Rel Final

Maqasid / Maqasid al-Shari'ah

"objectives"; objectives of Islamic law -Process of going through all the rules in the Qur'an, synthesize them, and determine a summary statement to ensure that interpretations do not cause significant issues -1 goal: "We have not sent you except as mercy / love to all beings" (mercy) -5 goals - Preserve: - Life - Property - Intellect - Honor - Religion - Why cant you drink? Takes away your intellect. Why can't you gamble? It takes away your life. Why can't you lie? It takes away your honor.

Halal

"permissible"; contrasted with haram; complex classification of "the five decisions" (obligatory, recommended, prohibited, abhorred and permitted) of what is permissible

Fiqh

"understanding"; the human attempt to understand what God really wants; any book that you find is a fiqh book because they are written by humans are a human interpretation

List examples of one Arab prophet and the people he was sent to (other than Muhammad) and three non-Arab prophets and the people they were sent to, according to the Qur'an. (Lumbard, Esack)

**Qur'an mentions at least twenty-five prophets - exemplars of piety and courage, who, were often met with significant opposition from their people Arab Prophets: 1. Lot: a Prophet that was mocked by his people who faced God's wrath as a consequence 2. Shu'ayb- Midianites (NW Arabia): combined his testimony to monotheism with passionate calls against the economic exploitation of people, exhorting his community to deal honestly with weights and measurements 3. Muhammad- Quraysh 4. Salih- Thamud (rock homes- NW Arabia) 5. Hud- Ad (yemen) Non-Arab Prophets: 1. Moses- Israelites: liberator of his people and a lawgiver with a new revelation which confirmed the teachings of Abraham; Muhammad's emergence was foretold by Moses 2. Jesus- Israelites: Qur'an focuses not on the life of Jesus, but on the doctrine and his disavowal of his own divinity; Muslims generally deny the crucifixion - never died a physical death, his body was lifted to God 3. Noah: the first Prophet mentioned in the Qur'an whose community was punished; when his people failed to heed his message, they were destroyed while Noah and his followers were saved on the ark 4. Joseph - son of Jacob: only extensive uninterrupted narrative in the Qur'an; described as a pious ancestor and someone who was rejected despite coming with clear proofs

* Jihad

-"struggle," "striving," "exertion"; any struggle in the way of God (in order to obey His Commands or accomplish His Will), which includes but is not limited to the just use of force

What guidelines does the Qur'an give regarding dress for women? Discuss key terms and phrases in the Qur'anic text itself.

-Area to be covered was referred to as one's awrah (private area): --A man's ʿawrah was typically described as the area from his navel to his knees. --The ʿawrah of a woman was almost always everything but the hands (and sometimes the forearm), face, and sometimes feet. -Women should not display their "charms" (zinah) (breast area, butt) - dress modestyl -Headscarves (khumur) cover their necklines

Describe the state of stories about biblical figures in Arabia during Muhammad's lifetime (a period sometimes referred to as "Late Antiquity"). How did these stories circulate? Who told them? Was the Bible translated into Arabic yet? Discuss the state of the evidence for an Arabic Bible translation in Muhammad's day (Griffith).

-Evidence we have suggests that the Bible had not been translated into written Arabic during Muhammad's lifetime -In Muhammad's day, bible stories circulated orally in Arabic. Jewish Rabbi in Medina reads the story in Hebrew, translates into Arabic for the congregation, they tell their neighbors -Change in the story - easier in an oral culture

How are the unique aspects of the Qur'an's version consistent with its own larger understanding of what God is like, what prophets are like, and the nature of humanity?

-God is forgiving: He forgives Adam and Eve after they repent for their sin -Prophets can make mistakes, but they don't commit major ones: -Wasn't an intentional sin (Satan made them forget) -Idea that Prophets don't commit sins, they just committed errors -Leaders should be moral exemplars - in America, politicians are the most sleezy people who take bribes and are immoral -Nature of humanity: all are born with a pure heart (fitra) - don't have original sin

* Hijab

-The veil or partition meant to shield the Prophet's wives from petitioners and those displaying excessive familiarity, which means a piece of fabric that is larger than a shawl but smaller than a large sheet -Woman's headscarf

Occasions of Revelation

-Hadith that tells us what was happening when a verse was revealed -Verses of the Qur'an which there is a connection between a revelation and a particular historical incident; verses revealed in response to an incident that had occurred (Battle of Uhud, slander of A'isha); form a subcategory of prophetic hadith and are not contained within the text of the Qur'an -Example of people drinking alcohol 12 years after the first revelation - God doesn't punish those because the verse wasn't revealed. ---You are not held accountable for a restriction as long as that restriction wasn't already revealed

How have the Qur'an's guidelines on dress for men and women been interpreted by Muslim scholars? Discuss the range of interpretations given by traditional Muslim scholars and Muslim modernists (Qur'anic verses and their commentary in the Study Qur'an, el-Turk, el-Fadl). List at least two arguments per interpretation.

-Headscarves cover their neckline - Word "khumur" can mean different things: neckline by way of just a neck; or around your hairline - Traditional interpretation assumes that the word khumur means "headscarf" - Some modernist Muslims argue that it means "kerchief" in which case you don't have to cover your hair - Wisdom of modest dress -Some modernist Muslims have also argued that because the Qur'an says that the purpose of modest dress is to protect from abuse/harm, you would be violating the purpose of the verse if wearing the hijab poses a threat to your safety -- If the hijab causes women to stand out and brings unwanted attention and poses the risk of bringing harm to women, it is permissible for a woman not to wear a head-covering

Why is it helpful to know the historical context of a particular Qur'anic verse when interpreting it?

-Helps you to understand otherwise vague references --Qur'an talks about the Battle of Hunayn - how can you make sense of it if you don't know about the battle? --Qur'an says "he frowned and turned away" - don't know what this is referring to if you don't have the scope of the full story -When interpreting, it's helpful to see if the Qur'an endorsed or contradicted a practice of that society -How you dress, how you eat, etc. -Helps you establish a timeline of events - To figure out if a new rule has replaced an old rule, you have to know which came first

Give an example of a story about Jesus in the Qur'an that is not found in the Bible, but is found in extra-Biblical literature. (Qur'anic verses; Infancy Gospel of Thomas).

-Jesus' giving life to the dead is accepted in both the Quran and the Bible, but the Quran emphasizes the fact that both Jesus' giving life to the clay bird (not found in the New Testament) and his raising of the dead were miracles that happened by God's Leave. -And [he will be] a messenger to the Children of Israel, "Truly I have brought you a sign from your Lord. I will create for you out of clay the shape of a bird. Then I will breathe into it, and it will be a bird by God's Leave. And I will heal the blind and the leper and give life to the dead by God's Leave. And I will inform you about what you eat and what you store up in your houses. Truly in that is a sign for you, if you are believers.

* What guidelines does the Qur'an give regarding looking at the opposite gender? Discuss key terms and phrases in the Qur'anic text itself

-Men should not look at things with passion or at those things that are forbidden or that God dislikes -"Let not a glance follow a glance. The first is yours, but not the second." This saying means that one is not responsible for the first glance at something forbidden, but is responsible if one continues to look at it -Both genders should "lower the glance" // don't check people out - Don't make eye contact when chatting - look at the ground while you chatted - considered very respectful - Abstain from sexual misconduct - Remove harmful obstacles

What challenges do the Qur'an's guidelines on looking at the opposite gender present for modern Muslims today?

-Modern-day dress - how to find conservative clothing without looking frumpy; sports teams (beach volleyball, track/field, hockey, lacrosse) - "Inclusive clothing" - modest athletic wear -A majority of people (at least in the USA) are not Muslim and do not dress according to the Muslim rules, so they have to deal with seeing articles, cheerleaders, people in public, etc.

What are the religious implications of the Qur'anic version for Muslims? Explain at least two major implications for issues such as the nature of women and the means of salvation.

-Nature of women: Qur'an puts man and woman on the same level - they both ate from the tree -Evolution: The Qur'an explains that man was created as a sperm-drop, then formed into a clot of blood, then bones, then, flesh -Salvation: The Bible describes the fall as a curse, but the Qur'an does not; they repented, turned to God, and were saved -Human nature: According to the Bible, has an inherent tendency towards sin, but the Qur'an believes all are born with a pure heart

When and how did the Qur'an first come to America?

-Qur'an has been here since the very beginning because slaves brought it with them (since 1500s with the Spanish and then the English (Roanoke)) - ORALLY -10-30% of American slaves were from Muslim backgrounds -Wrote complete copies of the Qur'an from memory when they arrived

Tajwid

-The discipline for correctly pronouncing the Qur'an -Covers the location of letters in mouth, vowel length -Rules are found in the Jazariyya

In the Islamic tradition, what qualifications did a Muslim scholar need to have before they were "qualified" to interpret the Qur'an? List two spiritual/moral requirements, and three intellectual ones

-There are certain qualifications in the Islamic community to are required to interpret the Qur'an 1. The proper intention to please God and guide others 2. Fear of God (take job seriously) and immediate repentance upon the performance of a sin a. Morally accountable for the interpretation you provide b. Why there is so much emphasis on leaders - personal character - to be a Muslim interpreter means you are a person of character 3. Knowledge and mastery of all the relevant sources of tafsir (Qur'an interpretation) a. Basically, requires you to memorize the whole Qur'an b. Have knowledge of all hadiths - the largest body of related literature in pre-modern world (500,000 - million hadith) c. Interpretations of scholars d. The Arabic language (vocabulary, grammar, etc.) - make dictionaries anf find sources from that time 4. Knowledge of the different transmitted recitations of the Qur'an 5. Knowledge of the methods of interpretations (hermeneutics) 6. Knowledge of the chronological order of revelation 7. Knowledge of which verses abrogated (replaced) others A gifted intellect

How might the Qur'an's understanding of religious toleration have possibly influenced Thomas Jefferson? (Prange and Ahmad).

-Thomas Jefferson had a large influence on the construction of the Constitution, and he may have been influenced by the Quran's understanding of toleration! --"No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States" - Article VI of the Constitution --Qur'an 2:256. - "There shall be no coercion in matters of faith" -Jefferson may have been influenced by the introduction to Sale's translation of the Qur'an (treated it with common decency and unbiased) -John Locke argued that modern states should tolerate all kinds of Christianity and Judaism and Islam - Jefferson copied Locke (he adored Locke), which became the background to the 1st amendment, US Constitution -Locke was influenced by his Arabic professor, Edward Pococke - first Arabic professor at Oxford - lived in Muslim world from 24yo-24yo Summary: Pococke - Locke - Jefferson - Constitution/Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom Sale - Jefferson - Constitution/Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom

How did Muslim jurists seek to adapt the Qur'an's message, initially given to Muhammad's community in seventh-century Arabia, to new times and places?

-Use of Qiyas - legal analogy -Idea of Maqasid - objectives of Islamic law that help to check to make sure that qiyas are taking you in the direction of religion

According to the Qur'an, was Jesus crucified and killed on the cross? Explain three possible interpretations of the Qur'anic verses on this question. In discussing these interpretations, please identify an important phrase from the Qur'an that bears on this question. (Lumbard; Esack reading from last class; footnotes in Study Qur'an to Q 4:157-159).

-Verse: "They did not slay him, nor did they crucify him" (Q 4:157) -3 possible interpretations: -Judas/Pontius Pilate (enemies of Christ) -Someone else volunteered and took his place on the cross -The Rabbis/Israelites didn't kill him; the Romans did -They rightfully killed him - he was practicing sorcery

What are some of the challenges of translating the Qur'an into English? List and explain at least five challenges

1. Inimitability / I'jas: From a Muslim point of view, Qur'an itself says that it is impossible for a human to imitate due to its style 2. There are rarely exact word equivalents between languages: When translating words from Arabic, they have connotations because of the root system, which is usually not in English; before you can translate, you need to interpret also - context clues 3. Every translation is an interpretation - to translate you have to choose a meaning 4. It is very hard, if not impossible, to translate accurately while preserving the sounds of the original (good literature attends to not only meaning, but the sound of words) 5. It is very hard to translate wordplay (Puns, Double entendre)

Explain Muslim understandings of the previous scriptures. Which previous scriptures are specifically mentioned by the Qur'an? How do Muslims interact with them today and why? (Lecture)

1. Torah (traditionally first five books of Old Testament) 2. Gospel (teachings of Christ) 3. Psalms (psalms of David) They are understood to be originally divine revelation - so they should be respected; preferable to make wudu before touching them BUT they are understood to have been modified by humans - they are partly corrupted and are not fully reliable - how they justify the differences (like sin) between the Qur'anic stories and the Biblical stories

*Describe the process by which many Muslims today study and become licensed to orally transmit the Qur'an to others. (See the example of Reem in Mattson)

1. Memorize the Qur'an with someone who had memorized it before 2. Work with a reciter who would teach the advanced rules of tajwid (beautiful recitation) and make sure the memorization is flawless 3. Go through a process of examination - probing (sabr): memorization was verified on multiple occasions 4. Go to a "Comprehensive-Reciter" (have mastered all ten orthodox recitations) to verify that you had mastered the text as well as the rules of tajwid 5. Get certified by someone who was certified by someone who was certified by someone...back to the Prophet Muhammad (Isnad) 6. Receive a diploma (Ijaza) - license to teach - by a person who certified you (not an institution)

Explain the five possible rulings that Muslims scholars gave to all human acts. What is an example of each and what are the consequences of doing them / not doing them? What type of scriptural evidence do they require?

1. Obligatory - absolutely binding - (Pray 5x/day) prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, recitation of the Qur'an, essential virtues, rules of morality a. If you do it: rewarded b. If you don't do it: punished ---Evidence required: clear command in an authentic text (Qur'an or sahih hadith); action the Prophet always did 2. Recommended - what is prescribed, but not compulsory - (Extra charity, fasting/praying extra) a. If you do it: rewarded, b. If you don't do it: no change ---Evidence required: ambiguous command; source is not fully reliable (good/weak hadith); action the Prophet usually did 3. Permitted - an act of choice, not obligation - (arbitrary things, like the color of your shirt, eating cornflakes) a. If you do it: no change b. If you don't do it: no change ---Evidence required: really no evidence; not possible to make a qiyas to something in other categories 4. Abhorred/Disliked - acts that should not be done, but there is no explicit command making noncommission obligatory; below the level of virtue and dignity that Muslims should strive to embody (divorce, contraception) a. If you do it: no change b. If you don't do it: rewarded (if you avoid something disliked, you get a deposit) ---Evidence required: Ambiguous prohibition; in a not fully reliable source (good/weak hadith); Prophet occasionally did it 5. Prohibited - imperatively required not to be committed - (drink alcohol, eat pork, steal, murder) a. If you do it: punished severely b. If you don't do it: rewarded if you fought temptation ---Evidence required: In an authentic text (Qur'an automatically authentic/sahih hadith); Prophet explicitly never did it

How did Usama bin Laden justify attacking American civilians? Be sure to identify his grievances as well as his scriptural arguments (See Assignment #9)

1. US support for Israel - --1948: UN creates state of Israel - UN gives a disproportional amount of land to their population; during 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Palestinians flee and they have not been allowed to return --Over past 70 years, many conflicts between Israeli government and Palestinians, that overwhelmingly harmed Palestinian citizen --Israel has been building settlements in former Palestinian territory - most international bodies regard as illegal and contrary to Geneva Conventions -Financial aid - #1 recipient of foreign US aid -Military aid -Diplomatic aid 2. America's occupation of Islamic Holy Lands --American-Israeli Alliance --1990: Iraq invades Kuwait and attacks Saudi Arabia - Saudi Arabian king invites the US into the country to protect it -Saudi Arabia is home of Mecca and Medina - regarded the Saudi king as illegitimate (a puppet of the US - monarchy, followed American beliefs), so it's not legitimate when he invites the US in - bin Laden sees the troop placement as an American invasion 3. Sanctions that were placed on Iraq after the first gulf war in 1990s - very controversial - Imposed sanctions to get Saddam Hussein to give up weapons on mass destruction - leads to the death of 1/2 million children (arguments that Hussein fabricated these statistics) - Secretary of State says it was worth it Scriptural Argument: Qur'anic verses about fighting the Quraysh apply to the Americans; Hadith prohibition on killing innocent people don't apply because Americans aren't civilians Justify killing innocent Americans: -We are democracy, so every "civilian" is actually complicit in the deaths caused by the military and our allied powers -Civilians pay taxes (but don't dictate how taxes are spent) -Americans have a volunteer army (but most people don't serve in the army - children, elderly, etc.)

What lines of evidence have led most academic scholars to argue that the Qur'anic text we have today dates to the 7th century

1. We have >92% of the Qur'an attested in 1st century manuscripts 2. The Qur'an has many archaic grammatical features (unusual and old) a. Assume they would have corrected these features - indication the text hasn't been modified 3. Qur'an does not show evidence of a bias towards subsequent theological debates a. If people were tampering with the text in the centuries that followed, we would expect some of them to modify the text to support their side of a debate

In what ways does the Qur'an engage with the Bible? Discuss at least three intertextual strategies employed by the Qur'an. For what purposes does it use them? (Griffith).

1. Quotation - Qur'an quotes the Bible -Purpose: Draws on authority of the Bible, shows the author's familiarity with the Bible, establishes credibility, shows mastery -Qur'an quotes Psalms - Bible: "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Mt. 19:24) // Qur'an: "Indeed, those who have denied our revelations and rejected them arrogantly - the gates of heaven shall not be opened for them and they shall not enter paradise until the camel passes through the eye of the needle." 2. Echo/Parody - taking a text and invoking it; but has the opposite message (to criticize it) -Criticizing the Israelites / Jews for not doing what they said they would-Purpose: tocriticizethetextorcorrectit 3. Allusion - reminds the audience of a story they already know -Purpose: To draw upon the authority of the original --Qur'an alludes to the story of Moses on Mount Sinai - remember that story of the Israelites not believing Moses and got in trouble? Don't be like them.

What are the main sources of Islamic law? Identify three

1. Qur'an - communicated through imperative verbs a. Complete the hajj b. Give the women their bride wealth as a free gift 2. Muhammad's sunna - convey obligations, recommendation, and/or permission a. Practice of his disciplines (if they're copying him, then what they do, is what he did) 3. Qiyas - legal analogy a. the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Qur'an

Canon (Oxford Bible)

A set of texts which a particular Jewish or Christian religious community regards as authoritative scripture; authoritative collection (scripture, literature); Gospels Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; Gospel of Thomas - early Church said it was not reliable or authentic, so it is not in the Bible

Ijaza

Certificate or diploma issued by a scholar permitting a pupil to transmit a text on his authority A license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such authority

Naskh

Abrogation (the repeal or abolition of a law, right, or agreement) of rulings

Jesus

BIRTH: -He has a virgin birth -Mary is pure; chosen by God IDENTITY: -Messiah - "someone who has been anointed" - used with priests (Aaron), prophets, and kings (David) -Christ is the Greek translation -Son of Mary - emphasis on NOT Son of God - "A word" rather than "The Word" MIRACLES: -He speaks as an infant -Healing the blind (also in Bible) -Healing lepers (also in Bible) -Bringing the dead back to life (also in Bible) -Jesus breathes life into clay birds (not in the Bible; it is in extra-Biblical literature) TEACHINGS: -Teaches the Torah (first five books of Old Testament) -Gospel (literally means good news) - his own teachings -Prediction of a messenger to follow whose name will be Ahmad (interpreted by Muslims to be Muhammad) CRUCIFIXION AND DEATH: "They did not kill him, nor did they crucify him." Interpretations: Jesus was not crucified. Someone else was in his place: 1. Judas, Pontius Pilate (enemies of Christ) 2. One of his followers volunteered in his place 3. Qur'an is just addressing the claims of the Rabbis - "They" [the Jews] aren't the ones that killed him - could be the Romans **Another claim that Jesus was rightfully killed by the Jews because he "practiced sorcery, incited people to idol worship, and led the Jewish people astray" - stoned and crucified him SALVATION: -God is sent to the Israelites (rather than all of humanity in the Bible)

Osama Bin Laden

Background: -1979: Soviet Union invades -Bin Laden leaves Saudi Arabia to help war efforts against Soviets; worked to funnel money from wealthy Arabs to war fighters ~1990 Soviet Union collapses Bin Laden comes to conclusion that he brought down the Soviet -Turns his attention to what he regards as the second great evil empire - United States **To understand is not to agree

* For what purposes does the Qur'an authorize violent force? Identify at least three purposes given by the Qur'anic text.

Conditions under which they may engage in battle: o Because they have been persecuted, which is seen as graver than slaying o Because they have been threatened in order to make them renounce their religion - self-defense -3 points of special significance: o The purpose of force is ultimately the maintenance of religion o This protection is not limited to Muslims, but extends to churches, synagogues, monasteries o The use of force by Muslims is framed as a defensive action in response to wrongs committed offensively against them - Not allowed to wage war on those who pose no threat at all

Ahruf/Qira'at

Dialectical variation of the Qur'an

Give an overview of the history of the Qur'an as a written text: How much of the Qur'an had been written down during the Prophet's lifetime? How did the first official edition come about? What steps did Muslims take over the centuries to more fully capture its spoken form? (von Denffer, Mattson)

First master copy - had no short vowels and no dots to differentiate consonants. In later decades and centuries, elaboration of the written text - over time, Muslims add: -Vowel markers: a, i, u -Consonantal dots to differentiate consonants Results of Radiocarbon Dating - 95% probability that the parchment is older than a certain date AD -The Qur'an is written in the 1st century (written within 1 century of Muhammad's death), account for about 92% of the verses in modern Qur'ans Evidence suggests that the entire Qur'an had been written in Muhammad's lifetime, but not in one spot or in a single document · This disciple has Surah 2 · That disciple has Surah 3 · That disciple has Surahs 4 and 5 · Not until after his death (around 650 AD) that the 3rd Muslim leader (Uthman) commissions a committee to make a master copy - write a single copy of the Qur'an using oral and written witnesses - Write it in the dialect of the Quraysh.

How did Muslims define a "good" interpretation of the Qur'an that uncovers its "true" meaning? That is, how did they think a sincere believer could be guided by the Qur'an, rather than manipulating it?

For Sunni Muslim (90%+ of Muslim world) - there is no teaching authority - no papacy or official body determines right from wrong -A good interpretation that should be respected is an opinion given by a sincere interpreter, who is qualified, using acknowledged methods of interpretations -There may be many good interpretations

What is the Qur'an's "prophetology?" That is, what do prophets and messengers do and not do according to the Qur'an, why are they sent, and what common teachings did they bring to humanity? (Lumbard, Esack)

God sent a series of messengers to every nation in order to guide them to the path of righteousness and to reaffirm the essential content of previous religions -All messengers came with an identical message (tawhid)- that of submission to the will of God -Each phase of Abrahamic tradition can be seen as the continuation of a single stream of revelation beginning with Adam and ending with Muhammad Common teachings: -Worship God -There is no god but God -God punishes sin/immortality - ethical responsibility -BUT, specific practices may differ Jews - Sabbath; Christians - no Sabbath; Muslims - no alcohol (Muslim interpreters will say that this makes sense given how societies change/evolve) -Common questions: Who gets to be a prophet? All people? Some people? How many have there been? Does the prophecy continue? Qur'an doctrine of prophecy: -Every nation [large group of people] gets a messenger (Israelites, Arabs, Could include Chinese, Mayans, Vikings; hypothetically Krisha, Buddha, Lao Tzu, Zoroaster could have been Prophets could have been prophets (we don't know because it is not clearly stated in the Qur'an)) -Muslims explain the existence of polytheistic religions as a consequence of: 1. Humans making up religion in the absence of the prophecy 2. Humans corrupting the messages that were given by Prophets

Why did Thomas Jefferson purchase a copy of the Qur'an? What evidence do we have for his motivation?

He was interested in law: --He kept the Qur'an under "Jurisprudence" in the "Religious" section --He bought it at age 22, when he was a law student at W&M --We have evidence that he tried to learn Arabic

Inimitability / I'jaz

Impossible to copy/translate

Qiyas

Legal analogy; analogical reasoning; allows the rules of the Qur'an to be continually adapted to new circumstances; a. Example: vodka did not exist in Muhammad's day, so it is never mentioned in the Bible. Can I still drink it? Implement qiyas to interpret the Qur'an to fit the circumstance b. Four parts: i. Thing we know: wine ii. New thing: potato vodka iii. Ruling on the thing we know: wine is prohibited iv. Cause of the ruling: it is intoxicating c. Does the new thing have the same cause: Yes, so by analogy, vodka should also be prohibited d. **What if you come up with a qiyas that is problematic? Tool to ensure that the qiyas do not cause problems: maqasid i. Gambling is prohibited ii. Reason: prohibited because you spend money and there's risk involved iii. New thing: health insurance iv. New ruling: health insurance is prohibited for the same reasoning

How did Muslim scholars seek to reconcile the Qur'an's violent verses with its peaceful ones? Discuss arguments made by mainstream Muslim scholars and by terrorists.

Mainstream Scholars: 1. Look at the textual context (verses before and after) -Many verses end with a reminder to ultimately peace. - Mark 10: 34: Seems that he approves of bloodshed, but the actual meaning is that Jesus' message might divide a family and it is metaphorical sword 2. Look at historical context - Knowing what was happening at the time - reference in a particular battle - violent verses are in the context of Quraysh's war on Muslims; not commands for all time - peaceful verses are more common, more universal in language, so they are the general rule (violent verses are exception to the rule) 3. Look at what words mean - Word "fight" in Q 9:29 is a reciprocal verb, which implies a mutuality and response to an action -- Translated as "fight back against" - doesn't mean engage in hostility; it means that if they initiate hostility, you can engage in hostility Terrorists: 1. Violent verses came later -Medinan verses (After 624 - enduring persecution - conflict with Meccans) a. Because Medinan verses came after, they cancel and replace the peaceful verses from Mecca (**Naskh: abrogation) i. What rules used to be vs. new model b. Scholarly push-back: i. Strange view of the Divine - completely changes in God's outlook towards peace and violence 1. From peace to death // hostility 2. How do you justify killing innocent people? a. **Intellect can justify all kinds of things b. America does not have civilians because we're a democracy - the people elect the leaders that are responsible for specific actions i. If an American drone kills an innocent Muslim, who authorized the drone? Who authorized the drone? The government. Who authorized the government? The people - this turns all citizens into military personnel ii. Scholarly objection: what percentage of Americans actually vote? Most elections are 50-50, so what percentage of Americans actually voted for the government in power (exclude children, people who didn't vote) 1. Don't necessarily know about foreign policy issues; represents some values they prefer over another 2. Most Americans have no idea what the government does overseas, let alone approve of it - "confidential" c. Traditional scholarly position prohibited killing innocent villains (rules of engagement) - women, children, elderly, monks, slaughter animalst

Explain the origin and nature of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an (qira'at): What types of variations exist in the oral transmissions of the Qur'an? How common are these variations, and how significant are they for the meaning of the text? What is the range of opinions on the origin of these variations? Discuss both the standard Muslim explanation and skeptical revisionist interpretations (Mattson, von Denffer, Lecture)

Muslims transmitted and wrote the Qur'an with slight differences in vowels, consonants, and rarely whole words - and they all have isnads ~1% of the words in the Qur'an are transmitted reliably with a difference in voweling ~.3% (once per 2 pages) are transmitted reliably with a slight difference in consonant Standard Muslim Explanation: -Languages often have dialects (Vowel changes: Pecan//Peecan; Water//Wutter; Whole word: Soda//Coke//Pop; British English vs. American English: aluminum//aluminium) -The variations in the transmission of the Qur'an are there because God authorized them to accommodate the dialects of the Arabs (Variations are intentional) Revisionist Academic Explanation: -In Muhammad's day: --<ost people were illiterate and writing was done on 'primitive' surfaces: leaves, bones, parchment (animal skins) --Arabic was written without vowels --Arabic was written without dots to differentiate similar consonants -The Qur'an was written this way because people who had memorized it just needed a memory aid -Only people who studied the Qur'an can understand it (Can't just pick it up as an uneducated person and start teaching the Qur'an - like a security check Origins of the variations: -Muslims did not perfectly memorize the Qur'an, and so when they saw the ambiguous text, they read their own dialects into the text -When they saw the word "water," some pronounced it as "wudder" and some pronounced it as "water"

Extra-Biblical

Pertaining to information or content outside the Bible; stories, commentaries, religious literature that circulated in ancient world but was not considered sacred by those who assembled the Bible; Extra-Biblical is contrasted with Canon - what is and is not considered authentic

Shariah

Refers to Islamic law in the ideal - it's what God really wants; no one has actually encountered

Compare and contrast the story of Jesus in the Bible and in the Qur'an. Identify three significant similarities and three significant differences. (Lumbard; Esack reading from last week; passages from the Qur'an and the New Testament).

Similarities: -Believes that Jesus was born from Mary - miracle of the virgin birth -Muhammad is said to have confirmed that of all human beings, Jesus and the Virgin Mary were born without the stain of sin -Believes that he performed miracles and saved lives; gives life to the dead -Jesus is Messiah/Christ and had the role of a king, Priest, and prophethood Differences: -Islam follows the Quran in always seeking to reaffirm the transcendence of the Divine by focusing upon Jesus' humanity, whereas traditional Christian theology presupposes his divinity, while confirming his humanity -Qur'an focuses on the story of his birth (Christmas focused), Bible focuses on crucifixion, resurrection, ministry (life) (Easter focused) -The Quran talks about Jesus being the "Messiah" or the "son of Mary", but not the "son of God" (rejects trinity), born without biological father -The Qur'an believes Jesus may not have been crucified -Jesus is sent to Israelites in Qur'an, not all of humanity

How is the Qur'anic story of Adam and Eve (Hawa) similar to and different from the biblical story in Genesis chapters 2 through 4? Identify three similarities and three differences in the stories. (Genesis 1-4; Qur'anic verses - see syllabus)

Similarities: -Both mention the forbidden fruit of the tree that the Lord tells both not to eat from -Both eat from the tree -Both become naked and are aware of their nakedness -Both have a tempter figure Differences: -Bible: God breathed life into dust to create Adam;Qur'an: Doesn't say -Bible: Eve comes from a rib of Adam;Qur'an: Doesn't say -Bible: Eve eats from the tree first;Qur'an: Reads as if Adam eats first, but doesn't specifically say -Bible: Eve eats from the tree because her eyes will be open; Qur'an: They forgot they weren't allowed to eat from the tree -Bible: God punishes man and woman;Qur'an: God forgives them -Bible: Adam is said to be made in the image of God;Qur'an: Doesn't specifically say -Bible: Serpent;Qur'an: Satan

How is Muhammad similar to and different from the other prophets sent by God according to the Qur'an? (Lecture; Handout)

Similarities: -Brings scripture (Qur'an) just like Moses brought Torah -Protected from major sins Differences: -He is the seal of the Prophets (final prophet) - Muhammad was always the last prophet and the bearer of a universal message applicable to all people. He preserved Islam, so there is no need for another Prophet; anyone who claims prophecy after Muhammad is lying -Muhammad was sent to all of humanity, whereas previous prophets were sent to specific communities -God will protect the final message (Qur'an) and Muhammad's teachings from corruption - why there is no need for a later prophet/messenger

Isa (Jesus) (revisit Esack reading from last week; see also Lumbard)

Son of Mary, but created by God; righteous Prophet and messenger sent to the Israelites; many deny his crucifixion

How have Muslims and critical academics explained the similarities and differences between the Qur'an's stories of the prophets and those of the Bible?

Standard Muslim Explanation: 1. Qur'an and Bible agree sometimes because... it really happened (there was a person named Moses) 2. Qur'an and Bible disagree sometimes because... the Bible is not fully reliable / partly edited / changed by humans 3. Qur'an and extra-Biblical literature sometimes match because... not every true story is in the Bible - Abraham really did smash the idols Revisionist / Critical Academic Explanation (not assuming that Muhammad is in contact with the Divine): 1. Qur'an and Bible agree sometimes because... Muhammad heard the story and included in the Qur'an (treating Muhammad as just a person in history - not a messenger) 2. Qur'an and Bible disagree sometimes because... Muhammad changed the story or someone he heard the story from had changed the story 3. Qur'an and extra-Biblical literature sometimes match because...Muhammad heard the story and included it in the Qur'an Universally Agreed Upon Facts: 1. Sometimes the Qur'an and the Bible agree (Adam, Eve, garden, fruit, temptation, eating) 2. Sometimes the Qur'an and the Bible disagree (in Bible serpent tempts Eve, in Qur'an Satan tempts Adam) 3. Sometimes the Qur'an agrees with "extra-Biblical literature" - Stories, commentaries, religious literature that circulated in the ancient world but were not considered sacred by those who assembled the Bible

* How did Muslim scholars define the rules of engagement in war based on the hadith tradition? List at least five traditional prohibitions

The Prophet would command his armies to fight in the way of God, but not to: o Kill children, women, or old men, monks, livestock - basically the same thing as "don't kill innocent civilians" o Act brutally o Mutilate the dead - Go beyond certain bounds even in the case of combatants (mutilation, etc.) o Mutilate animals or kill them except for the purposes of sustenance o Cut down fruit-bearing trees

Adam

The first man and the first prophet; the ancestor of the human race

Which group(s) of ancient Christians were closest in their Christology [their understanding of who Jesus was/is] to that of the Qur'an? Explain. (Lecture)

Thus far, we have not found a perfect match with the Qur'an Ebionites are close - Jesus is only human, Jesus taught to follow Jewish law; problem is that they thought that Jesus was the biological child of Mary and Joseph (Qur'an believes Jesus was married from a virgin birth) BUT, we don't know exactly what the Ebionites believed because their book did not survive

Tafsir

To explain; a vast field of Islamic studies to understand the meaning and implications of the Qur'an; comprises subgenres (Qur'anic vocabulary, rhetoric, grammar, occasions of revelation, stories of the prophets, legal content, hidden meanings, scientific indications)

Ijtihad

To struggle to figure out the best interpretation of a verse; the best answer to a question

Explain the statement, "Every translation is an interpretation." Give an example of a word or phrase from the Qur'anic text that can be translated in multiple ways and explain why.

To translate, you have to choose a meaning. And in order to choose a meaning, you need to interpret the text using context clues (before translating) Example in the Qur'an is Q 79:1 - By those angels stripping out evil souls harshly -- Angel who yanks souls out of the dead; Riders who yank the reins of horses

Discuss the rules of engagement given in the Qur'an and hadiths. Which categories of individuals may not be targeted? How do terrorists nonetheless justify attacking civilians?

Traditional scholarly position prohibited killing innocent villains (rules of engagement) - women, children, elderly, monks, slaughter animals How do you justify killing innocent people? a. **Intellect can justify all kinds of things b. America does not have civilians because we're a democracy - the people elect the leaders that are responsible for specific actions i. If an American drone kills an innocent Muslim, who authorized the drone? Who authorized the drone? The government. Who authorized the government? The people - this turns all citizens into military personnel ii. Scholarly objection: what percentage of Americans actually vote? Most elections are 50-50, so what percentage of Americans actually voted for the government in power (exclude children, people who didn't vote) 1. Don't necessarily know about foreign policy issues; represents some values they prefer over another 2. Most Americans have no idea what the government does overseas, let alone approve of it - "confidential" c. Traditional scholarly position prohibited killing innocent villains (rules of engagement) - women, children, elderly, monks, slaughter animals

Intertextuality

When one text invokes or responds to another text for a particular purpose

Which religious traditions in the seventh century does the Qur'an appear to be in dialogue with? (Lecture)

· Judaism ·Christianity--New/OldTestament/NiceneCreed Why People Sample: 1. Lack of creativity 2. Tribute to original 3. Bring wider audience 4. Parody 5. Draw upon the prestige of the original