phases comparable, variability in the expected data in the magnitude of the expected change so in cases where high variability and or small changes are expected longer phases are advised

149. what is the unit of analysis

who or what constitutes one unit from which data has been collected in this study data collected will likely represent individuals and analysis will discuss the findings in terms of individuals

98. Describe the ABC successive intervention design

with this design is second intervention is introduced in the C phase and can be used to see if one intervention is more effective than the other

93. single subject research is based on what

within subject performance because each participant serves as her own control and there are repeated measurements overtime

171. when using a research question as the basis for Research you must not state it as what

yes or no

125. describe partial interval recording

your response was scored if the behavior occurs in any part of the interval