race crime justice Exam 1
statistics about residential segregation
- 34% of black neighborhoods are 90% or more black, but same is true for 14% white, - 1% of white neighborhoods experience extreme poverty while 25% black NB do, - disadvantage by neighborhood mirrors black and white, with white about 25% low disadvantage and black 25% high disadvantage and meeting at a gradient in the middle, - whites have less than 10% NB with few college graduates, while marginalized have over 50% few, latino minority and black
*** 20. What are racial hoaxes? Why are they successful? - What implications do they have for race relations in the United States?
- Racial hoaxes are a way to place the race card and manipulate deep fears about race and who is being victimized by who. It is generally when someone fabricates a crime and blames it on someone else because of his/her race (more generally blamed on Black men), or when a real crime occurs and the actual perpetrator blames someone else because of his/her race. This racial hoax phenomenon is not new, in reality, it has long historic roots. Interracial hoaxes are most likely to be reported and have media coverage. - They are successful because they feed on the fears of who we're supposed to be afraid of (ie the criminalblackman). They are important in their implications because they reinforce historic images therefore making it harder to break down the racial divide. It also recreates racially stereotypic notions for new and young generations. -Keep hoaxes alive
Supplementary homicide reports
- Reports provided by police departments about every homicide in that jurisdiction -- also a lot of race and ethnicity biases - information on both the victim and perp (more data on the victim than the offender)
National Crime Victimization survey
- Survey asking whether you have ever been a victim of a crime (reported/unreported) - Hispanics can be compared with other groups - Strength: Compensates for the unreported police reports
***21. Why do we think and talk about Black crime but not "White crime"? - How does the relative absence of White crime in prominent public and academic discussions affect how we think about and understand crime in the United States?
- We don't actually even think about White crime because there is no specific categorical meaning to White crime. • White Collar Crimes - though white people commit the largest amount of crimes in all categories besides specifically murder and robbery, we associate white people with no crimes, and if any, they are nonviolent crimes such as "white collar crimes" while whites are most likely the number one perpetrator of crimes like rape or manslaughter. *** White crime seen as invisible - Don't have much data on white crime with systematic evidence Such facts (the results from Russell-Brown) are widely misunderstood bc of the higher rates of crime within the black and hispanic populations We assume crime or criminals refer to blacks because we only have information available about blacks commiting crimes - Not enough people of color teaching about crime, only White PhDs teaching crime
FBI arrest data
- White, Black, Am. Indian/ Alaska Native, & Asian or Pacific Islander - No separate category for Hispanics (Latino is the pc term) - Problem: does not necessarily mean that a crime was committed.
Uniform Crime Reports
- no information on race-ethnicity - major source of crime data
what did bonilla silva say?
- society allocates privileged in a racially hierarchal manner, - root of inequality is structural, based on patterns from racially patterned institutions, education, criminal justice, drug laws
systems of punishment are how --
-The systems of punishment are object lessons in how not to structure a racially fair CJ system.
***18. What are the three key parts of the argument made by Peterson and Krivo about how differences in community conditions explain race-ethnic differences in crime rates across neighborhoods? - What evidence do they find to support each of these three key arguments?
1.) segregation and what created segregation from interpretations about race ("white people just don't live next to black people", so there is just more crime in black neighborhoods) 2.) different attitudes and interpretations about integration (different definitions about what constitutes integration) [ these are from discussions in class, I am not looking at the handout atm] 3.) white neighborhoods had better resources for schools than in black neighborhoods (differences in conditions and levels of disadvantages... segregation is not equal) 4.) social disorganization (not forming ties with others) 5.) difference in social conditions in white and black & hispanic neighborhoods lead to differences in crime
what percent of juvenile cases actually go to court vs being disposed?
15 vs 85
***15. What were the penalties established for trafficking and possession of crack cocaine in the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - How did these penalties compare to those for powder cocaine? - What groups experienced the most serious consequences from these laws? - What was the role of the media and public opinion in affecting the policy making process that established the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - What was the Congressional response to the media portrayed and public opinion during the legislative process that established the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - Was Congress aware of the racial impact of these laws and do we know whether they were or were not aware of the racial impact?
1986 crack cocaine 5 year minimum for 1st offense trafficking of 5 grams of crack, 1988 5 year minimum for 1st possession of 5 grams of crack, disastrous consequences for poor urban minorities particularly for African American males. Crack cocaine used in poor, urban areas, used by African Americans, Powder cocaine used by upper whites, not as punished. 2010 fair sentencing Act reduced the ratio of the minimum sentence for crack and powder cocaine to 18:1 used to be 100:1, raised the min. Possession amount for 1st offense to 28 grams and abolished 5 year minimum sentence. 2011 FSA made retroactive Penalties were way less severe for those using powder cocaine which was mainly upper class whites. African Americans suffered the most serious consequences from these laws of minimum sentencing. Congress setting a 5 year min. To those with a first offense of trafficking crack cocaine was way too severe. Legislation set 10 year min of those caught selling 50 grams. Possession of any amount of other drug can result in no more than a year in prison. With this new legislation congress intended to be tough on crack cocaine users and sellers, so mainly targeting African Americans. African Americans were about 13% of the population and at the time compromised 50% of new prison admissions. Some view this policy as a lock-away policy to put away minorities. Racial impact of policy is clear and it is evident who is targeted. The media came into play bc the media made cocaine the "black" drug. Crack cocaine was cheap and not hard to afford. Drug use was a threat to society, but not as big of a threat as it was made out to be. People began to demonize crack dealers and blamed them for the many ills that were occuring on civilization. Federal officials encouraged the media to focus on crack cocaine stories to increase public awareness of the drug problem. The strength of government influence over the media was so strong and evident when media stories would include footage provided to them by the government and law-enforcement organizations. The media began to dramatize this "epidemic" by saying crack was a violence-inducing drug and raise awareness about "crack babies" that were destinied to be addicted. The media then used the death of two black celebrity athletes to gain more attention, blaming both deaths on crack. The lengths to which the government would go to persuade the public about how accessible crack was was evident when such staged a crack deal that he had "bought" across from the white house. Congress was basically competing with the white house to put their stamp on the problem of drug use. Members of congress deny any racist learnings in voting for these penalties even though they knew the punishment was way more severe than the punishment for powder. There were also no record of rude or racial slurs in the public records, which shouldn't have been said anyway. Congress was aware of who they were racially hitting with these penalties. They framed it around the willful black sellers and the helpless white users.
what is blacks violent and property crime rates?
39% violent crime, 30% prop crime, 13% of population
*** 1. What is a racial group? What is an ethnic group? - What does it mean to say that racial and ethnic groups are socially defined? - What is a minority group sociologically?
A racial group is a group of people who are generally considered by themselves and others as being a distinct group based upon certain physically distinguishing characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, facial features, etc. Some examples of racial groups are Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians. Race is more of a social concept than a biological concept. An ethnic group is recognized by themselves and or others as sharing some common social or cultural characteristics. This means they are a subgroup of the population with shared social, cultural, and historical experiences. Some examples of ethnic groups could be African American, Chinese, Spanich, etc. Both of these groups are socially defined. Race can be regarded as socially constructed because race is a concept that has no objective reality. It only exists because our society has decided that it should exist and has constructively assigned categories to how people look. Technically less than 0.1% of all DNA in human bodies accounts for physical differences which is what we use to determine different races. Biologically speaking races are much more similar than different and they are only a big deal because society makes it appear to be a bigger deal than it really is. Defining one's race is arbitrary. For example, President Obama is of African American and caucasian descent, yet identifies as an African American and the public regards him as an african American. A minority group sociologically does not always match numeric representation. Sociologically about power and status. Those with less power or have less status in the population could be seen as the minority group. Majority groups have more power. Minority status is not limited to skin color, but could be categorized by gender, religion, or even gender identification. Within a group of people there could be less Chinese people, making them within that group the minority. But on the grand scheme of things regarding total world population, there are more Chinese people than say those of Belgium descent.
***17. How do community conditions produce more or less crime? - What is the difference between types of people explanations of crime and types of places explanations of crime? - What are the social conditions that are supposed to lead to higher levels of crime in some neighborhoods than in others according to the original theory of social disorganization put forth by Shaw and McKay? - How and why do these social conditions lead to more crime in some areas?
A) How do community conditions produce more or less crime? - Social Disorganization Theory -- Crime and delinquency highest in poorest areas -- Inability of a community to realize its common goals B) Difference between types of people and types of places - Types of people: Areas have more crime because they have more criminally prone people living there - Types of places: Areas have more crime because of circumstances in the environment that heighten crime C) Social conditions - Poverty, population diversity, residential instability + Social disorganization = crime D)How do these conditions lead to more crime? - Racial and ethnic groups are segregated into distinct neighborhoods, separate is not equal even today, differences in neighborhood crime are explained by these differences in neighborhood socioeconomic conditions *(SEE CHART)*
***14. What was Jim Crow legislation? - When was such legislation formally dismantled? - According to Russell-Brown, what does the history of slave codes, Black laws/codes, lynching, and Jim Crow legislation teach us about the minimum basis for a fair and just criminal justice system?
A) Jim Crow legislations • Widespread segregation laws ( North & South) • mandated ALL separate facilities • even extended into private spaces ( marriage) • was supposed to enforce separate but equal B) When was Jim Crow legislations formally dismantled ? WE DO NOT NEED TO KNOW DATES FOR THE ANSWERS LISTED BELOW • Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) • Civil Rights Act (1964) • Right to vote for African Americans (1965) C) Russell-Brown minimum basis for fair and just criminal justice system: • Criminal penalties apply to everyone equally, regardless of race of the *offender*. • Criminal penalties apply to everyone equally, regardless of race of the victim. • The race of the offender is not relevant in determining whether his or her actions constitute a crime. The offender's actions would have been considered criminal even if he or she were another race. • The race of the victim is not relevant in determining whether the offender's action constitutes a crime. • The offender's racial pedigree (e.g., "degree of Blackness") is not used to determine punishment. • There are checks and balances that mitigate against racial bias within the legal system. (Found in Russell-Brown book, pg. 51-52) ---The systems of punishment are object lessons in how not to structure a racially fair CJ system.
***16. What do we mean by social structure? - What do we know about patterns of racial and ethnic inequalities as aspects of social structure (for example, in income, wealth, unemployment)? - How residentially segregated are Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians from Whites in the United States? - What causes such segregation? Generally, how does inequality relate to crime? - Generally, why does segregation lead to differences in crime across neighborhoods of different race-ethnic compositions?
A) Social Structure- - general term for any collective social circumstance that is unalterable and given for the individual B) The pattern consists of relationships between groups of people that comprise society ⇒ socio economic inequality • Socio economic inequalities are related to differences in crime across race ethnic groups however not all poor people commit crime and rich people do not • Community social structure⇒ crimes within local communities and the differences in conditions across neighborhoods that affect it C) U.S is not just economically segregated but racially as well - Race ethnic residential segregation is greater but it is currently declining compare to economical segregation - Community conditions that lead to more crime are much more common in non white than white communities, and community conditions that deter or control crime are much more common in white communities. No community ties. -Redlining causes segregation. Realtors not wanting to show certain neighborhoods. Banks Denying loans to minorities. Developing projects specifically for minorities.
***10. What are racial assaults? How does the public tend to respond to them? - What are microaggressions and macroaggressions? - How do they differ from one another? - What does Russell-Brown consider to be the consequences of intraracial aggressions? - *What does research show about the consequences of Black names for finding jobs and housing?* - What are the implications of macroagression, microaggression, and name profiling for race, crime, and the criminal justice system?
A). *Racial Assaults:* - being insulted or assaulted based solely on your race B.) *How does the public respond:* - public makes remarks that it is not racist, taken out of context, more important race issues than one person's. C.) *Microaggressions:* - subtle, stunning, often non-verbal exchanges that amount to put downs or blacks by whites. D.) *Macroaggressions:* - attacks, insults ,or pejorative statements made against blacks as a group. E.) *Intraracial aggressions:* - consequences of intraracial aggressions are other African Americans using the 'n' word with one another F.) Implications: 1.) Blacks using the 'n' word marginalizes other blacks and "they legitimize the racial disrespect and loathing that are at the core of interracial macroaggressions" 2.) License for anti-Black sentiment and expression
***3. What are the four major sources of crime data? - What are the differences between them? - Which of these provide data on criminal offending and victimization by race and ethnicity?
A.) *Sources of Crime data*- I. - Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)- 1.) no information on race-ethnicity 2.) major source of crime data II. - Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)- 1.) Reports provided by police departments about every homicide in that jurisdiction 2.) also a lot of race and ethnicity biases 3.) information on both the victim and perp (more data on the victim than the offender) III. - FBI Arrest Data- 1.) White, Black, Am. Indian/ Alaska Native, & Asian or Pacific Islander 2.) No separate category for Hispanics (Latino is the pc term) 3.) Problem: all arrests are reported but it does not necessarily mean that a crime was committed. IV. - National Crime Victimization survey (NCVS)- 1.) Survey asking whether you have ever been a victim of a crime (reported/unreported) 2.) Hispanics can be compared with other groups 3.) Strength: Compensates for the unreported police reports B.) *Which provides data on race and ethnicity?* - Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHR): Severe crime rate data that provides information on race/ethnicity - All but UCR provide data on criminal offending and victimization by race and ethnicity.
*** 1. What is a racial group? What is an ethnic group? - What does it mean to say that racial and ethnic groups are socially defined? - What is a minority group sociologically?
A.) Racial Group- -- is a group of people who are generally considered by themselves and/or others being a distinct group based upon certain physically distinguishing characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, facial features, etc. B.) Ethnic Group- -- is a group of people who are recognized by themselves and/or others as distinct groups because they share common social or cultural characteristics C.) Racial/Ethnic group socially defined- -- No one inherently belongs to any group biologically. These groups are defined socially by members of society and membership is only assigned to those that society deem being members of a certain group. D.) Minority group sociologically- -- Sociologically based upon share of power and status 1.-- minority groups have less than their proportionate share 2.-- majority groups have more than their proportionate share
12. What were the slave codes? - What did they do and how were they enforced? - What were Black laws and Black codes and how did they differ from slave codes?
A.) Slave codes- - Criminal laws of the treatment of enslaved africans. B.) What did they do? - They regulated slave behavior of the slaves so that they wouldn't rebel --- 1) "the one drop rule"- if you had one drop of african american blood then you were not considered white --- 2) legal businesses were regulated by these codes C.) How were they enforced- - Deterrence: being whipped and abused (slave patrols) D.) Black Laws and Codes- - limiting mobility to blacks (segregation) Differed from slave codes b/c they were in place in non slave states. E.) How did they differ from slave codes? - Governed regulation of Blacks in non-slave states as well --- 1. Governed differential access to employment opportunities --- 2. subject to indentured servitude
how prevalent are hate crimes
About half of hate crimes are race motivated and of those, 70% had black victims
Offending rates
African Americans are overrepresented in drug arrests Arrests are also predominantly white but comparisons to the population are important People are more likely to point out African-Americans as offenders than Whites when asked about the race
other common media images on race
Asian Americans (smart, karate movies) Latinos (cleaning ladies, illegal, heavy accents) Blacks (Gang Affiliates, drug users)
common media images
Blacks and hispanics are often being portrayed as the offenders throughout the media while whites are usually shown as the victims
Jim Crow when was it dismantled
Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) Civil Rights Act (1964) Right to vote for African Americans (1965)
community conditions for crime
Community conditions that lead to more crime are much more common in non white than white communities, and community conditions that deter or control crime are much more common in white communities. No community ties.
community social structure
Community social structure⇒ crimes within local communities and the differences in conditions across neighborhoods that affect it
*** 2. What types of consistencies and inconsistencies are there in how criminal justice agencies collect data on race and ethnicity? - What implications do these have for our understanding of patterns of race-ethnic differences in crime and criminal justice contact?
Consistencies- blacks overrepresented as offenders? Inconsistencies: One major inconsistency about how data is collected his how agencies classify racial groups. Some agencies don't separate Hispanics from Whites when collecting data so numbers regarding race can be off from other agencies' data that do separate Hispanics into their own category. When Hispanics are categorized as Whites in data it results in disproportionate involvement in crime statistics, meaning white will look like they have higher arrests, deal with more inequality when interacting with the police and more. The sources of crime data could also show some inconsistencies regarding how the CJ agencies collect data on race and ethnicity. The SHR doesn't separate Hispanics from any other category. Also the NCVS can be subjected depending on the reliability of victim reports. UCR includes large portions of Latinos as whites which also messes with the numbers. If there were no Latinos included in the white category than the white category numbers would be smaller. Another inconsistency is police bias against certain races. They can act in favor of certain races or against certain races (Barkan, 47). Implications
Contextual discrimination
Contextual discrimination - discrimination found in particular contexts or circumstances (for example; certain regions, particular crimes, or special victim-offender relationships)
Crime in 60's- 70's
Crime went up during the 60s-70s; also true for violent/property crimes From the 1960s/1970s we see that crime is actually going down regarding race/ethnicity (Whites vs Black), but economic problems are increasing.
Slave codes
Criminal laws of the treatment of enslaved africans
min basis for fair and just cj system
Criminal penalties apply to everyone equally, regardless of race of the offender. Criminal penalties apply to everyone equally, regardless of race of the victim. The offender's racial pedigree (e.g., "degree of Blackness") is not used to determine punishment. There are checks and balances that mitigate against racial bias within the legal system. - race of the offender is not relevant in determining whether his or her actions constitute a crime. offender's actions would have been considered criminal even if he or she were another race. - Race of the victim is not relevant in determining whether the offender's action constitutes a crime.
*** 2. What types of consistencies and inconsistencies are there in how criminal justice agencies collect data on race and ethnicity? - What implications do these have for our understanding of patterns of race-ethnic differences in crime and criminal justice contact?
Data is collected on a black/white/other basis. There is no option for mixed heritage/associations, and there is no box for Latino. The idea that having any black heritage makes you black versus white (moms white, dads "half" black, most likely the child identifies as being "black" on a questionnaire)
inconsistencies with data concerning race and ethnicities
Data is collected on a black/white/other basis. There is no option for mixed heritage/associations, and there is no box for Latino. The idea that having any black heritage makes you black versus white (moms white, dads "half" black, most likely the child identifies as being "black" on a questionnaire)
how were slave codes enforced
Deterrence: being whipped and abused (slave patrols)
Hate crimes
Differences in number of anti-Black/White hate crimes: - Anti-Black hate crime more common in highly socially organized white neighborhoods under threat of racial change - Anti-White hate crimes more common in more disadvantaged and residentially unstable areas
discrimination
Discrimination: refers to a difference based on differential treatment of people without regard to the individual's behavior or qualifications
disparity
Disparity: refers to a difference in resources or opportunities available because of a person's race or ethnicity
Gilliam and iyengar
Franklin D. Gilliam, Jr. and Shanto Iyengar has shown narrative script crime reporting is receptive to racial stereotypes. In a study where subjects were shown broadcasts in keeping with the narrative crime script model, the majority of subjects recalled the race of the suspect as being of color.
how did black laws differ from slave codes
Governed regulation of Blacks in non-slave states as well Governed differential access to employment opportunities subject to indentured servitude
who was the first social ecologist?
Guerry
who were the victorian london leaders?
Guerry, Booth and Quetelet
victimization rates
Highest rates 2 or more races (interracial marriage), then African American, Whites, American Indians Asians; true for household and personal victimizations Hispanic rates higher than for non-Hispanics Lifetime risk of victimization is high for all groups and somewhat higher for African Americans - 87% for blacks 82% for whites
***9. According to Russell-Brown, what are the common media images for the major race-ethnic groups in the U.S.? - What issues of concern do these raise about media portrayals of race and ethnicity?
I. Blacks and hispanics are often being portrayed as the offenders throughout the media while whites are usually shown as the victims. Native Americans (Mascots, traditional clothing) - Asian Americans (smart, karate movies) - Latinos (cleaning ladies, illegal, heavy accents) - Blacks (Gang Affiliates, drug users) II. The media often feeds into and reproduces stereotypes of who are the typical crime victims and offenders. They provide disproportionate coverage of violent crime, missing white women over black & hispanic.
Immigration and crime
Immigration lowers crime ⇒ fear of deportation, different goals/objectives - Yet they are a controversy because of the differences in culture/ego/orientation however, there is an increase in crime throughout generations Generally, we know that 60% of people in prison are minorities = high disproportionality because minorities are only 30% of the population). Also, arrests don't always lead to crime
***4. What do we know about crime patterns over time and differences in levels of criminal involvement by race and ethnicity from the 1960s/1970s to today? - What is the relationship between immigration and crime? - What do we know generally about differences by race and ethnicity in levels of contact with the criminal justice system from existing data sources?
In general all crime has declined after 1990s. But between 1960-1990s crime has gone up. There was a huge homicide spike in the 1960s until 1990s, then started to go down resulting in a huge decline. According to the SHR Black murder offending rates have been between 6 and 9 times those of whites since 1976. Black murder victimization rates have been about 6 times that of whites. Immigration is related to lower rates of committing crime. Much research finds no evidence that immigrants commit crime at a higher rate than nonimmigrants. Places with more immigrants have similar or less crime than other places. Places that have had more growth in the immigration population have had greater declines in crime than other places. Imms. don't want to get deported if arrested or caught in a crime. This is also because immigrants have strong social institutions: churches, families, and schools. Despite what many politicians say imms. Commit less crime than they think. Can compare NCVS data to UCR data. According to NCVS the % of African American offenders are all higher than the 13% of African American share of the national population. African Americans are 4xs more likely to commit robbery than their share of the national population. NCVS says aggravated assault 32.5 and UCR arrests reports says 32.4. But there are similar percentages of African American offenders in the NCVS and UCR. Suggests arrest data may not be racially biased. Self-report data provides important information on possible racial differences in delinquency. Reports find that African American and Latino youths are more likely than non Latino white youths to commit serious violent and property crime. This finding was also true for the NCVS and proves that racial differences in criminal behavior do exist, despite possible biases in criminal justice processing. ****With all the data collected from multiple sources criminologists can conclude and mainly agree that people of color commit serious conventional crime at higher rates than non Latino whites, people of color commit minor conventional crime at about the same rates as non latino whites, and the racial difference in serious conventional crime appears to exist despite any possible biases regarding who gets arrested, convicted, and incarcerated for conventional crimes.
oj trial
It wasn't a justice trial against OJ and his actions but it was a trial against 2 races Media fueled the fire and overlooked the other stats 70% of Whites believed that OJ was guilty and 70% of blacks believed that OJ was not guilty There was chaos because neither groups really understood each others side, It became more of a racial issue and deflected from the actual case.
***14. What was Jim Crow legislation? - When was such legislation formally dismantled? - According to Russell-Brown, what does the history of slave codes, Black laws/codes, lynching, and Jim Crow legislation teach us about the minimum basis for a fair and just criminal justice system?
Jim Crow refers to laws that mandated separate public facilities for blacks and whites. Segregationist practices came before even termed Jim Crow. Louisiana law challenged Plessy v. Ferguson was enacted in 1890. **One constant always remains slave codes became black codes and those became segregation statutes: Blackness itself was a crime. Jim Crow regulated other groups to second-class status. Other non whites not allowed to marry or live with whites. Signs posted everywhere, around neighborhoods, above water fountains Dismantled with the Brown v. Board of Ed. case in 1954- outlawed school segregation, technically still going on, Didn't happen fast enough, court orders to bus students to schools, had limited time, expired, the civil rights act of 1964, and right to vote for african americans in 1965. The history of slave codes, black codes, lynching, convict leasing, and jim crow teaches us that blackness itself is a crime. Race shouldn't even be considered when reporting crimes but for some reason it is. Whites use their powers to derail black progress, ultimately making free blacks just as powerless as slaves. CJ system does not view them as equals ex. Water fountains and separate but equal statute being false.
who was critical of the Chicago school?
Logan/Molotch
***11. What do research studies on newspaper and television reporting of crime show about race and crime media portrayals? - What does Gilliam and Iyengar's experimental study show about the consequences of seeing Black versus White suspects in television news reports for how people explain crime and think that crime should be punished?
Lundman (2003) studied how homicides receive more news attention than others. Looked at police files, newspapers of over 640 homicides in Columbus, OH from 1984-1992. Controls for a set of factors that make the stories more "newsworthy" if there was a weapon, age of victim, offenders, more than 1 victim or offender. Findings show striking overrepresentation in reporting of Black male offender and white victim homicides. Black male off and white female vic most covered in newspaper and front page news compared to any other combination of offs and vics. Bjornstrom et al. (2010) studied television news crime stories from a random sample of tv newscasts in 2002-2003. Examined the race-ethnicity of perpetrators and victims. Found black perpetrators are significantly overrepresented. Blacks and hispanics less likely than whites to be portrayed as victims Gilliam & Iyengar (2000). Experiment to assess whether exposure to standard crime scripts in a crime news tory affect public opinion. Sample of LA residents. Watched 15 min. Video taped local newscasts which involved a crime story in the middle: the suspect shown varied across the subject. No racial identity of the offender in the crime story was given. Then participants asked to recall the offender's race majority recalled 44% black, white 19%, even if not shown a race still wrote black - Viewing a black suspect increases support for viewing crime as caused by dispositions among whites but not blacks
***13. How widespread was lynching in the United States? - What role did lynching serve for racial groups and race relations?
Lynching became a new way of oppressing blacks done by the KKK. it was an extralegal southern "justice" that killed many black women, men, and children. An extreme form of vigilante justice, lynching became prominent after civil war. More common in the south. Lynching was mainly on blacks, but as of the 20th century reports show U.S. state dept. Pay reparations to China, Italy, and Mexico on behalf of lynching victims. Treated like a sporting event, families would go, businesses would be shut down, people would bring food to watch lynchings. Newspapers even announced lynchings. The role it served was to oppress blacks. Whites try to cover themselves by saying they were using it to preserve white womanhood, when official records show that sexual assault allegations of white women were less than ⅓ of all lynchings. Then they said it was to safeguard the white families, which was a cover. The main reason was to send a message to blacks- to make sure they stayed in their place, or else. Used to derail any black progress they tried to make. Also seen as performance. You could go to theaters to see lynching and a chance to shoot victim. (mention impact and memorial in Alabama) ******Summary: preserve white dominance, derail black progress Lynching continues to be remembered today with a memorial created by the Equal Justice Initiative in Alabama.
lynching
Lynching was a widespread form of extralegal justice after the civil war What role did lynching serve? - Key way to continue keeping blacks in their place and whites superior - Didn't really require much to instigate a lynching
microaggression/ macroaggression
Microaggression: - subtle, stunning, often non-verbal exchanges that amount to put downs or blacks by whites. Macroaggressions: - attacks, insults ,or pejorative statements made against blacks as a group.
race and ethnic groups socially defined
No one inherently belongs to any group biologically. These groups are defined socially by members of society and membership is only assigned to those that society deem being members of a certain group.
who were the key people in the Chicago school?
Park, Burgess, Shaw and McKay
***9. According to Russell-Brown, what are the common media images for the major race-ethnic groups in the U.S.? - What issues of concern do these raise about media portrayals of race and ethnicity?
People of color are often targets. Media images include more different groups than ever, but they are not as diverse as you might think. Issues of concern: - Disappearing people: means people of color are absent, but shows themselves reflect no diversity. People of color are absent from the media. Ex. Friends takes place in NYC and yet there are rarely people of color included in any of the episodes. - In Absentia: presence isn't full/complex. Native Americans and Asian Americans are largely absent from the media but this does not mean that they are completely invisible. When a group is not allowed to shape its own public image, it will then be shaped by other groups. Ex. White comedians making asian american jokes. This practice of allowing non-group-members to define a racial group also diminishes the group's history as longtime and hard working citizens in this country. We should notice when a group does not have a self-defined media presence not whether comedians are entitled to make racist jokes. - I see black people: present, but not in all complexity, either very smart/ successful or deviant, but their success is threatening to others- double edged resentment. The threat of black crime and the threat of black success. The motto states what is missing from much tv, presence or portrayal of african americans. If they are being portrayed it is either rigid and inaccurate. - In the mix: appears mixed, but not clear who is being represented, the character is non-white but it is not clear what racial group they belong to, no clues are given about the character's race. Lazy way to check off the diversity box by adding exotic flair to a cast without specifying what race is being included. - Racial ventriloquism (largely historic) White portray actors of color. ex. Northam statements, black face and KKK costume, Whites playing asians in films, example Emma Stone in Aloha. - Diverse impressions: Overall theme that emerges from mainstream media today is that it represents and embraces different races. Today we are all represented in the pot that is melting. We are now in a good place. This view encourages us to accept the status quo as the best we can achieve. There is still much more that can be done.
social conditions
Poverty, population diversity, residential instability + Social disorganization = crime
who found that the greatest number of crime convictions were in southern france?
Quetelet
research reporting of crime show about race and crime media portrayals
Race and crime portrayal is usually based off the "typical" crime committer Media images include more different groups than ever, but they are not as diverse Issue of concern: Abstentia, I see black people, In the mix, racial ventriloquism
how do different conditions lead to more crime
Racial and ethnic groups are segregated into distinct neighborhoods, separate is not equal even today, differences in neighborhood crime are explained by these differences in neighborhood socioeconomic conditions
***5. What is the difference between disparity and discrimination? - What are the different types of discrimination in the discrimination-disparity continuum? - How do the roles of "legitimate" legal factors versus "illegitimate" or extralegal factors relate to the difference between disparity and discrimination?
Racial disparities are outcomes that affect one race more than another race. In regard to criminal justice involvement, the term refers to the greater likelihood of people of color being arrested, convicted, and or incarcerated. Racial discrimination is the harsher treatment and or the denial of rights and opportunities to someone because of their perceived race or ethnicity. This discrimination can occur on an individual level, when someone isn't hired for a position because of her race, or on an institutional level, when discrimination characterizes the practices of whole institutions such as education, housing, and law enforcement. Legit- factors that court actors, lawyers, could legitimately use to charge, sentence, and the like. Talking about racial/ethnic difference, differences in the crimes that were committed, or differentials in prior history. Things actors can legitimately use. They are the sources of difference, and disparity, inequalities that are a result of factors that induce arrest Illegitimate reasons -- reasons for things you shouldn't use to arrest people -- ie. how people are dressed when they come to the courtroom for hearings, color of their skin/ race.
what else causes segregation
Redlining causes segregation. Realtors not wanting to show certain neighborhoods. Banks Denying loans to minorities. Developing projects specifically for minorities.
who is most tied to racial invariance theory?
Sampson and Wilson
12. What were the slave codes? - What did they do and how were they enforced? - What were Black laws and Black codes and how did they differ from slave codes?
Slave codes were laws to regulate slaves in slave states. According to the one drop rule, even if you had the slightest amount of black ancestry in you, you were considered black by society. Even if you were biologically more white than black, you were classified as black. Helped white slave owners make the child of a slave and a slave master a slave. Slave codes applied to enslaved Africans. Virginia was the first state to enact slave code legislation. Varied by state but uniform in their goal to regulate slave life from cradle to grave. Were set of laws but also social boundaries slaves had to follow as well as listed the parameters for the business of slavery- who could be sold as slaves, hours slaves could be make to work, who was responsible when slaves were injured, etc. - So laws slaves to follow - Set social boundaries for slaves to follow - Also included regulations for the business of slavery - Enforced through punishments. If slaves ran away they would be branded with an R on their check for runaway. It was all regulated through fear. If blacks committed the same crime as a white person their punishment was much more severe, most of the times whites that committed crimes against blacks not even recognized as illegal. Also enforced ways of regulating business with slavery. What slave owners could do, what to do if someone steals your slave or your slave is injured. Slaves themselves were considered property so they couldn't own things. Slave patrollers also helped enforce slave codes. They were used to keep an eye on slave activity. They were used to stop suspicious slave conduct. They were allowed to stop and search slave's quarters as well as beat slaves who did not have written permission to be away from their plantations. Black laws and black codes were laws meant to regulate blacks in free states. They existed at the same time as slave codes. Similar to slave codes since they were still laws based on the color of one's skin and genetic makeup, just in a free state. These laws monitored the movements of blacks in non-slave-holding states. They outlined regulations for blacks who wanted to find work in these free states and imposed taxes on local services. After the Emancipation Proclamation which abolished slavery, Black codes were enacted everywhere. Free black men and women could marry freely and enter into contracts. But Blacks could now be arrested for the "crime" of being unemployed. To protect white dominance over jobs, fees were needed for blacks to be certified in certain jobs, making it harder for them to make a living. By enforcing black codes and laws they were supported involuntary servitude and applied in a discriminatory manner.
social disorganization theory
Social Disorganization Theory Crime and delinquency highest in poorest areas Inability of a community to realize its common goals
***16. What do we mean by social structure? - What do we know about patterns of racial and ethnic inequalities as aspects of social structure (for example, in income, wealth, unemployment)? - How residentially segregated are Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians from Whites in the United States? - What causes such segregation? Generally, how does inequality relate to crime? - Generally, why does segregation lead to differences in crime across neighborhoods of different race-ethnic compositions?
Social structure: a general term for any collective social circumstance that is unalterable and given for the individual. Consists of patterned relationships between groups of people that comprise society. Socioeconomic inequality: systematic differences across groups in gaining social, economic, residential, and other resources ex. Education, employment, wealth. How seg. Are they?: Not just economically segregated but residential segregation by race is prevalent as well. Much greater than economic segregation. What causes such seg: ex. In Krivo article realtor would show/steer Black families to black areas and whites to white areas? How does inequality relate to crime? Why does seg lead to differences in crime?: Differences in conditions across neighborhoods with varying race-ethnic make-ups are critical for explaining differences in crime across race-ethnic groups. Understanding the implications of differences in where you live-> how do opportunities differ across communities? - Exs. of schools, newark v. old bridge, not as wealthy v. modern, savvy schools - Even if there was no racism, such differences would still exist such as income differences
socioeconomic inequalities
Socio economic inequalities are related to differences in crime across race ethnic groups however not all poor people commit crime and rich people do not
minority group sociologically
Sociologically based upon share of power and status minority groups have less than their proportionate share majority groups have more than their proportionate share
***18. What are the three key parts of the argument made by Peterson and Krivo about how differences in community conditions explain race-ethnic differences in crime rates across neighborhoods? - What evidence do they find to support each of these three key arguments?
Study conducted of 8286 census tracts aka neighborhoods, across 87 cities 1. All communities are safer (less violent crime) 2. Race-ethnic inequality in neighborhoods violence persists and has grown when comparing blacks to whites 3. Differences in neighborhood conditions continue to be explained by differences in neighborhood structural conditions, especially disadvantages. Residential segregation is huge.The neighborhoods in which people live provide them with access (or the lack thereof) to a wide range of important social and institutional resources. - For example, school attendance is generally connected to one's neighborhood location,33 and schools vary widely in their physical and academic quality in ways that are closely connected to the economic and racial composition of neighborhoods. - Political representation and government services depend on residential location and the distribution of local services including street lights, trash collection, police service, libraries, and the like, are highly inequitably distributed across neighborhoods and municipalities. - Wealth accumulation is also linked with residential location because housing equity is the single largest source of wealth for households.36 Prevalence of immigrants used to be thought that they contribute to lots of crime. Yet recent studies how shown that there have been consistently lower rates of violent crimes in neighborhoods with more immigrants.
which surveys provide data on race and ethnicity
Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHR): Severe crime rate data that provides information on race/ethnicity -All but UCR provide data on criminal offending and victimization by race and ethnicity.
systematic discrimination
Systematic discrimination - discrimination at all stages of the criminal justice system, at all times, and at all places
***10. What are racial assaults? How does the public tend to respond to them? - What are microaggressions and macroaggressions? - How do they differ from one another? - What does Russell-Brown consider to be the consequences of intraracial aggressions? - *What does research show about the consequences of Black names for finding jobs and housing?* - What are the implications of macroagression, microaggression, and name profiling for race, crime, and the criminal justice system?
There are two types of racial assaults, micro and macro aggressions. These racial assaults frame race and reflect racial beliefs. Public either ignores or acknowledges them. Microaggressions are subtle, stunning, often non verbal exchanges that amount to "put down" of Blacks by Whites. Exs. white person refusing to hold an elevator open for a black person, or a white person not making eye contact with a black person, assuming a person of color is of lower status. Macroaggressions are attacks, insults, or pejorative statements made against Blacks as a group. But they can also be non verbal forms of communication. As President Bill Clinton stated, acts, such as acts of microaggression, may not harm the body, but when a mother and child to the grocery store and are followed around by a suspicious clerk it does violence to their souls. Microagg. Are not physical altercations, but can still negatively impact a person of color. More on an individual level. Macroaggressions cause physical harm against a group of people. Examples of intraracial aggression are when blacks use language that insults, undermines, or marginalized other blacks. These can all be seen as intraracial macroaggressions since they are harmful and legitimize racial disrespect and loathing. Ex. of this Knicks coach and manager called a black woman bitch, but said it had lesser meaning than if a white man had called her a bitch. The coach and manager's explanation is a double standard that implies black men can speak negatively to black women without it being seen as an insult. If i is okay for black men to speak this way to black women, then it could be seen acceptable for others to speak to black women like that. In summary, one major consequence is when races pick on members of their own race as seen in the Knicks coach's statements. There are also issues when people don't take action. The inaction encourages more outrageous behavior interracially that may be dismissed as "joking" or "nothing serious" or "taken out of context". Study in 2003 showed names that sounded black, "black names," were much less likely to be called for an interview than those who have white sounding names. "Linguistic profiling" occurs when people discriminate against someone who sounds black or latino or any other person of color. Implications- Macroaggressions on youth does serious damage. The media and cultural language implicates blacks as deviant. These negative implications declare to blacks what blackness should mean- deviant. When black female student athletes can be characterized as nothing more than unattractive street women, what chances does the average person of color have to an unbiased treatment in education, in employment, within the justice system? You become an outcast to the system. Blackness is both a cause and effect of deviance. They are constantly reminded what jobs are available to them just by how they look, what their name is, or how they speak. Having a black sounding name can also hurt. If you're name isn't the typical white names like Emily, Olivia, or Matthew you aren't as likely to get the interview, or see the house you scheduled to visit.
what did the slave codes do
They regulated slave behavior of the slaves so that they wouldn't rebel "the one drop rule"- if you had one drop of african american blood then you were not considered white legal businesses were regulated by these codes
GIllian continued
This was inconsistent with the broadcast which did not always show a colored suspect, if any suspect at all. As part of the study conducted in July 2000, Franklin D. Gilliam, Jr. and Shanto Iyengar, were curious to see if exposure to local news increased viewers fear of crime. instead, factors such as: gender, socioeconomic status, current place of residence, and past exposure to criminals were far more determinant in an individual's relative fear of crime.
differences between types of people and types of places
Types of people: Areas have more crime because they have more criminally prone people living there Types of places: Areas have more crime because of circumstances in the environment that heighten crime
typical victim
Typical Victim: A White person/household; for example, almost 80% of household victimizations have a White householder and 15% have a black householder BUT this is because the majority of the population is White
Typical offender
Typical offender: Arrests are predominantly White, but are disproportionate when race-ethnic population is taken into consideration
US segregation
U.S is not just economically segregated but racially as well - Race ethnic residential segregation is greater but it is currently declining compare to economical segregation
***3. What are the four major sources of crime data? - What are the differences between them? - Which of these provide data on criminal offending and victimization by race and ethnicity?
Uniform Crime Reports, Supplementary Homicide Reports, FBI Arrest Data, National Crime Victimization Survey Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)- crimes are reported to the police, but only the 7 serious crimes- murder, aggravated assault, robbery, sexual assault/ forcible rape, burglary, motor vehicle theft, larceny, and arson. Also broken up into violent crimes (homicides, aggravated assault, rape and robbery) and property crimes (burglary, robbery, motor vehicle theft, and arson) The reports include info on age and ethnicity of arrestees. Not race. Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) a database of homicides in the US as part of the UCR. It reports information about race of offenders and victims. These reports provide less data on race of offenders than victims because you don't always find the offenders in an attack or crime. FBI Arrest Data identifies White, Black, American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian or Pacific Islander, there is no specific category for Hispanics. This creates problems with arrest data as indicators of levels of criminal involvement depict whites with higher number of arrests since the Hispanics are in the white category. If more of a certain race is arrest, more attention is given to that race, which is why they shouldn't use arrest data because sometimes offenders are misrepresented and sometimes not even caught/ arrested for the crime. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) administered by the Bureau of Justice statistics sends out a survey twice a year in the US to base crime on the frequency of crime victimizations. Hispanics are compared to other races within the survey reports. Strengths of the data- they get good detailed information about race and gender, they receive information that wasn't reported to the police. Weakness- the information can be a little subjected. ***Same patterns of levels of crimes, trends in level of change overtime reported the same in the NCVS and UCR. Same pattern of change, but not the same specific levels reported. UCR only reports on arretees, SHR reports race of victim and offender, FBI data has certain categories for race, NCVS has race and gender of offenders and victims
white crime
We don't actually even think about White crime because there is no specific categorical meaning to White crime
Jim Crow
Widespread segregation laws ( North & South) - mandated ALL separate facilities even extended into private spaces (marriage) was supposed to enforce separate but equal
raical hoaxes
are a way to place the race card and manipulate deep fears about race and who is being victimized by who generally when someone fabricates a crime and blames it on someone else because race or when a real crime occurs and the actual perpetrator blames someone else bc race. this racial hoax phenomenon is not new, in reality, it has long historic roots. Interracial hoaxes are most likely to be reported and have media coverage.
racial assualts/ how does the public respond
being insulted or assaulted based solely on your race How does the public respond: public makes remarks that it is not racist, taken out of context, more important race issues than one person's.
what are the five concentric zones?
central business/downtown, transitional zone full of factories, immigrant zone, working class zone with single family homes, residential zone
what is social disorganization theory?
conditions within an urban environment that affect crime rates on a neighborhood level, inability of a community structure to maintain social control - sampson
interracial aggressions
consequences of intraracial aggressions are other African Americans using the 'n' word with one another Implications: Blacks using the 'n' word marginalizes other blacks and "they legitimize the racial disrespect and loathing that are at the core of interracial macro aggressions
what did Booth do?
created the map of crime concentrated in London neighborhoods
what did Shaw and McKay claim?
crime rates remained the same in areas over time even when racial makeup changed
social structure
general term for any collective social circumstance that is unalterable and given for the individual The pattern consists of relationships between groups of people that comprise society ⇒ socio economic inequality
what are some structural causes of residential segregation?
housing market discrimination, interest and mortgage rates, value and appreciation
individual acts of discrimination
individual acts of discrimination - Discrimination that results from the acts of particular individuals but is not characteristic of entire agencies or the criminal justice system as a whole
where do most deliquents reside?
industrial places, zone of transition, outskirts of cities
institutionalized discrimination
institutionalized discrimination - racial and ethnic disparities in outcomes that are the result of the application of racially neutral factors, such as prior criminal record, employment status, and demeanor
what is ethnicity
is a group of people who are recognized by themselves and/or others as distinct groups because they share common social or cultural characteristics
black laws and codes
limiting mobility to blacks (segregation) Differed from slave codes b/c they were in place in non slave states.
three structural variables that lead to social disorg and crime? (shaw and mckay)
low economic status, ethnic heterogeneity (mix of races), residential mobility
statistics about crime on neighborhood level
mean of violent crime in white neighborhoods 5 times lower than mean in black neighborhoods,
what did the chicago school focus on?
neighborhood effects
pure justice
no racial or ethnic discrimination at all - Legitimate legal factors include seriousness of the offense and prior criminal record. - These are legitimate reasons for disparities in treatment Extralegal factors include race, class, and age, they are not legitimate factors
what is some evidence of residential segregation?
only non-white neighborhoods have the highest crime rates, - less than 7% of whites live in poverty. - 38% of blacks live in poverty
why is social isolation significant?
people in poverty have a lack of contact with people who represent mainstream society
define racial invariance theory
race is not tied to crime, neighborhood causes of violence are the same for any rate, it is the disadvantages attached, STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS
what is the racial-spatial divide?
racial inequality and power combined with segregation and unequal residential areas
what are Peterson and Krivo's 4 areas of focus?
racial/spatial divide, structural theories of race, structural approach to criminology, residential segregation
arguments krivo made
segregation and what created segregation from interpretations about race ("white people just don't live next to black people", so there is just more crime in black neighborhoods) different attitudes and interpretations about integration (different definitions about what constitutes integration) [these are from discussions in class, I am not looking at the handout atm] difference in social conditions in white and black & hispanic neighborhoods lead to differences in crime white neighborhoods had better resources for schools than in black neighborhoods (differences in conditions and levels of disadvantages... segregation is not equal) social disorganization (not forming ties with others)
what does concentric zone theory tell us?
the most important zone in a city is zone of transition - highest crime here, people coming in and out
why are hoaxes successful
they feed on the fears of who we're supposed to be afraid of (ie the criminal black man). implications because they reinforce historic images therefore making it harder to break down the racial divide. recreates racially stereotypic notions for new generations.
white collar crime
though white people commit the largest amount of crimes in all categories we associate white people with no crimes, and if any, they are nonviolent crimes such as "white collar crimes" while whites are most likely the number one perpetrator of crimes like rape or manslaughter.
what is the order of the study of crime in sociology?
victorian london --> chicago --> politcal economy --> Massey and Denton
what were the three types of delinquents?
went to petition/court, go to institutions, have a probation officer/further hearing
***13. How widespread was lynching in the United States? - What role did lynching serve for racial groups and race relations?
• "We didn't discuss details on the distribution of lynchings and so the general information that you note above is sufficient for the exam." the answer below is what will be needed for the exam via the professor.... • Lynching was a widespread form of extralegal justice after the civil war • Lynching's role: Key way to continue keeping blacks in their place and whites superior • Didn't really require much to instigate a lynching
***15. What were the penalties established for trafficking and possession of crack cocaine in the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - How did these penalties compare to those for powder cocaine? - What groups experienced the most serious consequences from these laws? - What was the role of the media and public opinion in affecting the policy making process that established the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - What was the Congressional response to the media portrayed and public opinion during the legislative process that established the 1986 and 1988 federal laws? - Was Congress aware of the racial impact of these laws and do we know whether they were or were not aware of the racial impact?
• 100 to 1 than 18 to 1 • 1986/1988- 5 year min for 1st offense trafficking of 5 grams of crack • crack cocaine is cheaper and powder is more expensive • 2010 Fair Sentencing Act 18 to 1 • 2011 U.S sentencing commission voted to retroactively apply the FSA to people sentenced before the change in law • Media exaggerated cocaine and its relation to crime. It was a great way for politicians to get popular • Whites used more drugs than blacks, yet blacks were accused more often • Congress was aware but did not care
***19. What does survey data show about differences in perceptions of justice for Whites, Blacks, and Latinos? - What are the consequences of race-ethnic differences in perceptions of justice for crime, criminal justice, and society at large (including the government and political involvement)? - How do events surrounding the O.J. Simpson trial relate to these issues and what does it teach us about how to think about racial differences in opinions about the application of justice in the United States?
• 70% of Whites believed that OJ was guilty and 70% of blacks believed that OJ was not guilty • There was chaos because neither groups really understood each others side, It became more of a racial issue and deflected from the actual case. • It wasn't a justice trial against OJ and his actions but it was a trial against 2 races • Media fueled the fire and overlooked the other stats • Do you think that police in your city treat Whites and Blacks equally, do they treat Whites worse than Blacks, or Blacks worse than Whites? (Weitzer and Tuch, 2005) *(SEE CHART)*
***8. How prevalent is hate crime? - According to the study of hate crimes in Chicago neighborhoods, what causes differences in the numbers of anti-Black and anti-White hate crimes across neighborhoods?
• About half of hate crimes are race motivated and of those, 70% had black victims • Differences in number of anti-Black/White hate crimes: - Anti-Black hate crime more common in highly socially organized white neighborhoods under threat of racial change (study of Chicago) - Anti-White hate crimes more common in more disadvantaged and residentially unstable areas (same causes for all crime)
***4. What do we know about crime patterns over time and differences in levels of criminal involvement by race and ethnicity from the 1960s/1970s to today? - What is the relationship between immigration and crime? - What do we know generally about differences by race and ethnicity in levels of contact with the criminal justice system from existing data sources?
• Crime went up during the 60s-70s; also true for violent/property crimes • From the 1960s/1970s we see that crime is actually going down regarding race/ethnicity (Whites vs Black), but economic problems are increasing. • Immigration lowers crime ⇒ fear of deportation, different goals/objectives - Yet they are a controversy because of the differences in culture/ego/orientation - However, there have been an increase in crime throughout generations • Generally, we know that 60% of people in prison are minorities = high disproportionality because minorities are only 30% of the population). Also, arrests do not always lead to crime so it is not an indication of crime.
***5. What is the difference between disparity and discrimination? - What are the different types of discrimination in the discrimination-disparity continuum? - How do the roles of "legitimate" legal factors versus "illegitimate" or extralegal factors relate to the difference between disparity and discrimination?
• Disparity: refers to a difference in resources or opportunities available because of a person's race or ethnicity • Discrimination: refers to a difference based on differential treatment of people without regard to the individual's behavior or qualifications • *Discrimination-Disparity continuum:* - *Systematic discrimination* - discrimination at all stages of the criminal justice system, at all times, and at all places - *Institutionalized discrimination* - racial and ethnic disparities in outcomes that are the result of the application of racially neutral factors, such as prior criminal record, employment status, and demeanor - *Contextual discrimination* - discrimination found in particular contexts or circumstances (for example; certain regions, particular crimes, or special victim-offender relationships) - *Individual acts of discrimination* - Discrimination that results from the acts of particular individuals but is not characteristic of entire agencies or the criminal justice system as a whole - *Pure Justice* - no racial or ethnic discrimination at all • Legitimate legal factors include seriousness of the offence and prior criminal record. These are legitimate reasons for disparities in treatment • Extralegal factors include race, class, and age, they are not legitimate factors and should not be used because they relate to groups through prejudice stereotypes rather than to the facts regarding the criminal action.
***7. What are the differences in rates of offending across race-ethnic groups in the United States? - Who is the typical offender? - What does a comparison of victimization and offending rates by race-ethnicity suggest about criminal justice actions by race?
• Offending rates: - African Americans are overrepresented in drug arrests (low use of drugs compared to arrests) - Arrests are also predominantly white but comparisons to the population are important - People are more likely to point out African-Americans as offenders than Whites when asked about the race of an offender *(SEE CHART)* • Typical offender: - Arrests are predominantly White, but are disproportionate when race-ethnic population is taken into consideration
***11. What do research studies on newspaper and television reporting of crime show about race and crime media portrayals? - What does Gilliam and Iyengar's experimental study show about the consequences of seeing Black versus White suspects in television news reports for how people explain crime and think that crime should be punished?
• Race and crime portrayal is usually based off the "typical" crime committer • Media images include more different groups than ever, but they are not as diverse • Issue of concern: Abstentia, I see black people, In the mix, racial ventriloquism • Gilliam and Iyengar = Franklin D. Gilliam, Jr. and Shanto Iyengar has shown narrative script crime reporting is receptive to racial stereotypes. In a study where subjects were shown broadcasts in keeping with the narrative crime script model, the majority of subjects recalled the race of the suspect as being of color. This was inconsistent with the broadcast which did not always show a colored suspect, if any suspect at all. As part of the study conducted in July 2000, Franklin D. Gilliam, Jr. and Shanto Iyengar, were curious to see if exposure to local news increased viewers fear of crime. instead, factors such as: gender, socioeconomic status, current place of residence, and past exposure to criminals were far more determinant in an individual's relative fear of crime.
***6. What are the differences in rates of victimization across race-ethnic groups in the United States? - Who is the typical victim?
• Victimization rates: - Highest rates for those with 2 or more races (interracial marriage), then African American, Whites, and American Indians and Asians; true for household and personal victimizations - Hispanic rates higher than for non-Hispanics - Lifetime risk of victimization is high for all groups and somewhat higher for African Americans than White o --- 87% for blacks o --- 82% for whites • Typical Victim: - A White person/household; for example, almost 80% of household victimizations have a White householder and 15% have a black householder --- BUT this is because the majority of the population is White