Research Methods Exam #1

Results that support a hypothesis lead to new questions by 2 routes

1.) test the boundaries of the result 2. refine the original research question

Method of Authority

A method of acquiring knowledge in which a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area. Ex: consulting with doctors, professors, lawyers, etc. Limitations: -Doesn't always provide accurate info -The answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather than true expert knowledge. -We often assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics -People often accept an expert's statement without question

Step 5: select a research study

Choosing a research strategy involves deciding on the general approach you will take to evaluate the research hypothesis. -The choice of a research strategy is usually determined 1 of 2 factors: the type of question asked & ethics and other constraints (ethical considerations or other factors, such as equipment availability, limit what you can and cannot do in the laboratory

Step 7: Conduct the study

Collect the data; also, decide wether the study will be conducted in a laboratory or in the field (in the real world).

Participants

Humans who take part in a research study.

StepStep 2: Hypothesis

If your question concerns the relationship between variables, the next task is to form a hypothesis or tentative answer to the question.

step 10: refine or reformulate your research idea

If your results support the original hypothesis= it's time to extend the original question into new domains or make the research question more precise.

Argument

In the rational method, a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a solution

What kind of reasoning uses a few specific observations to produce a general hypothesis?

Inductive reasoning

Method of Intuition

Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling" Ex: "I feel like eating burgers tonight," "trust your instinct" Limitation: it has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge

subjects

Nonhumans who take part in a research study.

Step 4: identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment

One part of designing the research study is to decide what individuals will participate, determine how many individuals you will need for your research, and plan where and how to recruit them.

Applied research

Research directed toward solving practical problems

Rational Method AKA "rationalism"

Seeking answers by using logical reasoning Ex: Amy has a fear of dogs. ThereforeAmy had a frightening experience with a dog in her past. Limitations: - the conclusions not necessarily true unless both of the premise statements are true, even in a valid logical argument -people are not particularly good at logical reasoning.

Premise statements

Sentences used in logical reasoning that describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true

science is objective

The observations are structured so that the researcher's biases and beliefs do not influence the outcome of the study -"the researcher is blind to the details of the study=A way to reduce the influence of experimenter expectation is to keep the people who are making the observations uninformed about the details of the study.

Induction AKA inductive reasoning

The use of a small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations Ex: you taste 3 green apples and they're sour. Now you assume that all green apples are sour.

step 4: evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations

This is the research or data collection phase of the scientific method - the researcher must be careful to observe and record exactly what happens, free of any subjective interpretation or personal experiences

Which of the following is the best description of the scientific method?

a circular process that leads to a tentative answer

A researcher is intrigued by an explanation of children's problem-solving strategies found in a journal article and develops a research study to determine whether the article's ideas are correct. How would this study be classified?

basic research

Hypothesis

possible explanation for a set of observations or possible answer to a scientific question

Last year Tim and his friend Jack were both too short to ride the roller coaster. Jack went to the park this year and was tall enough to ride. Tim knows that he is taller than Jack, so he knows that he will be able to ride the roller coaster as well. Which method of knowing is Tim using?

rational method

step 3: use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction

this step involves taking the hypothesis and applying it to a specific real-world situation Ex: participants should be less responsive to occasional painful stimuli when they're swearing & when they're not.

Common sources of research topics

- Personal interests and curiosities - Casual observation - Reports of others' observations: gossip columns, comics, advertising, etc. -Practical problems or questions - behavioral theories

Science vs. pseudoscience

1.) a theory is scientific only if it can specify how it could be refuted. If a research study produces results that do not support a theory, the theory is abandoned or modified to accommodate the new results. In pseudoscience, negative results are discounted entirely or are explained without altering the original theory. 2.) Science demands an objective and unbiased evaluation of all the available evidence. Pseudoscience tends to rely on subjective evidence like testimonies and anecdotes. 3.) science tests and challenges its own theories and adapts the theories when new evidence appears. Pseudoscience tends to ignore nonsupporting evidence and treats criticism as a personal attack. 4.)Scientific theories are grounded in past science or past established theories. Ex:autistic children are taught communication skills through established theories of learning and uses principles that have solid empirical evidence. -Pseudoscience tends to create entirely new disciplines and techniques that are unconnected to established theories and empirical evidence.

Reasons to report research results include?

1.) the results become part of the general knowledge base that other people can use to answer questions or to generate new research ideas 2.) the research procedure can be replicated or refuted by other researchers.

The Research Process

1.)Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question 2.)form a hypothesis 3.) determine how you will define and measure your variables 4.) identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment 5.)sect a research strategy 6.) select a research study 7.) conduct the study 8.)evaluate the data 9.) report the results

Method of Tenacity

A method of acquiring knowledge in which information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. Ex: "opposites attract"; breaking a mirror results in 7 years of bad luck. limitation: -the info acquired might not be accurate. -there is no method for correcting erroneous ideas.

Method of faith

AKA "method of authority." People have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge. Ex: children tend to have faith in the answers they get from their parents. Limitations: - it allows no no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information - Not all "experts" are "experts"

Step 1: find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question.

Finding a research idea usually involves 2 parts: 1.) selecting a general topic area. For example, human development 2.) Review the published research reports in that area to identify the relevant variables and find an unanswered question

Step 8: evaluate the data

Here you use different statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data. This involves drawing graphs, computing means or correlations to describe the data and use inferential statistics to help determine wether the results from the specific participants can be generalized to the rest of the population.

Scientific Method

Involves formulating specific questions and then systemically finding answers step 1: observe behavior or other phenomena step 2: step 3: step 4: step 5:

Which of the following is typical of quantitative research?

It involves measuring variables for each individual, usually involves numerical scores, and it uses statistical analysis to summarize and interpret results.

Time during the research process

Long before actual data collection begins, most of the research time probably will be devoted to preparation. After data collection, the process continues with evaluation and interpretation of the results, followed by the preparation and public presentation of a research report.

Quantitative research

Research that is based on measuring variables (that vary in quantity like size, magnitude,duration, or amount) for individual participants or subjects to obtain scores, usually numerical values, that are submitted to statistical analyses for summary and interpretation.

Qualitative Research

Research that is based on observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report.

Psuedoscience

a set of ideas based on nonspecific their, faith, and belief. Ex: aromatherapy, astrology, intelligent design etc.

Which of the following is a distinction between science and pseudoscience?

a.) Pseudoscience tends to dismiss or refuse to accept negative results. b.) Pseudoscience tends to rely on testimonials and selected results. c.) Pseudoscience tends to treat criticism as a personal attack

Science is empirical

answers are obtained by making observations

How would research studies that are intended to answer practical problems be classified?

applied research

While shopping, you observe the behavior of adolescents at the mall and get some ideas about what may be causing the behavior. This is an example of getting research ideas from

casual observation

Variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals Ex: what other variables are associated with pain and swearing?

Step 2: form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)

choosing a point of action or decision on the experiment ]. Ex: I hypothesize that if I run these 3 miles my heart rate will increase by 15 beat/min

step 5: use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis. - some agreement=support for original hypothesis' consider making new predictions and testing them -no agreement=original hypothesis is wrong, revise & test again

A hypothesis is a __________ statement and a prediction is a __________ statement.

general; specific

The first step in the research process is

identifying a topic area and searching the literature to find a research question

Which method of knowing is used when you find the address and phone number of a restaurant by googling the name of the restaurant?

method of authority

A restaurant chef tried replacing rice with pasta in one of her recipes to see what would happen. Which method of acquiring knowledge is she using?

method of empiricism

Which method of knowing is being used by a student who believes that his performance on tests is influenced by wearing a lucky hat?

method of tenacity

empirical method AKA Empiricism

observation and personal experience are used to obtain knowledge. Ex: Pound of steak costs more than a pound of beef. We know this because of experience. Limitations: time consuming and sometimes dangerous

Step 9: report the results

observations and results must be public; this is accomplished, in part, through a written report describing what was done, what was found, and how the findings were interpreted.

Step 1: Observe behavior or phenomena

observe the world around you until some behavior or event catches your eye Ex: For example, the authors of the swearing study observed (themselves or others) swearing in response to pain. Based on their observations, they began to wonder whether swearing has any effect on the experience of pain.

replication

repetition of a research study with the same basic procedures used in the original. - the intent of replication is to test the validity of the original study.

A researcher conducts a study in which 50 college students are assigned to different treatments and tested. In the study, the students are called

research participants

What 3 principles govern scientific investigations?

science is empirical, it is public, it is objective.

What is meant by saying that "science is objective"?

scientific answers are obtained without influence by the researcher's biases or beliefs

Step 6: select a research design

selecting a research design involves making decisions about specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study. Ex: does your research question call for the detailed examination of one individual, or would you find a better answer by looking at the average behavior of a large group?

basic research

studies that are intended to solve theoretical issues

science is public

the scientific method makes observations available for evaluation by others, especially other scientists. -The scientific community makes observations public by publishing reports in scientific journals or presenting their results at conferences and meetings.

Deduction AKA "deductive reasoning"

the use of a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples. - uses general statements to generate specific predictions Ex: All green apples are sour. Therefore, if I eat a green apple it will be sour.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions