Respiratory System
VRG has _____ mechanisms
"overdrive" mechanisms (to abdominal muscles)
partial pressure is analogous to
% concentration
Alveolar PO2 and PCO2 are determined by: (3)
1. PO2 and PCO2 of inspired air. 2. Minute alveolar ventilation. 3. Rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.
what two factors determine intra-alveolar pressure:
1. the quantity (moles) of air molecules in the alveoli 2. the volume of the alveoli
a decrease in blood PO2 causes an increase in
AP firing rate
what is an example of how small changes in pH can have large effects
Alter protein activity
What secretes surfactant
Alveolar Type II cells
pneumotaxic center (PC) is associated with the ____ center
Apneustic center
arrow to the right
Association
There are four primary pressures associated with ventilation
Atmospheric Pressure Intra-Alveolar Pressure Intrapleural Pressure Transpulmonary Pressure
acidosis causes
CNS depression
the Bohr effect has the same effect as _____ on binding properties
CO2
the respiratory system regulates
CO2
which is the primary trigger for central chemoreceptors in the medulla
CO2
hemoglobin serves as a buffer for the increase in H ion resulting from
CO2 in the lungs: HbH > H+ + Hb Hb + O2 > HbO2
the equation for the production of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O is
CO2 + H2O <-- --> H2CO3 <-- --> H+ + HCO3- *** H2CO3 = carbonic acid
Which is more soluble in blood CO2 or O2?
CO2 is 20x more soluble - however still needs help transporting
Bicarbonate can regulate pH by regulating
CO2 levels
Which is more soluble CO2 or O2?
CO2, more CO2 will move in and out of fluid than O2 (equal amounts need different pressure gradients to move)
the capillaries in the lungs drop off _____ and pick up _____
CO2, oxygen
an increase in arterial PCO2 causes an increase in PCO2 in the
CSF
how does an increase in CO2 lead to an increase in H+ ions
Carbon dioxide is converted to H ion and bicarbonate ion by carbonic anhydrase in the CSF.
As bicarbonate levels in the erythrocyte increase, bicarbonate ions are transported out of the erythrocyte in exchange for
Cl- referred to as the chloride shift
are symptoms of asthma and increased resistance
Compensations (decreased pressure) -Hypertension is not the problem, but an attempt to overcome the overlying issue
whether the arrow favors the left or the rights depends on
Depends if oxygen is in a gradient
in Sympathetic stimulation, what causes bronchodilation.
Epinephrine: increases ventilation by causing airway smooth muscles to relax.
neurons which generate action potentials during expiration.
Expiratory
the volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a tidal expiration
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
What is Boyle's law
Gas pressure is inversely related to the volume
Carbonic acid reversibly disassociates to
H+ + bicarbonate
the kidneys regulate
HCO3-
why must the nose be small and the mouth larger?
Hairs is nose, nose more convoluted, nose is useful for humidity, warming, and filtering For every advantage there is a disadvantage (evolution)
This phenomenon is called the
Haldane Effect.
Deoxygenation of the blood increases its ability to carry carbon dioxide; this property is the Haldane effect. Conversely, oxygenated blood has a reduced capacity for carbon dioxide.
Haldane effect
oxygen binding to hemoglobin equation
Hb + O2 <--- ---> Hb x O2
the Bohr effect can be expressed by the equation
Hb + O2 <-----> Hb-O2 + H+
The relationship between CO2 and acidity is described by the
Henderson-Hasselbach equation:
neurons generate action potentials during inspiration.
Inspiratory
the maximum volume of air that can be inspired at the end of a resting expiration
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
The maximum volume of air that can be inspired at the end of a normal inspiration.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
intrinsic control
Internal, personal process that controls or motivates an individual's behavior (local chemical mediators)
pressure inside pleural sac
Intrapleural Pressure
surfacant lowers ____ and prevents alveoli from _____
Lowers surface tension, preventing alveoli from collapsing
Total amount of "new" air that flows in and out of respiratory system in a minute
Minute Ventilation (alveolar ventilation) -normal breathing rate
CO is a competitive inhibitor of
O2
in the pulmonary capillaries, O2 is ______ and CO2 is ______
O2 is picked up and CO2 is delivered out of the RBCs into the alveoli
the O2 Hb dissociation curve is reversible::
O2+ Hb <---- -----> Hb +O2
Trauma in Pneumothorax occurs from an _______puncture of pleural sac
OUTSIDE
in the systemic capillaries, oxygen is _____ and CO2 is _____
Oxygen is delivered and CO2 is picked up by the RBCs
Laplace's Law
P = 2T/r
The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin depends upon the
PO2 in the surrounding fluid.
PO2 in the normal curve (when oxygen saturation of Hb is 80%) is
PO2 normal is 45 mmHg
peripheral chemoreceptors respond to changes in arterial
PO2, PCO2 or pH
transpulmonary pressure
Palv - Pip
when you exercise, you metabolize, causing pH to _____ and CO2 to _____
Ph decrease and CO2 increases (due to using more O2)
are important for the binding of gases to hemoglobin and for transport
RBCs
from the blood plasma air then goes into the
RBCs
the from the target tissue, air goes into
RBCs
hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve
The curve that shows percent saturation of hemoglobin as a function of PO2
law of mass action
The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants
How thick is the respiratory membrane?
The respiratory membrane averages 0.2 μm in thickness
pulmonary surfactant is secreted by
Type II alveolar cells.
once the central respiratory center is stimulated, _____ increases
Ventilation
the right bronchus is more _____shaped while left is more _____shaped
Y , T
the effect of the nonfunctioning Cl- transport channel in the lungs
abnormally thick, viscous from drier secretions
CO2 levels affect blood and body _____ and ____ levels
acid and base levels - critical in renal and respiratory system
an increase in PCO2 makes the blood more
acidic --> due to increase of hydrogen ions (decrease in CO2, causes alkalosis)
excessive acidity of body fluids refers to
acidosis
As the PO2 increases the hemoglobin molecule
acquires at least one molecule of O2
A more forceful expiration results from ______expiration.
active
During______ breathing the expiratory muscles contract during the expiration phase.
active
factors produced in ______ cause a right shift
active tissues - increased PO2 in tissues
peripheral chemoreceptors communicate with ________ neurons that project to the medullary respiratory control regions.
afferent
during functional residual capacity (FRC), no _____is moving into or out of the lungs during this time.
air
External respiration involves the exchange of gases by diffusion between _____ and _____
air and blood
Why do you have RV? What is its advantage?
allows you to have air left over if you need to hold your breath - ex: smoke from a fire:, no air left to breath, reserve volume allows you to have air
from the respiratory bronchiole air then passes into the
alveolar ducts
from the fluid and surfactant layer air passes into the
alveolar epithelium
Diaphramic contractions produces changes in
alveolar pressures
______ controls the amount of volatile or gaseous anesthetic agent that can diffuse into the bloodstream.
alveolar ventilation
intrapleural pressure is always ______ than intra-alveolar pressure and is always ______ during normal breathing.
always less than intra-alveolar pressure always negative
an increase in ventilation leads to
an increase in oxygen
an increase in temperature causes a decrease in affinity for oxygen because
an increase in temperature causes O2 to unload more easily in more active tissue where it is needed
this decrease in oxygen triggers
an increase in ventilation
Air flow in the lungs continues until intra-alveolar pressure equals
atmospheric pressure
The pressure gradient between _______ and ______ causes air to flow into the lungs.
atmospheric pressure and intra-alveolar pressure (Patm - Palv)
Most of the CO2 is converted to _____ and _____ by carbonic anhydrase in the erythrocytes.
bicarbonate and H+
When CO2 increases this reaction goes in reverse to form
bicarbonate and the hydrogen ion. HCO3- + H+ <-- --> H2CO3 <-- --> Co2 + H2O
_____ can also act as a buffer
bicarbonate ions
The H+ left behind in the erythrocyte is buffered by
binding to hemoglobin
External respiration involves the transportation of gases by _______.
blood
internal respiration involves the exchange of gases between the cells of ______ and the cells of the ______
blood and body (tissues)
CO2 in the cell tissue first travels into the
blood stream
the decreases affinity for hemoglobin when pH decreases is explained by the
bohr effect
Why is lung-to-blood interface so complicated?
both gas exchange with fluids does not work well and air to/from fluid diffusion is tricky
high altitude can cause
breathing problems
Both central and peripheral chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in pH but the ______ chemoreceptors are not exposed to H+ from sources other than CO2 because of the blood-brain barrier.
central
This negative pressure of intrapleural pressure results from the ______forces exerted on the intrapleural space by the chest wall and the lungs.
elastic
pressure =
force/area
2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG) is produced from an intermediate compound in
glycolysis
where does the right side of the equation, H2CO3 <-- --> H+ + HCO3- take place
in the lungs
At the end of oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport, and the waste (CO2) goes into the ______ into the bloodstream
in the opposite direction
where does the left side of the equation, CO2 + H2O <-- --> H2CO3 take place
in the tissues
the effect of emphysema
incomplete walls form between adjacent alveoli; leads to non-functional air spaces
During _______, alveolar volume increases and intra-alveolar pressure falls causing air molecules to enter down the pressure gradient created by the inspiration. The air flow stops when pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure (0 mm Hg)
inspiration
This center may facilitate the transition between
inspiration and expiration.
then from common pharynx (air from nose and mouth initially) air then passes into the
larynx
The greater the lung compliance the ____ the work necessary to bring in a given volume of air.
less
During inspiration intra-alveolar pressure is_____than atmospheric pressure.
less - negative
Greater tension →
less compliant
More elastic →
less compliant
partial pressure of oxygen in cells of tissues (venous system)
less than 40 mm Hg - delivering oxygen to the cells of tissues
the fact that intra-alveolar pressure and is always negative refers to is being _____ than atmospheric pressure
less than P atm
thus, the body must make _____ to regulate breathing at high altitude
long term adaptations
At low partial pressures the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 is
low
2,3-diphosphoglycerate is synthesized under what condition
low oxygen
During quiet breathing (eupnea) airway resistance in the conducting zone is _____ and a pressure gradient of _____than 2 mm Hg is required to maintain sufficient air flow
low, less
HbO2 has a ____ affinity for O2 than Hb does for O2
lower
greater metabolic activist results in
lower PO2 and higher PCO2.
the air is composed of mostly
nitrogen and oxygen (more nitrogen)
the effect of the movement of high to low air pressures
nitrogen come out of solution forming bubbles. These nitrogen bubbles forms at joints causing great pain ("bends" the body) and can permanently damage , even kill PN2 >>>> PO2 + PCO2
do humans have aortic bodies
no
The_______ of a gas is the proportion of pressure contributed by an individual gas to the total pressure of a mixture of gases
partial pressure
The ______ is the most important factor affecting resistance.
radius of the airways
The inspiratory neurons show a ______ in activity during inspiration followed by an
ramp increase, abrupt termination.
pneumotaxic center (PC) corresponds to
rate and pattern
Fick's Law
rate of diffusion proportional to surface area and partial pressure gas gradient -D is proportional to: (delta P x A x S) / ( d x square root of MW)
The central pattern generator for breathing is reflexively controlled by various types of
receptors
Active expiration is due to
skeletal muscles and ATP (energy)
____ changes in pH have large effects
small
a _______fraction of air is exchanged during inhalation / exhalation
small
An increase in PO2 results in a ______in percent saturation.
small increase
in lung compliance, ______changes in trans-pulmonary pressure are needed to bring in a given volume of air
smaller
assuming no barrier, will diffusing molecules go in all direction equally?
sometimes (depends upon the barrier)
is diffusion a random process
sometimes (gradients involved)
The positive cooperativity causes the -_____ part of the curve as the PO2 goes from 15 mm Hg to 60 mm Hg.
steep
only a small concentration of CO will
suffocate you (headache and sleepiness) (0.1% in air)
The tension resisting these elastic forces is the ______tension of the pleural fluid.
surface
Surfacant secreted from type II cells reduces
surface tension (resistance to lung inflation)
Laplace's Law relates
surface tension in lungs
Compliance decreases in loss of
surfactant
what happens to the alveoli without surfacant
they collapse
Compliance decreases if lung tissue
thickens
the cause of lung cancer
tumors in the various epithelial cell linings (cigarettes contain varieties of carcinogens)
Ventral Respiratory Group contains ____ regions of expiratory neurons and _____region of inspiratory neuron
two, one
type ___ alveolar cells are secretory cells
type 2 (surfactant)
type ___ alveolar cells are a single layer of epithelial cells
type I
the wall of the alveoli is formed from two types of cells
type I and type II
Alkalosis leads to
uncontrollable muscle seizures and convulsions.
These first three factors work together to promote O2 ________ in respiring tissues and O2 ______ in the lungs.
unloading in the tissues, loading in the lungs
in a pneumothorax, th pleural sac loses its _____, lung cannot expand, no longer connected
vacuum,
This refers to the resistance of the entire system of airways in the respiratory tract
Airway Resistance
The build up of excess base (lack of acids) in the body fluids.
Alkalosis
_______catalyzes the reaction that converts CO2 and H2O to carbonic acid.
Carbonic anhydrase
What is Fick's Law
Diffusion will occur with pressure/concentration gradient
arrow to the left
Disassociation
A symptom of decompression sickness is _______ or deep pain in the muscles and joints
"the bends"
Forces for air flow equation
(Patm - Palv) / R
Anatomy of Respiratory System: Asymmetry in lungs: _____
(right and left bronchus)
At rest intrapleural pressure in the pleural sac is _____mm Hg
- 4
To overcome surface tension, surfacant.. (2)
- Surfactant secreted from type II cells - Surfactant increases lung compliance
even though diffusion is an otherwise random / passive process, there will be a net movement of molecules due to diffusion if
- a concentration gradient exists - (or in the case of gas molecules), a pressure gradient exists
what is the difference in mmHg of the partial pressures of oxygen between the tissues and the arteries
60 mm Hg
Normal blood pH =
7.4 (range 7.38 -7.42)
normal blood pH =
7.4 (range = 7.38-7.42)
At the PO2 of the systemic veins of 40 mmHg the hemoglobin is ____% saturated
75
"1 atm" of pressure =
760 mm Hg
PN2 + PO2 =
760 mmHg
Nitrogen composition of air
79%
Above a PO2 of ______ mm Hg the slope of the curve becomes nearly flat.
80
_____ % of carbon dioxide is converted and dissolved as H2CO3 (bicarbonate)
86-90%
if atmospheric O2 is too high (well how much more saturated can you get than 99 %) And as you ascend a high mountain top and Po2 drops to half normal, you are still binding _____% O2
90% (still at 90% saturation of O2)
At the PO2 of the systemic arteries of 100 mm Hg the hemoglobin is ______% saturated.
98
Acidosis = blood pH of
< 7.35
volume in the chest wall and pleural cavity
= 15 mL
Alkalosis = blood pH of
> 7.45
in parasympathetic stimulation, what causes bronchoconstriction
ACh
The ______ and the ______ muscles are the primary inspiratory muscles
diaphragm, external intercostal
Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume can be measured _____ and residual volume can be measured ____
directly, indirectly.
transpulmonary pressure is ______ pressure across lung wall
distending
increase in trans-pulmonary pressure causes an increase in ______across lungs and increases in in alveoli, causing lungs (alveoli) to _____
distending pressure , volume, expand
diffusion very important because it
does not require the energy
Two respiratory centers in the medulla include:
dorsal and ventral group
Linger noses evolved for environment that are dry and cold
dry and cold - evolved more recently
there is a pleural sac around
each lung
intrapleural pressure varies with
each phase of respiration
increase in lung compliance from surfacant makes inspiration
easier
Both the chest wall and lungs are
elastic
passive expiration is due to the
elastic properties of the lungs
Lung compliance depends on the ______ of the lungs and the _____of the liquid in the alveoli.
elasticity and surface tension
effects 2 out 3 of adult males (1/4 females) exhibit detectable areas of the lungs
emphysema
exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) measures from the
end of normal expiration to the end of maximum expiration
tidal volume (Vt) measures the difference in volume from the
end of normal inspiration to the end of normal expiration
DRG has _______ ________ of "ramped" AP firing rate output
endogenous biorhythm
To establish these gradients, ______is required
energy
Partial pressure of a gas = proportion of pressure of______that is due to presence of the ______
entire gas , individual gas
the curve will shift to the right or left depending on
environment
from the alveolar epithelium, air passes into the
epithelial basement membrane
at rest, At rest intra-alveolar pressure is _____ atmospheric pressure.
equal to
The oxygen bound to hemoglobin is in ______ with the oxygen dissolved in plasma
equilibrium
As CO2 increases in the tissues it goes down its concentration gradient into the plasma and into the
erythrocyte
CO2 can be converted to bicarbonate by _______ then transported in the plasma
erythrocytes
pressure gradients are directed but partial pressures are
established
When the respiratory drive increases, as during ______, the inspiratory neurons contribute to enhanced inspiration and the expiratory neurons stimulate the muscles that increase the force of expiration.
exercise
The increase in transpulmonary pressure causes the lungs to
expand
the force of transpulmonary pressure operates across the walls of the lungs and causes the lungs to .
expand
During ______, alveolar volume decreases and intra-alveolar pressure increases causing air molecules to leave down a pressure gradient in the reverse direction until the pressure returns to 0 mm Hg.
expiration
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) is the sum of
expiratory reserve volume and residual volume
The maximum volume of air that can be expired at the end of a normal expiration.
exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
two levels of respiration
external and internal
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and body tissues.
external respiration
Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle is subject to both ______(neural and hormonal signals) and ______ (local chemical mediators) control.
extrinsic and intrinsic
Intrapleural pressure: pressure that occurs in the between inside the lung and outside the lung
fluid
from the alveoli, air passes into the
fluid and surfactant layer
the respiratory membrane consists of
fluid and surfactant layer, alveolar epithelium, epithelial basement membrane, interstitial space, capillary basement membrane, and capillary endothelium
Surface tension =
force for alveoli to collapse or resist expansion
This conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate and H+ maintains a pressure gradient favoring the diffusion of CO2
from the tissue into the blood.
Between breaths, when the lungs are at rest, the volume of air in the lungs is called the
functional residual capacity (FRC) Palv = Patm
Ability to dissolve depends on properties of _____ and _____
gas and liquid
Gas molecules can exist in _____ or ______
gas form or dissolved liquid
Many _____ (like "air") are mixtures of different molecules bouncing around
gases
Hb in blood "buffers" tissue O2 levels because tissue will give up O2 if ________ (not likely) and will extract O 2 if _______
give up O2 is the tissues have too much extract O2 if they need more
The partial pressure of a gas affects the amount of gas that
goes into solution
The higher the PO2 the ____ the binding.
greater
Deoxyhemoglobin has a ______ affinity for H ions than oxyhemoglobin as described by the Bohr effect.
greater - Hb + H+ <-- --> HbH
Deoxyhemoglobin has a ________ affinity for H ions than oxyhemoglobin as described by the Bohr effect
greater - in the tissues: HbO2 > O2 + Hb Hb + H+ > HbH
partial pressure of co2 in cells of tissues
greater than 40 mm Hg
Transportation pathway: lungs → _____ → ______
heart --> all tissues
The oxygen is transported bound to the ____portions of the hemoglobin molecule.
heme
Forces for air flow equation is very similar to the ______equation
hemodynamics (blood flow) equation
Some but not all CO2 are associated with
hemoglobin
The tissues have a lower partial pressure of oxygen because of
higher oxygen utilization and a higher carbon dioxide concentration because of higher carbon dioxide production.
two examples of instrinsic control
histamine and CO2
A spirometer measures
how much air is exhaled from the lungs and how fast it is exhaled.
central chemoreceptors are neurons that respond directly to changes in
hydrogen ion concentration within the CSF
Hemoglobin can bind or release ______.
hydrogen ions Hb + H+ <---- -----> HbH
when oxygen binds to Hb, _____ are released
hydrogen ions Hb + O2 <--- ---> HbO2 + H+
an increase in PCO2 in the CSF leads to an increase in
hydrogen ions in the CSF
Hemoglobin can bind or release
hydrogen ions.
Following a heart attack and loss of oxygen, a person will likely be
in an irreversible persistent vegetative state
Any increase in alveolar ventilation will _______anesthetic uptake into the pulmonary blood.
increase
Inspiratory muscles ______ the volume of thoracic cavity
increase
The central chemoreceptors cause a ______ in ventilation
increase
This decrease in volume of thoracic cavity causes an _______ in intra-alveolar pressure
increase
according to the law of mass action, an increase in CO2 causes an ______ in bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
increase
an increase in CO2 causes hydrogen ions to
increase
this decrease in intrapleural pressure causes an _______in the transpulmonary pressure
increase
hydrogen ions____ in more active tissue
increase (pH decreases)
peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated by a decrease in _______, an increase in ______, and a decrease in ______
increase in arterial PO2 (< 60 mmHg), a decrease in arterial PCO2, and a decrease in pH
Respiratory acidosis is an increase in blood acidity due to
increased CO2.
the curve shifts to the right under increased ____ to _____ concentrations
increased hydrogen ion or CO2 concentrations -pH and CO2 relationship - this is the Bohr effect
Conversely, a decrease in PO2 ________ the binding of CO2 to hemoglobin.
increases
If airway resistance _____, a much larger pressure gradient is needed to maintain a given airflow.
increases
Surfactant ______ lung compliance
increases
this conformational changes that occurs _____ the affinity of the remaining subunits for oxygen
increases -positive cooperativity
tissue will receive O2 under greater PO2 (55-45 = 10), thus oxygen in the tissues ______
increases - need more O2 if CO2 increases
When alveolar ventilation increases relative to oxygen consumption alveolar PO2 ________ and PCO2 _______.
increases , decreases - and vice versa
Unlike peripheral chemoreceptors, the central chemoreceptors are ______ stimulated by an increase in CO2
indirectly
example of compliance decreases from loss of surfacant
infant respiratory distress syndrome.
the cause of pneumonia
infection of the lobules of the lung, from bacterial or fungal infestation
the effect off the lungs becoming infected
inflammation and deterioration of function, fluid leakage into the alveoli, swelling and or constriction of the respiratory bronchioles.
treatment for Tension Pneumothorax:
insert needle into pleural sac and watch the ait in the pleural sac (under positive pressure) escaped out. Lung reinflates (usually)
Treatment for Trauma in Pneumothorax
insert tube into pleural sac and apply vacuum to re-establish -4mm Hg and then patch up
Dorsal Respiratory Group contains primarily
inspiratory neurons
the larger the lung compliance the easier it is to
inspire
the _____ and _____ muscles are the primary expiratory muscles.
internal intercostal and abdominal
The use of oxygen by the mitochondria to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation with production of carbon dioxide as a waste product.
internal respiration (cellular respiration)
from the capillary membrane air then goes into the
interstitial space
from the epithelial basement membrane air then passes into the
interstitial space
From the nasal cavity, air next passes
into the nasal pharynx
The changes in ______ pressure creates the pressure gradient that causes air to flow into and out of the lungs.
intra-alveolar
pressure of air in alveoli
intra-alveolar pressure
the increase in transpulmonary pressure is due to the difference between the _____ and _____
intra-alveolar pressure and the intrapleural pressure (Palv - Pip).
Intrapleural space filled with
intrapleural fluid
Hence, the elastic forces are trying to open the
intrapleural space
The lung walls are stretched and the elastic forces are pulling them
inward
body uses diffusion whenever possible because
it is "cheap and for free" - Gradients are set up, second law of thermodynamics = nature hates gradients
if a person consumed diazepam with alcohol while on a crash diet , this person is likely to be
lapsed into a coma
When CO2 binds to Hb, it ______ the affinity for O2
lowers
accounts for more than 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the US
lung cancer (pleuropulmonary neoplasm)
sums of two or more lung volumes
lung capacity
a measure of the ease with which the lungs can be stretched
lung compliance -Single rubber band has more compliance than ten rubber bands
the effect of lung cancer
lung malfunction --> death if severe or after metastasis
In pneumothorax, the ______collapses and the ______ expands
lung, thoracic wall
Hb in blood also buffers the O2 levels in the
lungs
from the blood stream, CO2 reaches the
lungs
once air enters the right and left bronchus, air is now in the
lungs
CO2 plays an important role in
maintaining acid-base balance.
Dorsal Respiratory Group is located in the
medulla
central chemoreceptors are located in the
medulla
Respiratory control regions are present in the _____ and _____
medulla and pons of the brainstem
in the thoracic Cavity, the pleural is the
membrane lining of lungs and chest wall
during the breathing pathologies, Cheyne-Stokes, breathing lasts about a
minute
RBC in alveoli is pumped through entire circulatory system all the way into the tissues into the ______where oxygen is used
mitochondria (respiratory oxidative phosphorylation)
from the cell cytoplasm air is transported into the
mitochondrion
During expiration intra-alveolar pressure is_____than atmospheric pressure.
more -positive
Anatomy of Respiratory System: Asymmetry in _______symmetry in _____
mouth, nose
Cause of decompression sickness
movement from high to low air pressures (surfacing scuba divers, loss of cabin pressure)
alveolar ventilation
movement of air into and out of the alveoli
when are you asthma, mucus _____ and causes obstruction of ____
mucus increases, obstructing the bronchioles
The movement of air into and out of the alveoli is due to the changes in the volume of the thoracic cavity produced by the
muscles of ventilation
cause of TB
mycobacterium tuberculosis infection
Arterial pH affects the pH of body tissues hence it is necessary to regulate blood pH within_______around the normal of 7.4
narrow limits
Why is it useful to have two different pathways into the common pharynx?
nasal and oral → redundancy is good, if nose gets clogged, can still breathe through mouth
from the nostrils air goes into the
nasal cavity
this process is a ____ feedback
negative
this process is a _______ feedback
negative
the pleural sac must have _____ pressure in order to function
negative -Partial vacuum, vacuums are negative pressures
Since there are four binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule the number of oxygen molecules on a hemoglobin molecule ranges from
none to four
the pathway of respiration starts in the ____ or the _____
nose or the mouth
from the mouth, air passes first into the
oral cavity
Contraction of expiratory muscles creates greater and faster
outflow of air (expirations)
from the lungs, CO2 reaches the
outside
the anatomy/pathway of respiration goes from ___ to ____ and ____
outside to the cytoplasm and then back
The chest wall is compressed and the elastic forces are pulling it
outward
centrally, ____ has no effect
oxygen
ventilation is all about
oxygen
increased CO2 leads to increased
oxygen unloading in active tissue
hydrogen ions binding to Hb increases the likelihood that
oxygen will be released into the systemic capillaries of the tissues - active tissue produces H+, increasing oxygen unloading in tissue
In lungs : _____ goes into circulation,_____ goes out of circulation into lungs and then exhaled as waste
oxygen, CO2
the capillaries in the tissues drop off _____ and pick up _____
oxygen, CO2
At high oxygen levels, _______ inhibits the enzyme that synthesizes 2,3-DPG and 2,3-DPG levels decrease.
oxyhemoglobin
HbO2 refers to
oxyhemoglobin
The Henderson-Hasselbach equation:
pH = 6.1 + log [HCO3-]/[CO2]
In more active tissue pH ______ and O2 is ______
pH decreases and oxygen is more easily unloaded.
Both vaporized and dissolved gases exert
partial pressures
Concentrations and gases relates
partial pressures
in this room, is the Po2 is 160 mm Hg and Pco2 is 0.3 mm Hg, what makes up the rest
partial pressures in - alveoli air - pulmonary veins - systemic arteries - cells - systemic veins - pulmonary arteries
During normal breathing expiration is a ________ process
passive
Only the ________ chemoreceptors are sensitive to O2
peripheral
intra-alveolar pressure varies with
phase of respiration (ventilation)
severe coughing and problems with breathing
pneumonia
Respiratory Center of Pons
pneumotaxic center (PC)
This center contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons and mixed neurons that control both inspiratory and expiratory neurons
pneumotaxic center (PC)
If the integrity of the airtight space in intrapleural space is compromised by trauma (gunshot or knife wound) or disease (pneumonia or emphysema) air enters this space and the condition is called
pneumothorax
in order to compensate for the decreased air flow, you must increase______dramatically to keep the air flow rate the same, or normal
pressure
since pressure of atm is constant, then the changes in Palv creates/changes
pressure gradients
the force for air flow is due to
pressure gradients
if you squeeze the lungs down, pressure _______on lungs, a _______ occurs, air moves ______ when it is under high pressure into 1 atm which is relatively low pressure
pressure increases, a gradient occurs, air moves out under high pressure
In the alveoli: air and blood meet, the _____system interacts with _____system (most important interface)
respiratory interacts with circulatory
oxygen and carbon dioxide goes between alveolar air and blood across the
respiratory membrane
CO is the "evil parent" because it is not as
reversible - hard to remove CO _ easy to attach O2 to the lungs and removed from the tissues (advantage)
If you choked, choking would occur in______bronchus more likely
right
from the trachea air then passes into the
right and left bronchus
The venous blood in the _______ is therefore called mixed venous blood.
right atrium
The venous blood from all parts of the body returns to the _____ side of the heart and ______.
right, and mixes
the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve is ____ shaped
s shaped (sigmoidal) - flat in one region, steep in another
emphysema causes
smoking and or genetic predisposition (inhalation of fine particular matter, toxic vapors, cigarette smoke, and general pollution)
the RBCs then travel to the
target tissue
Pressure of gases depends on ___, ____, and ____
temp, number of gas molecules, and volume PV = nRT P = nRT/V
the factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen include: (4)
temperature pH CO2 2,3,-DPG
from the bronchioles, air passes into the
terminal bronchiole
pulmonary function tests (PFTs)
tests that measure the ventilation mechanics of the lungs: airway function, lung volume, and the capacity of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide efficiently
When the curve shifts to the right,
the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin decreases and oxygen can be more easily unloaded, (more oxygen released to tissues)
When the curve shifts to the left,
the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin increases and oxygen can be more easily loaded.
External respiration involves the diffusion of gases between the _____ and the ______
the alveoli in the lungs and the circulating blood (pulmonary capillary blood)
an increase in AP firing rate stimulates
the central respiratory center
Inspiratory Reserve Volume measures the difference in volume from the
the end of normal inspiration to the end of maximum inspiration to the
The amount of PO2 and PCO2 in the venous blood depends on ________
the metabolic activity of the tissue
This is reflected by the activity of
the motor neurons innervating the respective muscles.
if no air is moving in or out of the lungs, what does air flow results from?
the muscles of respiration creating pressure gradients by changing the volume of the lungs.
What is LaPlace's Law
the pressure needed to prevent alveolar collapse is directly related to the surface tension, and indirectly to the radius
the flat region of the curve refers to
the systemic arteries - insensitive to oxygen - binds the max amount of O2 regardless of how much oxygen is in an area - unloads 98% oxygen
the steep region of the curve refers to
the systemic veins - this is the delivery system - it is very sensitive to oxygen - small decreases in PO2 of capillaries will greatly dissociate O2 from hemoglobin (and allows O2 to diffuse into the tissues) - only unloads about 75% oxygen
the alveoli are very
thin
alveoli consists of
thin layer fluid lines
The volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs in one unforced breath.
tidal volume
inspiratory capacity is the sum of ____ and _____
tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
Minute Ventilation can be calculated by
tidal volume x respiration rate (number of breaths per minute) - ex: 0.5 L / breath x 12 breaths / min = 6 L/ min of new air
vital capacity is the sum of
tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume
In tissues, when generating CO2, the more CO2 generated, will bump off oxygen, and release O2 to the ______that are generating a lot of CO2
tissues -decreases affinity for oxygen
Purpose of cardiac output:
to deliver oxygen to tissues -Can be a tremendous difference - Use gradients for loading and unloading
the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a maximum inspiration
total lung capacity (TLC)
there are ______ amounts of CO2, helium, argon, etc in the air
trace
from the larynx air then passes into the
trachea
how is TB unlike HIV,
transmission of TB is through casual contact
This reaction is important in the ______ and ______of CO2
transport and exchange
the transport of CO2 into the lungs is opposite of the
transport of CO2 in the blood (tissues)
Penetration from the puncture causes loss of _______ pressure
transpulmonary -Loss of sac, Pip= -44 mmHg results in collapsed (elastic lung) to Pip = 0 mmHg
difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure
transpulmonary pressure
Passive forces are due to changes in the _______pressure that occurs during inspiration and expiration and ______forces exerted on the airways by the surrounding tissue.
transpulmonary, tractive
Activation of chemoreceptors cause an increase in
ventilation
once the peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated, _____ increases
ventilation
the difference between Palv and Patm drives
ventilation
the exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so that oxygen can be exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli
ventilation
Surfacant lowers the amount of pressure necessary in order to reach
vital capacity
the maximum amount of air that can be expired following a maximum inspiration
vital capacity
Shorter noses evolved for environments that are
warm and humid
we evolved to eat as much as possible because
we had no defenses and our ancestors were always on the verge of starvation
do humans have carotid bodies
yes
is diffusion a passive process
yes (does not require ATP)
Why not simply have two mouths or two noses? Why asymmetry instead of symmetry
→ nose is for filtration, both nose and mouth are for breathing If you are breathing heavy, the nose alone is not enough to breathe, mouth had a larger opening
if one molecule from one side of the equation is removed (concentration decreases)
The reaction will move to create more of that molecule
Bohr effect
a decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with hemoglobin in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Cheyne-Stokes breathing
a distinct pattern of breathing characterized by quickening and deepening respirations followed by a period of apnea
however, an increase in ventilation could also cause a decrease in CO2, which would lead to
a dramatic decrease in ventilation (do not want this)
Diffusion is only useful over
a few microns
spirometry
a measurement of breathing (or lung volumes) -is a technique of measuring volumes of inspired and expired air.
ventilator
a mechanical device that provides artificial ventilation of the lungs, used to replace natural breathing function - functions to increase lung volume and capacity
Surfactant
a substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved
when airway resistance increases, _____ decreases
air flow rate
when the bronchioles are obstructed, ____ increases
air resistance
Alveoli: critical gas exchange (air to fluid interchange) → occurs in
air sacs
To maintain this negative intrapleural pressure the pleurae need to be
airtight
total lung capacity is the sum of
all the lung volumes including tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume
from the alveolar ducts air then passes into the
alveoli
the ____ is important for air to fluid interface
alveoli
Gases leave at the same partial pressures as the gases in the _______
alveoli PO2 = 100 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
this bulk flow results from the pressure gradients created between _____ and _____
alveoli and atmospheric pressure
this increase in intra-alveolar pressure creates the pressure gradient that causes
an outflow of air.
increased 2,3-DPG concentration is helpful for unloading oxygen during _____ and at _____
anemia, high altitudes.
treatment for pneumonia
antibacterial (anti fungal) agents
during exercise, an _____ peak response occurs
anticipatory
during exercise, ______ first decreases and then slowly increases back to starting place, and _______ first increases and then quickly decreases and then slowly increases back to starting place.
arterial PCO2, alveolar ventilation
the decrease in pH is first caused by the increase in
arterial PCO2, which causes an increases the concentration of arterial H+
peripheral chemoreceptor centers are specialized cells in direct contact with
arterial blood
Peripheral chemoreceptors are specialized cells in direct contact with _______ that communicate with ______ neurons that project to the respiratory control regions.
arterial blood, afferent
From 60 mm Hg to 80 mm Hg the slope of the curve decreases and plateaus because
as the O2 binds to hemoglobin, fewer binding sites become available
increases airway resistance by causing spastic contraction of smooth muscles of the bronchioles, increased mucus secretion, and inflammation of bronchioles.
asthma
intra-alveolar pressure is relative to
atm pressure
Surface tension in alveoli is due to
attractions between water molecules
the effect of TB
bacteria colonize respiratory passageways and interstitial spaces (as well as the alveolar) - fever, coughing, fatigue, chest pains, sweats
While bicarbonate in the erythrocyte decreases more _______ is brought into the erythrocyte in exchange for Cl-
bicarbonate
Exchange of gases by diffusion between _____ and _____
blood and tissues
In the lungs, the pressure gradient favors the diffusion of CO2 from the _____ into the ______
blood into the alveoli. Gradients are diff systemically then they are in the lungs
from the RBCs air passes into the
blood plasma
from the capillary endothelium air then passes into the
blood plasma
a majority of the oxygen in blood is transported by being
bounded to hemoglobin - oxygen not very soluble in plasma
since mucous cannot be readily cleaned the area can become a _____ and can lead to ______
breeding ground for bacterial growth and can lead to a lung malfunction
once air is in the lungs, air passes from the bronchus into the
bronchiole
Histamine which is released during an allergic reaction increases resistance by _______and increasing the secretion of _____
bronchoconstriction, secretion of mucus
CO2 affects the radius of bronchioles by causing ________when its concentration increases and _______ when its concentration decreases
bronchodilation , bronchoconstriction
Ventilation results from ______of air
bulk flow
metastasis
cancer migration to other areas
from the interstitial space air then passes into the
capillary basement membrane
from the capillary basement membrane air then passes into the
capillary endothelium
from the blood plasma, air then goes into
capillary membrane
interstitial space air is transported into the
capillary membrane
This decrease in the affinity of Hb for oxygen in the presence of CO2 is called the
carbamino effect.
Co2 can bind to Hb to form
carbaminohemoglobin Hb + CO2 <--- ----> HbCO2
The decrease in CO2 causes bicarbonate in the erythrocyte to bind with H+ to form
carbonic acid
in turn carbonic acid is converted into CO2 and H2O by
carbonic anhydrase.
peripheral chemoreceptor centers are located in
carotid bodies (all mammals have these)
from the capillary membrane air is transported into the
cell cytoplasm
an increase in hydrogen ions in the CSF directly stimulate the
central chemoreceptors
the Hb buffer resits to
change (adjusts)
Lung compliance is equal to the change in ______ over the change in _____
change in volume over change in transpulmonary pressure ---> DeltaV / Delta(Palveolar- Pintrapleural)
aortic bodies
chemoreceptors; one to three in walls of aortic arch; same function as carotid bodies
acidosis can lead to
coma
Which, when clogged, are most likely to cause choking death?
common pharynx
from the nasal pharynx air then passes into the
common pharynx
from the oral cavity, air the passes into the
common pharynx (as in air from nose)
The gases diffuse down their ________ and leave at the same partial pressures as the gases in the _______
concentration gradients
Partial pressure are like
concentrations
Partial pressures and fluid relates
concentrations
The binding of one molecule of O2 to hemoglobin causes a ______in the hemoglobin
conformational change
The diaphragm is convex so that it can
contract and expand to create negative pressure to bring air in
during active expiration, the _____ and ____ contract and volume of thoracic cavity _____
contraction of expiratory muscles (internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles) volume of thoracic cavity decreases
the most common lethal inherited disease
cystic fibrosis (CF)
Both of these factors tend to _____ the lung compliance.
decrease
Expiratory muscles _____ volume of thoracic cavity
decrease
The expansion of the thoracic cavity during inspiration causes intrapleural pressure to
decrease
increased metabolic rate causes higher temperature which causes a _____in O2 taffinity
decrease - remember a decrease in Hb affinity for O2 is a RIGHT shift
During inspiration both forces act to ______resistance while during expiration resistance _______
decrease, increases
Respiratory alkalosis is a decrease in blood acidity due to
decreased CO2.
In lungs, O2 ______ the affinity for CO2
decreases
The binding of O2 to hemoglobin _______ the affinity of Hb for CO2.
decreases
The increase in the volume of the alveoli that accompanies the expansion of the lungs ______ intra-alveolar pressure
decreases
as pH decreases (more hydrogen ions) , the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
decreases
in response to high altitude, oxygen
decreases
If you expand the lungs, pressure ______on lungs, ______opens , air moves ______ the lungs
decreases (negative pressure), air passages open, air moves into lungs
When the smooth muscle of the bronchioles contract (bronchoconstriction) the radius of the bronchioles _____ and the resistance ______
decreases, increases.
as 2,3-DPG concentration increases, the affinity of Hb for oxygen
decreases.
PC regulates DRG by
decreasing ramp slope or duration
the cause of CF
defect in a single gene, chromosome 7 that affects the transmembrane conductance regulatory protein; causing disfunction of the Cl- movement across cell membranes into the lungs
Hb refers to
deoxyhemoglobin
why is there excess capillary length in the pulmonary capillaries when only 33% is needed?
depends on rate of activity - length of capillary is reserved for maximum performance (life or death)
treatment for decompression sickness
depressurize very slowly
average Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
2200 mL
At rest the tissue takes only about _____% of the O2 transported in the blood.
25
CO will bind to Hb _____ more times than O2 will bind to Hb
250 more times
only 1.5 % of oxygen in arterial blood is dissolved in plasma, which is about
3.0 mL out of 200 mL total (1.5%)
Average Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
3000 mL
average inspiratory capacity
3500 mL
left shift, PO2 becomes
40 mm Hg
partial pressure of oxygen in systemic veins and pulmonary arteries
40 mm Hg
pressure of co2 in alveoli air, pulmonary veins, and systemic arteries
40 mm Hg
PO2 in the tissues
40 mmHg
PO2 of venous blood
40 mmHg
When air enters the systemic capillaries, PO2 becomes
40 mmHg
At rest, the typical values in the venous system are a PO2 of _____ mm Hg and PCO2 of ____ mm Hg
40, 46
average vital capacity
4500 ml
partial pressure of co2 in systemic veins and pulmonary arteries
46 mm Hg
____ % of carbon dioxide is transported in dissolved plasma
5-6%
______ % of carbon dioxide exists as carbaminohemoglobin (in which it CO2 binds to Hb)
5-8%
average tidal volume
500 mL (0.5 L) - normally 350 mL (0.35 L)
shift right, PO2 becomes
55 mm Hg
average total lung capacity
5700 mL
what is the difference in mmHg of the partial pressures of CO2 between the tissues and the arteries
6 mmHg
Peripheral chemoreceptors also respond to arterial PO2 but only when arterial PO2 drops below ______ mm Hg. This is an extreme drop that usually does not occur.
60
Tension Pneumothorax: More commonly seen and occurs from an ______ rupture of lung air sacs
INSIDE -Loss of pleural sac -4 mm Hg results in collapsed (elastic) lung. Escaping air from lungs makes positive pressure in pleural sac
oxygen composition of air
21%
During inspiration, the intrapulmonary pressure is ____ than atmospheric pressure, the diaphragm _____, the external instercostal muscles ______and the chest wall and lungs_____, sternum moves _____
- intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure - diaphragm contracts -chest cavity expands - expansion of ribs moves sternum upwards and outwards
what two factors affect pulmonary ventilation
- lung compliance - airway resistance
the respiratory membrane is composed of type _____epithelial cells of the alveolar walls, ________cells of capillaries and the _____ sandwiched between them.
- type I epithelial of alveolar walls - endothelial of cap - basement membranes sandwiched btwn
when intra-alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure it is considered to be at _____mm Hg.
0
The Gas Composition of Air assumes, _____ percent humidity, but water and humidity can still be a factor
0%
PCO2 =
0.003 x 760 → 0.23 mm Hg
Air is only _____% CO2
0.03 %
How thin are alveoli?
0.2 mm in diameter
PO2 =
0.21 x 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg
Equilibration occurs in ____ sec
0.25
Diffusion is a very rapid process taking about _____seconds or within the first ____ of the capillary length in the alveoli.
0.25 sec 33% of cap length in alveoli
partial pressures of carbon dioxide in a room is
0.3 mm Hg
PN2 =
0.79 x 760 mm Hg = 600 mm Hg
CF effects 1 in _____ people, especially northern europeans
1 in 2500
why are the partial pressure of O2 and CO2 different in the atm and in the alveoli (3)
1. Exchanges of gas between alveoli and capillaries. 2. Mixing of atmospheric air with air of anatomic dead spaces. 3. Saturation of alveoli air with water vapor.
Resistance to airflow is affected by (3)
1. Passive forces exerted on the airways. 2. Smooth muscles in bronchioles 3. Secretion of mucous into airways
PO2 of arterial blood
100 mm Hg
pressure of oxygen in alveoli air, pulmonary veins, and systemic arteries (arterial system)
100 mm Hg
the air then enters the lungs and pulmonary capillaries, where PO2 is
100 mmHg
when you inhale air, PO2 becomes
100 mmHg (alveolar air)
When four oxygen molecules are bound to the molecule, it is said to be
100% saturated
When oxygenated blood enters the tissue the PO2 is _____ mm Hg and that of PCO2 is ____mm Hg.
100, 40
average exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
1000 mL
average residual volume (RV)
1200 mL
cancer is ____ times more likely for a light user of cigarettes, _____ times more likely if heavy and after 10 years of quitting it is only ____ times more likely than the normal rate
15, 64, 1.1
partial pressures of oxygen in a room is
160 mm Hg
PO2 of air outside
160 mmHg
Other 98.5 % of oxyen is transported in arterial blood is transported by Hb, which is
197 mL out of 200 mL
Carbon dioxide is about _______ more soluble than oxygen in water (and blood)
20 x
To maintain a pH of 7.4 the ratio of bicarbonate to carbon dioxide should remain at a _____ to ____ ratio
20:1
Acidosis causes
CNS over excitement
Alkalosis causes
CNS over-excitation
Hb serves as a buffer for the increase in H ion resulting from
CO2
The PO2 affects the ability of the blood to carry
CO2
When H+ increases in the blood it combines with HCO3- to form
CO2
While hydrogen ion are not able to cross the blood brain barrier, ____ can
CO2
increased metabolic activity leads to increased
CO2
in the force for air flow equation, ___ is constant
P atm
Laplace's Law: the air pressure (P) necessary to prevent the collapse of an alveolus is ______ proportional to the surface tension (T) and _______ proportional to the alveolus's radius (r)
P directly proportional to surface tension P inversely proportional to radius
Changes in ______ are primary stimuli for changes in ventilation under normal conditions
PCO2
The main cause of decreases in pH is an increase in
PCO2.
Spirometry is a type of ___________ ________________ test.
Pulmonary Function Test
________stimulation causes relaxation of smooth muscle (bronchodilation) while _______ stimulation causes contraction (bronchoconstriction).
Sympathetic, parasympathetic
causes about 3 million deaths worldwide each year (about 2 million people estimated infected at this time)
TB
example of compliance decreases from thickening of lung tissue
TB
Surfacant decreases surface tension, therefore lowering ____ and ____ in Laplace's Law equation
Temperature and Pressure
What is total lung volume
Vt + ERV+ IRV + RV
At 100 mmHg partial pressure in water [O2] in water is _____, and the [CO2] in water is _____
[O2] in water is 0.15 mMoles/liter [CO2] in water is 3.0 mMoles/liter
Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation
pulmonary pressure and mechanics of breathing
The impact of surface tension on lung compliance is lessened by ______
pulmonary surfactant
external respiration involves ______
pulmonary ventilation
movement of air in and out of the lungs.
pulmonary ventilation
During _______ breathing the breathing cycle consists in the contraction of the inspiratory muscles followed by relaxation of the same muscle during expiration
quiet
The rapidness of the rate of diffusion is due to the
relative thinness of the respiratory membrane.
this passive process of expiration refers to, the relaxing of the ______ muscles, the relaxation of the ____, the recoil of ______ and _____, and a ______ in the volume of the thoracic cavity
relaxation of external intercostal muscles relaxation of diaphragm ( external intercostal muscles and diaphragm make up inspiratory muscles) recoil of lungs and chest wall decrease in volume of thoracic cavity
during exercise, PO2 and PCO2
remains nearly normal because of respiratory regulation
Cheyne-Stokes respiration
repeated breathing pattern characterized by fluctuation in the depth of respiration: first deeply, then shallow, then not at all
the Hb buffer acts as a
reserve
Some partial pressure for O2 is lost in the
residual space of lungs and tissues - depends on activity levels
which cannot be measured by Spirometry
residual volume
The volume of air remaining after a maximum expiration
residual volume (RV)
in the mitochondrion, ____ occurs
respiration
the process of gas exchange and occurs on two levels:
respiration
Respiratory disturbances that change [CO2] can result in acid-base imbalances such as
respiratory acidosis and alkalosis
blood pH is regulated by ____ and ____ systems
respiratory and renal systems
from the terminal bronchiole air then passes into the
respiratory bronchiole
which part of the pathway consists of the respiratory unit
respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, and alveoli