Respiratory System

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VRG has _____ mechanisms

"overdrive" mechanisms (to abdominal muscles)

partial pressure is analogous to

% concentration

Alveolar PO2 and PCO2 are determined by: (3)

1. PO2 and PCO2 of inspired air. 2. Minute alveolar ventilation. 3. Rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.

what two factors determine intra-alveolar pressure:

1. the quantity (moles) of air molecules in the alveoli 2. the volume of the alveoli

a decrease in blood PO2 causes an increase in

AP firing rate

what is an example of how small changes in pH can have large effects

Alter protein activity

What secretes surfactant

Alveolar Type II cells

pneumotaxic center (PC) is associated with the ____ center

Apneustic center

arrow to the right

Association

There are four primary pressures associated with ventilation

Atmospheric Pressure Intra-Alveolar Pressure Intrapleural Pressure Transpulmonary Pressure

acidosis causes

CNS depression

the Bohr effect has the same effect as _____ on binding properties

CO2

the respiratory system regulates

CO2

which is the primary trigger for central chemoreceptors in the medulla

CO2

hemoglobin serves as a buffer for the increase in H ion resulting from

CO2 in the lungs: HbH > H+ + Hb Hb + O2 > HbO2

the equation for the production of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O is

CO2 + H2O <-- --> H2CO3 <-- --> H+ + HCO3- *** H2CO3 = carbonic acid

Which is more soluble in blood CO2 or O2?

CO2 is 20x more soluble - however still needs help transporting

Bicarbonate can regulate pH by regulating

CO2 levels

Which is more soluble CO2 or O2?

CO2, more CO2 will move in and out of fluid than O2 (equal amounts need different pressure gradients to move)

the capillaries in the lungs drop off _____ and pick up _____

CO2, oxygen

an increase in arterial PCO2 causes an increase in PCO2 in the

CSF

how does an increase in CO2 lead to an increase in H+ ions

Carbon dioxide is converted to H ion and bicarbonate ion by carbonic anhydrase in the CSF.

As bicarbonate levels in the erythrocyte increase, bicarbonate ions are transported out of the erythrocyte in exchange for

Cl- referred to as the chloride shift

are symptoms of asthma and increased resistance

Compensations (decreased pressure) -Hypertension is not the problem, but an attempt to overcome the overlying issue

whether the arrow favors the left or the rights depends on

Depends if oxygen is in a gradient

in Sympathetic stimulation, what causes bronchodilation.

Epinephrine: increases ventilation by causing airway smooth muscles to relax.

neurons which generate action potentials during expiration.

Expiratory

the volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a tidal expiration

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

What is Boyle's law

Gas pressure is inversely related to the volume

Carbonic acid reversibly disassociates to

H+ + bicarbonate

the kidneys regulate

HCO3-

why must the nose be small and the mouth larger?

Hairs is nose, nose more convoluted, nose is useful for humidity, warming, and filtering For every advantage there is a disadvantage (evolution)

This phenomenon is called the

Haldane Effect.

Deoxygenation of the blood increases its ability to carry carbon dioxide; this property is the Haldane effect. Conversely, oxygenated blood has a reduced capacity for carbon dioxide.

Haldane effect

oxygen binding to hemoglobin equation

Hb + O2 <--- ---> Hb x O2

the Bohr effect can be expressed by the equation

Hb + O2 <-----> Hb-O2 + H+

The relationship between CO2 and acidity is described by the

Henderson-Hasselbach equation:

neurons generate action potentials during inspiration.

Inspiratory

the maximum volume of air that can be inspired at the end of a resting expiration

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

The maximum volume of air that can be inspired at the end of a normal inspiration.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

intrinsic control

Internal, personal process that controls or motivates an individual's behavior (local chemical mediators)

pressure inside pleural sac

Intrapleural Pressure

surfacant lowers ____ and prevents alveoli from _____

Lowers surface tension, preventing alveoli from collapsing

Total amount of "new" air that flows in and out of respiratory system in a minute

Minute Ventilation (alveolar ventilation) -normal breathing rate

CO is a competitive inhibitor of

O2

in the pulmonary capillaries, O2 is ______ and CO2 is ______

O2 is picked up and CO2 is delivered out of the RBCs into the alveoli

the O2 Hb dissociation curve is reversible::

O2+ Hb <---- -----> Hb +O2

Trauma in Pneumothorax occurs from an _______puncture of pleural sac

OUTSIDE

in the systemic capillaries, oxygen is _____ and CO2 is _____

Oxygen is delivered and CO2 is picked up by the RBCs

Laplace's Law

P = 2T/r

The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin depends upon the

PO2 in the surrounding fluid.

PO2 in the normal curve (when oxygen saturation of Hb is 80%) is

PO2 normal is 45 mmHg

peripheral chemoreceptors respond to changes in arterial

PO2, PCO2 or pH

transpulmonary pressure

Palv - Pip

when you exercise, you metabolize, causing pH to _____ and CO2 to _____

Ph decrease and CO2 increases (due to using more O2)

are important for the binding of gases to hemoglobin and for transport

RBCs

from the blood plasma air then goes into the

RBCs

the from the target tissue, air goes into

RBCs

hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve

The curve that shows percent saturation of hemoglobin as a function of PO2

law of mass action

The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants

How thick is the respiratory membrane?

The respiratory membrane averages 0.2 μm in thickness

pulmonary surfactant is secreted by

Type II alveolar cells.

once the central respiratory center is stimulated, _____ increases

Ventilation

the right bronchus is more _____shaped while left is more _____shaped

Y , T

the effect of the nonfunctioning Cl- transport channel in the lungs

abnormally thick, viscous from drier secretions

CO2 levels affect blood and body _____ and ____ levels

acid and base levels - critical in renal and respiratory system

an increase in PCO2 makes the blood more

acidic --> due to increase of hydrogen ions (decrease in CO2, causes alkalosis)

excessive acidity of body fluids refers to

acidosis

As the PO2 increases the hemoglobin molecule

acquires at least one molecule of O2

A more forceful expiration results from ______expiration.

active

During______ breathing the expiratory muscles contract during the expiration phase.

active

factors produced in ______ cause a right shift

active tissues - increased PO2 in tissues

peripheral chemoreceptors communicate with ________ neurons that project to the medullary respiratory control regions.

afferent

during functional residual capacity (FRC), no _____is moving into or out of the lungs during this time.

air

External respiration involves the exchange of gases by diffusion between _____ and _____

air and blood

Why do you have RV? What is its advantage?

allows you to have air left over if you need to hold your breath - ex: smoke from a fire:, no air left to breath, reserve volume allows you to have air

from the respiratory bronchiole air then passes into the

alveolar ducts

from the fluid and surfactant layer air passes into the

alveolar epithelium

Diaphramic contractions produces changes in

alveolar pressures

______ controls the amount of volatile or gaseous anesthetic agent that can diffuse into the bloodstream.

alveolar ventilation

intrapleural pressure is always ______ than intra-alveolar pressure and is always ______ during normal breathing.

always less than intra-alveolar pressure always negative

an increase in ventilation leads to

an increase in oxygen

an increase in temperature causes a decrease in affinity for oxygen because

an increase in temperature causes O2 to unload more easily in more active tissue where it is needed

this decrease in oxygen triggers

an increase in ventilation

Air flow in the lungs continues until intra-alveolar pressure equals

atmospheric pressure

The pressure gradient between _______ and ______ causes air to flow into the lungs.

atmospheric pressure and intra-alveolar pressure (Patm - Palv)

Most of the CO2 is converted to _____ and _____ by carbonic anhydrase in the erythrocytes.

bicarbonate and H+

When CO2 increases this reaction goes in reverse to form

bicarbonate and the hydrogen ion. HCO3- + H+ <-- --> H2CO3 <-- --> Co2 + H2O

_____ can also act as a buffer

bicarbonate ions

The H+ left behind in the erythrocyte is buffered by

binding to hemoglobin

External respiration involves the transportation of gases by _______.

blood

internal respiration involves the exchange of gases between the cells of ______ and the cells of the ______

blood and body (tissues)

CO2 in the cell tissue first travels into the

blood stream

the decreases affinity for hemoglobin when pH decreases is explained by the

bohr effect

Why is lung-to-blood interface so complicated?

both gas exchange with fluids does not work well and air to/from fluid diffusion is tricky

high altitude can cause

breathing problems

Both central and peripheral chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in pH but the ______ chemoreceptors are not exposed to H+ from sources other than CO2 because of the blood-brain barrier.

central

This negative pressure of intrapleural pressure results from the ______forces exerted on the intrapleural space by the chest wall and the lungs.

elastic

pressure =

force/area

2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG) is produced from an intermediate compound in

glycolysis

where does the right side of the equation, H2CO3 <-- --> H+ + HCO3- take place

in the lungs

At the end of oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport, and the waste (CO2) goes into the ______ into the bloodstream

in the opposite direction

where does the left side of the equation, CO2 + H2O <-- --> H2CO3 take place

in the tissues

the effect of emphysema

incomplete walls form between adjacent alveoli; leads to non-functional air spaces

During _______, alveolar volume increases and intra-alveolar pressure falls causing air molecules to enter down the pressure gradient created by the inspiration. The air flow stops when pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure (0 mm Hg)

inspiration

This center may facilitate the transition between

inspiration and expiration.

then from common pharynx (air from nose and mouth initially) air then passes into the

larynx

The greater the lung compliance the ____ the work necessary to bring in a given volume of air.

less

During inspiration intra-alveolar pressure is_____than atmospheric pressure.

less - negative

Greater tension →

less compliant

More elastic →

less compliant

partial pressure of oxygen in cells of tissues (venous system)

less than 40 mm Hg - delivering oxygen to the cells of tissues

the fact that intra-alveolar pressure and is always negative refers to is being _____ than atmospheric pressure

less than P atm

thus, the body must make _____ to regulate breathing at high altitude

long term adaptations

At low partial pressures the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 is

low

2,3-diphosphoglycerate is synthesized under what condition

low oxygen

During quiet breathing (eupnea) airway resistance in the conducting zone is _____ and a pressure gradient of _____than 2 mm Hg is required to maintain sufficient air flow

low, less

HbO2 has a ____ affinity for O2 than Hb does for O2

lower

greater metabolic activist results in

lower PO2 and higher PCO2.

the air is composed of mostly

nitrogen and oxygen (more nitrogen)

the effect of the movement of high to low air pressures

nitrogen come out of solution forming bubbles. These nitrogen bubbles forms at joints causing great pain ("bends" the body) and can permanently damage , even kill PN2 >>>> PO2 + PCO2

do humans have aortic bodies

no

The_______ of a gas is the proportion of pressure contributed by an individual gas to the total pressure of a mixture of gases

partial pressure

The ______ is the most important factor affecting resistance.

radius of the airways

The inspiratory neurons show a ______ in activity during inspiration followed by an

ramp increase, abrupt termination.

pneumotaxic center (PC) corresponds to

rate and pattern

Fick's Law

rate of diffusion proportional to surface area and partial pressure gas gradient -D is proportional to: (delta P x A x S) / ( d x square root of MW)

The central pattern generator for breathing is reflexively controlled by various types of

receptors

Active expiration is due to

skeletal muscles and ATP (energy)

____ changes in pH have large effects

small

a _______fraction of air is exchanged during inhalation / exhalation

small

An increase in PO2 results in a ______in percent saturation.

small increase

in lung compliance, ______changes in trans-pulmonary pressure are needed to bring in a given volume of air

smaller

assuming no barrier, will diffusing molecules go in all direction equally?

sometimes (depends upon the barrier)

is diffusion a random process

sometimes (gradients involved)

The positive cooperativity causes the -_____ part of the curve as the PO2 goes from 15 mm Hg to 60 mm Hg.

steep

only a small concentration of CO will

suffocate you (headache and sleepiness) (0.1% in air)

The tension resisting these elastic forces is the ______tension of the pleural fluid.

surface

Surfacant secreted from type II cells reduces

surface tension (resistance to lung inflation)

Laplace's Law relates

surface tension in lungs

Compliance decreases in loss of

surfactant

what happens to the alveoli without surfacant

they collapse

Compliance decreases if lung tissue

thickens

the cause of lung cancer

tumors in the various epithelial cell linings (cigarettes contain varieties of carcinogens)

Ventral Respiratory Group contains ____ regions of expiratory neurons and _____region of inspiratory neuron

two, one

type ___ alveolar cells are secretory cells

type 2 (surfactant)

type ___ alveolar cells are a single layer of epithelial cells

type I

the wall of the alveoli is formed from two types of cells

type I and type II

Alkalosis leads to

uncontrollable muscle seizures and convulsions.

These first three factors work together to promote O2 ________ in respiring tissues and O2 ______ in the lungs.

unloading in the tissues, loading in the lungs

in a pneumothorax, th pleural sac loses its _____, lung cannot expand, no longer connected

vacuum,

This refers to the resistance of the entire system of airways in the respiratory tract

Airway Resistance

The build up of excess base (lack of acids) in the body fluids.

Alkalosis

_______catalyzes the reaction that converts CO2 and H2O to carbonic acid.

Carbonic anhydrase

What is Fick's Law

Diffusion will occur with pressure/concentration gradient

arrow to the left

Disassociation

A symptom of decompression sickness is _______ or deep pain in the muscles and joints

"the bends"

Forces for air flow equation

(Patm - Palv) / R

Anatomy of Respiratory System: Asymmetry in lungs: _____

(right and left bronchus)

At rest intrapleural pressure in the pleural sac is _____mm Hg

- 4

To overcome surface tension, surfacant.. (2)

- Surfactant secreted from type II cells - Surfactant increases lung compliance

even though diffusion is an otherwise random / passive process, there will be a net movement of molecules due to diffusion if

- a concentration gradient exists - (or in the case of gas molecules), a pressure gradient exists

what is the difference in mmHg of the partial pressures of oxygen between the tissues and the arteries

60 mm Hg

Normal blood pH =

7.4 (range 7.38 -7.42)

normal blood pH =

7.4 (range = 7.38-7.42)

At the PO2 of the systemic veins of 40 mmHg the hemoglobin is ____% saturated

75

"1 atm" of pressure =

760 mm Hg

PN2 + PO2 =

760 mmHg

Nitrogen composition of air

79%

Above a PO2 of ______ mm Hg the slope of the curve becomes nearly flat.

80

_____ % of carbon dioxide is converted and dissolved as H2CO3 (bicarbonate)

86-90%

if atmospheric O2 is too high (well how much more saturated can you get than 99 %) And as you ascend a high mountain top and Po2 drops to half normal, you are still binding _____% O2

90% (still at 90% saturation of O2)

At the PO2 of the systemic arteries of 100 mm Hg the hemoglobin is ______% saturated.

98

Acidosis = blood pH of

< 7.35

volume in the chest wall and pleural cavity

= 15 mL

Alkalosis = blood pH of

> 7.45

in parasympathetic stimulation, what causes bronchoconstriction

ACh

The ______ and the ______ muscles are the primary inspiratory muscles

diaphragm, external intercostal

Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume can be measured _____ and residual volume can be measured ____

directly, indirectly.

transpulmonary pressure is ______ pressure across lung wall

distending

increase in trans-pulmonary pressure causes an increase in ______across lungs and increases in in alveoli, causing lungs (alveoli) to _____

distending pressure , volume, expand

diffusion very important because it

does not require the energy

Two respiratory centers in the medulla include:

dorsal and ventral group

Linger noses evolved for environment that are dry and cold

dry and cold - evolved more recently

there is a pleural sac around

each lung

intrapleural pressure varies with

each phase of respiration

increase in lung compliance from surfacant makes inspiration

easier

Both the chest wall and lungs are

elastic

passive expiration is due to the

elastic properties of the lungs

Lung compliance depends on the ______ of the lungs and the _____of the liquid in the alveoli.

elasticity and surface tension

effects 2 out 3 of adult males (1/4 females) exhibit detectable areas of the lungs

emphysema

exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) measures from the

end of normal expiration to the end of maximum expiration

tidal volume (Vt) measures the difference in volume from the

end of normal inspiration to the end of normal expiration

DRG has _______ ________ of "ramped" AP firing rate output

endogenous biorhythm

To establish these gradients, ______is required

energy

Partial pressure of a gas = proportion of pressure of______that is due to presence of the ______

entire gas , individual gas

the curve will shift to the right or left depending on

environment

from the alveolar epithelium, air passes into the

epithelial basement membrane

at rest, At rest intra-alveolar pressure is _____ atmospheric pressure.

equal to

The oxygen bound to hemoglobin is in ______ with the oxygen dissolved in plasma

equilibrium

As CO2 increases in the tissues it goes down its concentration gradient into the plasma and into the

erythrocyte

CO2 can be converted to bicarbonate by _______ then transported in the plasma

erythrocytes

pressure gradients are directed but partial pressures are

established

When the respiratory drive increases, as during ______, the inspiratory neurons contribute to enhanced inspiration and the expiratory neurons stimulate the muscles that increase the force of expiration.

exercise

The increase in transpulmonary pressure causes the lungs to

expand

the force of transpulmonary pressure operates across the walls of the lungs and causes the lungs to .

expand

During ______, alveolar volume decreases and intra-alveolar pressure increases causing air molecules to leave down a pressure gradient in the reverse direction until the pressure returns to 0 mm Hg.

expiration

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) is the sum of

expiratory reserve volume and residual volume

The maximum volume of air that can be expired at the end of a normal expiration.

exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

two levels of respiration

external and internal

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and body tissues.

external respiration

Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle is subject to both ______(neural and hormonal signals) and ______ (local chemical mediators) control.

extrinsic and intrinsic

Intrapleural pressure: pressure that occurs in the between inside the lung and outside the lung

fluid

from the alveoli, air passes into the

fluid and surfactant layer

the respiratory membrane consists of

fluid and surfactant layer, alveolar epithelium, epithelial basement membrane, interstitial space, capillary basement membrane, and capillary endothelium

Surface tension =

force for alveoli to collapse or resist expansion

This conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate and H+ maintains a pressure gradient favoring the diffusion of CO2

from the tissue into the blood.

Between breaths, when the lungs are at rest, the volume of air in the lungs is called the

functional residual capacity (FRC) Palv = Patm

Ability to dissolve depends on properties of _____ and _____

gas and liquid

Gas molecules can exist in _____ or ______

gas form or dissolved liquid

Many _____ (like "air") are mixtures of different molecules bouncing around

gases

Hb in blood "buffers" tissue O2 levels because tissue will give up O2 if ________ (not likely) and will extract O 2 if _______

give up O2 is the tissues have too much extract O2 if they need more

The partial pressure of a gas affects the amount of gas that

goes into solution

The higher the PO2 the ____ the binding.

greater

Deoxyhemoglobin has a ______ affinity for H ions than oxyhemoglobin as described by the Bohr effect.

greater - Hb + H+ <-- --> HbH

Deoxyhemoglobin has a ________ affinity for H ions than oxyhemoglobin as described by the Bohr effect

greater - in the tissues: HbO2 > O2 + Hb Hb + H+ > HbH

partial pressure of co2 in cells of tissues

greater than 40 mm Hg

Transportation pathway: lungs → _____ → ______

heart --> all tissues

The oxygen is transported bound to the ____portions of the hemoglobin molecule.

heme

Forces for air flow equation is very similar to the ______equation

hemodynamics (blood flow) equation

Some but not all CO2 are associated with

hemoglobin

The tissues have a lower partial pressure of oxygen because of

higher oxygen utilization and a higher carbon dioxide concentration because of higher carbon dioxide production.

two examples of instrinsic control

histamine and CO2

A spirometer measures

how much air is exhaled from the lungs and how fast it is exhaled.

central chemoreceptors are neurons that respond directly to changes in

hydrogen ion concentration within the CSF

Hemoglobin can bind or release ______.

hydrogen ions Hb + H+ <---- -----> HbH

when oxygen binds to Hb, _____ are released

hydrogen ions Hb + O2 <--- ---> HbO2 + H+

an increase in PCO2 in the CSF leads to an increase in

hydrogen ions in the CSF

Hemoglobin can bind or release

hydrogen ions.

Following a heart attack and loss of oxygen, a person will likely be

in an irreversible persistent vegetative state

Any increase in alveolar ventilation will _______anesthetic uptake into the pulmonary blood.

increase

Inspiratory muscles ______ the volume of thoracic cavity

increase

The central chemoreceptors cause a ______ in ventilation

increase

This decrease in volume of thoracic cavity causes an _______ in intra-alveolar pressure

increase

according to the law of mass action, an increase in CO2 causes an ______ in bicarbonate and hydrogen ions

increase

an increase in CO2 causes hydrogen ions to

increase

this decrease in intrapleural pressure causes an _______in the transpulmonary pressure

increase

hydrogen ions____ in more active tissue

increase (pH decreases)

peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated by a decrease in _______, an increase in ______, and a decrease in ______

increase in arterial PO2 (< 60 mmHg), a decrease in arterial PCO2, and a decrease in pH

Respiratory acidosis is an increase in blood acidity due to

increased CO2.

the curve shifts to the right under increased ____ to _____ concentrations

increased hydrogen ion or CO2 concentrations -pH and CO2 relationship - this is the Bohr effect

Conversely, a decrease in PO2 ________ the binding of CO2 to hemoglobin.

increases

If airway resistance _____, a much larger pressure gradient is needed to maintain a given airflow.

increases

Surfactant ______ lung compliance

increases

this conformational changes that occurs _____ the affinity of the remaining subunits for oxygen

increases -positive cooperativity

tissue will receive O2 under greater PO2 (55-45 = 10), thus oxygen in the tissues ______

increases - need more O2 if CO2 increases

When alveolar ventilation increases relative to oxygen consumption alveolar PO2 ________ and PCO2 _______.

increases , decreases - and vice versa

Unlike peripheral chemoreceptors, the central chemoreceptors are ______ stimulated by an increase in CO2

indirectly

example of compliance decreases from loss of surfacant

infant respiratory distress syndrome.

the cause of pneumonia

infection of the lobules of the lung, from bacterial or fungal infestation

the effect off the lungs becoming infected

inflammation and deterioration of function, fluid leakage into the alveoli, swelling and or constriction of the respiratory bronchioles.

treatment for Tension Pneumothorax:

insert needle into pleural sac and watch the ait in the pleural sac (under positive pressure) escaped out. Lung reinflates (usually)

Treatment for Trauma in Pneumothorax

insert tube into pleural sac and apply vacuum to re-establish -4mm Hg and then patch up

Dorsal Respiratory Group contains primarily

inspiratory neurons

the larger the lung compliance the easier it is to

inspire

the _____ and _____ muscles are the primary expiratory muscles.

internal intercostal and abdominal

The use of oxygen by the mitochondria to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation with production of carbon dioxide as a waste product.

internal respiration (cellular respiration)

from the capillary membrane air then goes into the

interstitial space

from the epithelial basement membrane air then passes into the

interstitial space

From the nasal cavity, air next passes

into the nasal pharynx

The changes in ______ pressure creates the pressure gradient that causes air to flow into and out of the lungs.

intra-alveolar

pressure of air in alveoli

intra-alveolar pressure

the increase in transpulmonary pressure is due to the difference between the _____ and _____

intra-alveolar pressure and the intrapleural pressure (Palv - Pip).

Intrapleural space filled with

intrapleural fluid

Hence, the elastic forces are trying to open the

intrapleural space

The lung walls are stretched and the elastic forces are pulling them

inward

body uses diffusion whenever possible because

it is "cheap and for free" - Gradients are set up, second law of thermodynamics = nature hates gradients

if a person consumed diazepam with alcohol while on a crash diet , this person is likely to be

lapsed into a coma

When CO2 binds to Hb, it ______ the affinity for O2

lowers

accounts for more than 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the US

lung cancer (pleuropulmonary neoplasm)

sums of two or more lung volumes

lung capacity

a measure of the ease with which the lungs can be stretched

lung compliance -Single rubber band has more compliance than ten rubber bands

the effect of lung cancer

lung malfunction --> death if severe or after metastasis

In pneumothorax, the ______collapses and the ______ expands

lung, thoracic wall

Hb in blood also buffers the O2 levels in the

lungs

from the blood stream, CO2 reaches the

lungs

once air enters the right and left bronchus, air is now in the

lungs

CO2 plays an important role in

maintaining acid-base balance.

Dorsal Respiratory Group is located in the

medulla

central chemoreceptors are located in the

medulla

Respiratory control regions are present in the _____ and _____

medulla and pons of the brainstem

in the thoracic Cavity, the pleural is the

membrane lining of lungs and chest wall

during the breathing pathologies, Cheyne-Stokes, breathing lasts about a

minute

RBC in alveoli is pumped through entire circulatory system all the way into the tissues into the ______where oxygen is used

mitochondria (respiratory oxidative phosphorylation)

from the cell cytoplasm air is transported into the

mitochondrion

During expiration intra-alveolar pressure is_____than atmospheric pressure.

more -positive

Anatomy of Respiratory System: Asymmetry in _______symmetry in _____

mouth, nose

Cause of decompression sickness

movement from high to low air pressures (surfacing scuba divers, loss of cabin pressure)

alveolar ventilation

movement of air into and out of the alveoli

when are you asthma, mucus _____ and causes obstruction of ____

mucus increases, obstructing the bronchioles

The movement of air into and out of the alveoli is due to the changes in the volume of the thoracic cavity produced by the

muscles of ventilation

cause of TB

mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Arterial pH affects the pH of body tissues hence it is necessary to regulate blood pH within_______around the normal of 7.4

narrow limits

Why is it useful to have two different pathways into the common pharynx?

nasal and oral → redundancy is good, if nose gets clogged, can still breathe through mouth

from the nostrils air goes into the

nasal cavity

this process is a ____ feedback

negative

this process is a _______ feedback

negative

the pleural sac must have _____ pressure in order to function

negative -Partial vacuum, vacuums are negative pressures

Since there are four binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule the number of oxygen molecules on a hemoglobin molecule ranges from

none to four

the pathway of respiration starts in the ____ or the _____

nose or the mouth

from the mouth, air passes first into the

oral cavity

Contraction of expiratory muscles creates greater and faster

outflow of air (expirations)

from the lungs, CO2 reaches the

outside

the anatomy/pathway of respiration goes from ___ to ____ and ____

outside to the cytoplasm and then back

The chest wall is compressed and the elastic forces are pulling it

outward

centrally, ____ has no effect

oxygen

ventilation is all about

oxygen

increased CO2 leads to increased

oxygen unloading in active tissue

hydrogen ions binding to Hb increases the likelihood that

oxygen will be released into the systemic capillaries of the tissues - active tissue produces H+, increasing oxygen unloading in tissue

In lungs : _____ goes into circulation,_____ goes out of circulation into lungs and then exhaled as waste

oxygen, CO2

the capillaries in the tissues drop off _____ and pick up _____

oxygen, CO2

At high oxygen levels, _______ inhibits the enzyme that synthesizes 2,3-DPG and 2,3-DPG levels decrease.

oxyhemoglobin

HbO2 refers to

oxyhemoglobin

The Henderson-Hasselbach equation:

pH = 6.1 + log [HCO3-]/[CO2]

In more active tissue pH ______ and O2 is ______

pH decreases and oxygen is more easily unloaded.

Both vaporized and dissolved gases exert

partial pressures

Concentrations and gases relates

partial pressures

in this room, is the Po2 is 160 mm Hg and Pco2 is 0.3 mm Hg, what makes up the rest

partial pressures in - alveoli air - pulmonary veins - systemic arteries - cells - systemic veins - pulmonary arteries

During normal breathing expiration is a ________ process

passive

Only the ________ chemoreceptors are sensitive to O2

peripheral

intra-alveolar pressure varies with

phase of respiration (ventilation)

severe coughing and problems with breathing

pneumonia

Respiratory Center of Pons

pneumotaxic center (PC)

This center contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons and mixed neurons that control both inspiratory and expiratory neurons

pneumotaxic center (PC)

If the integrity of the airtight space in intrapleural space is compromised by trauma (gunshot or knife wound) or disease (pneumonia or emphysema) air enters this space and the condition is called

pneumothorax

in order to compensate for the decreased air flow, you must increase______dramatically to keep the air flow rate the same, or normal

pressure

since pressure of atm is constant, then the changes in Palv creates/changes

pressure gradients

the force for air flow is due to

pressure gradients

if you squeeze the lungs down, pressure _______on lungs, a _______ occurs, air moves ______ when it is under high pressure into 1 atm which is relatively low pressure

pressure increases, a gradient occurs, air moves out under high pressure

In the alveoli: air and blood meet, the _____system interacts with _____system (most important interface)

respiratory interacts with circulatory

oxygen and carbon dioxide goes between alveolar air and blood across the

respiratory membrane

CO is the "evil parent" because it is not as

reversible - hard to remove CO _ easy to attach O2 to the lungs and removed from the tissues (advantage)

If you choked, choking would occur in______bronchus more likely

right

from the trachea air then passes into the

right and left bronchus

The venous blood in the _______ is therefore called mixed venous blood.

right atrium

The venous blood from all parts of the body returns to the _____ side of the heart and ______.

right, and mixes

the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve is ____ shaped

s shaped (sigmoidal) - flat in one region, steep in another

emphysema causes

smoking and or genetic predisposition (inhalation of fine particular matter, toxic vapors, cigarette smoke, and general pollution)

the RBCs then travel to the

target tissue

Pressure of gases depends on ___, ____, and ____

temp, number of gas molecules, and volume PV = nRT P = nRT/V

the factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen include: (4)

temperature pH CO2 2,3,-DPG

from the bronchioles, air passes into the

terminal bronchiole

pulmonary function tests (PFTs)

tests that measure the ventilation mechanics of the lungs: airway function, lung volume, and the capacity of the lungs to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide efficiently

When the curve shifts to the right,

the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin decreases and oxygen can be more easily unloaded, (more oxygen released to tissues)

When the curve shifts to the left,

the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin increases and oxygen can be more easily loaded.

External respiration involves the diffusion of gases between the _____ and the ______

the alveoli in the lungs and the circulating blood (pulmonary capillary blood)

an increase in AP firing rate stimulates

the central respiratory center

Inspiratory Reserve Volume measures the difference in volume from the

the end of normal inspiration to the end of maximum inspiration to the

The amount of PO2 and PCO2 in the venous blood depends on ________

the metabolic activity of the tissue

This is reflected by the activity of

the motor neurons innervating the respective muscles.

if no air is moving in or out of the lungs, what does air flow results from?

the muscles of respiration creating pressure gradients by changing the volume of the lungs.

What is LaPlace's Law

the pressure needed to prevent alveolar collapse is directly related to the surface tension, and indirectly to the radius

the flat region of the curve refers to

the systemic arteries - insensitive to oxygen - binds the max amount of O2 regardless of how much oxygen is in an area - unloads 98% oxygen

the steep region of the curve refers to

the systemic veins - this is the delivery system - it is very sensitive to oxygen - small decreases in PO2 of capillaries will greatly dissociate O2 from hemoglobin (and allows O2 to diffuse into the tissues) - only unloads about 75% oxygen

the alveoli are very

thin

alveoli consists of

thin layer fluid lines

The volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs in one unforced breath.

tidal volume

inspiratory capacity is the sum of ____ and _____

tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume

Minute Ventilation can be calculated by

tidal volume x respiration rate (number of breaths per minute) - ex: 0.5 L / breath x 12 breaths / min = 6 L/ min of new air

vital capacity is the sum of

tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume

In tissues, when generating CO2, the more CO2 generated, will bump off oxygen, and release O2 to the ______that are generating a lot of CO2

tissues -decreases affinity for oxygen

Purpose of cardiac output:

to deliver oxygen to tissues -Can be a tremendous difference - Use gradients for loading and unloading

the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a maximum inspiration

total lung capacity (TLC)

there are ______ amounts of CO2, helium, argon, etc in the air

trace

from the larynx air then passes into the

trachea

how is TB unlike HIV,

transmission of TB is through casual contact

This reaction is important in the ______ and ______of CO2

transport and exchange

the transport of CO2 into the lungs is opposite of the

transport of CO2 in the blood (tissues)

Penetration from the puncture causes loss of _______ pressure

transpulmonary -Loss of sac, Pip= -44 mmHg results in collapsed (elastic lung) to Pip = 0 mmHg

difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure

transpulmonary pressure

Passive forces are due to changes in the _______pressure that occurs during inspiration and expiration and ______forces exerted on the airways by the surrounding tissue.

transpulmonary, tractive

Activation of chemoreceptors cause an increase in

ventilation

once the peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated, _____ increases

ventilation

the difference between Palv and Patm drives

ventilation

the exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so that oxygen can be exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli

ventilation

Surfacant lowers the amount of pressure necessary in order to reach

vital capacity

the maximum amount of air that can be expired following a maximum inspiration

vital capacity

Shorter noses evolved for environments that are

warm and humid

we evolved to eat as much as possible because

we had no defenses and our ancestors were always on the verge of starvation

do humans have carotid bodies

yes

is diffusion a passive process

yes (does not require ATP)

Why not simply have two mouths or two noses? Why asymmetry instead of symmetry

→ nose is for filtration, both nose and mouth are for breathing If you are breathing heavy, the nose alone is not enough to breathe, mouth had a larger opening

if one molecule from one side of the equation is removed (concentration decreases)

The reaction will move to create more of that molecule

Bohr effect

a decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with hemoglobin in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.

Cheyne-Stokes breathing

a distinct pattern of breathing characterized by quickening and deepening respirations followed by a period of apnea

however, an increase in ventilation could also cause a decrease in CO2, which would lead to

a dramatic decrease in ventilation (do not want this)

Diffusion is only useful over

a few microns

spirometry

a measurement of breathing (or lung volumes) -is a technique of measuring volumes of inspired and expired air.

ventilator

a mechanical device that provides artificial ventilation of the lungs, used to replace natural breathing function - functions to increase lung volume and capacity

Surfactant

a substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved

when airway resistance increases, _____ decreases

air flow rate

when the bronchioles are obstructed, ____ increases

air resistance

Alveoli: critical gas exchange (air to fluid interchange) → occurs in

air sacs

To maintain this negative intrapleural pressure the pleurae need to be

airtight

total lung capacity is the sum of

all the lung volumes including tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume

from the alveolar ducts air then passes into the

alveoli

the ____ is important for air to fluid interface

alveoli

Gases leave at the same partial pressures as the gases in the _______

alveoli PO2 = 100 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg

this bulk flow results from the pressure gradients created between _____ and _____

alveoli and atmospheric pressure

this increase in intra-alveolar pressure creates the pressure gradient that causes

an outflow of air.

increased 2,3-DPG concentration is helpful for unloading oxygen during _____ and at _____

anemia, high altitudes.

treatment for pneumonia

antibacterial (anti fungal) agents

during exercise, an _____ peak response occurs

anticipatory

during exercise, ______ first decreases and then slowly increases back to starting place, and _______ first increases and then quickly decreases and then slowly increases back to starting place.

arterial PCO2, alveolar ventilation

the decrease in pH is first caused by the increase in

arterial PCO2, which causes an increases the concentration of arterial H+

peripheral chemoreceptor centers are specialized cells in direct contact with

arterial blood

Peripheral chemoreceptors are specialized cells in direct contact with _______ that communicate with ______ neurons that project to the respiratory control regions.

arterial blood, afferent

From 60 mm Hg to 80 mm Hg the slope of the curve decreases and plateaus because

as the O2 binds to hemoglobin, fewer binding sites become available

increases airway resistance by causing spastic contraction of smooth muscles of the bronchioles, increased mucus secretion, and inflammation of bronchioles.

asthma

intra-alveolar pressure is relative to

atm pressure

Surface tension in alveoli is due to

attractions between water molecules

the effect of TB

bacteria colonize respiratory passageways and interstitial spaces (as well as the alveolar) - fever, coughing, fatigue, chest pains, sweats

While bicarbonate in the erythrocyte decreases more _______ is brought into the erythrocyte in exchange for Cl-

bicarbonate

Exchange of gases by diffusion between _____ and _____

blood and tissues

In the lungs, the pressure gradient favors the diffusion of CO2 from the _____ into the ______

blood into the alveoli. Gradients are diff systemically then they are in the lungs

from the RBCs air passes into the

blood plasma

from the capillary endothelium air then passes into the

blood plasma

a majority of the oxygen in blood is transported by being

bounded to hemoglobin - oxygen not very soluble in plasma

since mucous cannot be readily cleaned the area can become a _____ and can lead to ______

breeding ground for bacterial growth and can lead to a lung malfunction

once air is in the lungs, air passes from the bronchus into the

bronchiole

Histamine which is released during an allergic reaction increases resistance by _______and increasing the secretion of _____

bronchoconstriction, secretion of mucus

CO2 affects the radius of bronchioles by causing ________when its concentration increases and _______ when its concentration decreases

bronchodilation , bronchoconstriction

Ventilation results from ______of air

bulk flow

metastasis

cancer migration to other areas

from the interstitial space air then passes into the

capillary basement membrane

from the capillary basement membrane air then passes into the

capillary endothelium

from the blood plasma, air then goes into

capillary membrane

interstitial space air is transported into the

capillary membrane

This decrease in the affinity of Hb for oxygen in the presence of CO2 is called the

carbamino effect.

Co2 can bind to Hb to form

carbaminohemoglobin Hb + CO2 <--- ----> HbCO2

The decrease in CO2 causes bicarbonate in the erythrocyte to bind with H+ to form

carbonic acid

in turn carbonic acid is converted into CO2 and H2O by

carbonic anhydrase.

peripheral chemoreceptor centers are located in

carotid bodies (all mammals have these)

from the capillary membrane air is transported into the

cell cytoplasm

an increase in hydrogen ions in the CSF directly stimulate the

central chemoreceptors

the Hb buffer resits to

change (adjusts)

Lung compliance is equal to the change in ______ over the change in _____

change in volume over change in transpulmonary pressure ---> DeltaV / Delta(Palveolar- Pintrapleural)

aortic bodies

chemoreceptors; one to three in walls of aortic arch; same function as carotid bodies

acidosis can lead to

coma

Which, when clogged, are most likely to cause choking death?

common pharynx

from the nasal pharynx air then passes into the

common pharynx

from the oral cavity, air the passes into the

common pharynx (as in air from nose)

The gases diffuse down their ________ and leave at the same partial pressures as the gases in the _______

concentration gradients

Partial pressure are like

concentrations

Partial pressures and fluid relates

concentrations

The binding of one molecule of O2 to hemoglobin causes a ______in the hemoglobin

conformational change

The diaphragm is convex so that it can

contract and expand to create negative pressure to bring air in

during active expiration, the _____ and ____ contract and volume of thoracic cavity _____

contraction of expiratory muscles (internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles) volume of thoracic cavity decreases

the most common lethal inherited disease

cystic fibrosis (CF)

Both of these factors tend to _____ the lung compliance.

decrease

Expiratory muscles _____ volume of thoracic cavity

decrease

The expansion of the thoracic cavity during inspiration causes intrapleural pressure to

decrease

increased metabolic rate causes higher temperature which causes a _____in O2 taffinity

decrease - remember a decrease in Hb affinity for O2 is a RIGHT shift

During inspiration both forces act to ______resistance while during expiration resistance _______

decrease, increases

Respiratory alkalosis is a decrease in blood acidity due to

decreased CO2.

In lungs, O2 ______ the affinity for CO2

decreases

The binding of O2 to hemoglobin _______ the affinity of Hb for CO2.

decreases

The increase in the volume of the alveoli that accompanies the expansion of the lungs ______ intra-alveolar pressure

decreases

as pH decreases (more hydrogen ions) , the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

decreases

in response to high altitude, oxygen

decreases

If you expand the lungs, pressure ______on lungs, ______opens , air moves ______ the lungs

decreases (negative pressure), air passages open, air moves into lungs

When the smooth muscle of the bronchioles contract (bronchoconstriction) the radius of the bronchioles _____ and the resistance ______

decreases, increases.

as 2,3-DPG concentration increases, the affinity of Hb for oxygen

decreases.

PC regulates DRG by

decreasing ramp slope or duration

the cause of CF

defect in a single gene, chromosome 7 that affects the transmembrane conductance regulatory protein; causing disfunction of the Cl- movement across cell membranes into the lungs

Hb refers to

deoxyhemoglobin

why is there excess capillary length in the pulmonary capillaries when only 33% is needed?

depends on rate of activity - length of capillary is reserved for maximum performance (life or death)

treatment for decompression sickness

depressurize very slowly

average Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

2200 mL

At rest the tissue takes only about _____% of the O2 transported in the blood.

25

CO will bind to Hb _____ more times than O2 will bind to Hb

250 more times

only 1.5 % of oxygen in arterial blood is dissolved in plasma, which is about

3.0 mL out of 200 mL total (1.5%)

Average Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

3000 mL

average inspiratory capacity

3500 mL

left shift, PO2 becomes

40 mm Hg

partial pressure of oxygen in systemic veins and pulmonary arteries

40 mm Hg

pressure of co2 in alveoli air, pulmonary veins, and systemic arteries

40 mm Hg

PO2 in the tissues

40 mmHg

PO2 of venous blood

40 mmHg

When air enters the systemic capillaries, PO2 becomes

40 mmHg

At rest, the typical values in the venous system are a PO2 of _____ mm Hg and PCO2 of ____ mm Hg

40, 46

average vital capacity

4500 ml

partial pressure of co2 in systemic veins and pulmonary arteries

46 mm Hg

____ % of carbon dioxide is transported in dissolved plasma

5-6%

______ % of carbon dioxide exists as carbaminohemoglobin (in which it CO2 binds to Hb)

5-8%

average tidal volume

500 mL (0.5 L) - normally 350 mL (0.35 L)

shift right, PO2 becomes

55 mm Hg

average total lung capacity

5700 mL

what is the difference in mmHg of the partial pressures of CO2 between the tissues and the arteries

6 mmHg

Peripheral chemoreceptors also respond to arterial PO2 but only when arterial PO2 drops below ______ mm Hg. This is an extreme drop that usually does not occur.

60

Tension Pneumothorax: More commonly seen and occurs from an ______ rupture of lung air sacs

INSIDE -Loss of pleural sac -4 mm Hg results in collapsed (elastic) lung. Escaping air from lungs makes positive pressure in pleural sac

oxygen composition of air

21%

During inspiration, the intrapulmonary pressure is ____ than atmospheric pressure, the diaphragm _____, the external instercostal muscles ______and the chest wall and lungs_____, sternum moves _____

- intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure - diaphragm contracts -chest cavity expands - expansion of ribs moves sternum upwards and outwards

what two factors affect pulmonary ventilation

- lung compliance - airway resistance

the respiratory membrane is composed of type _____epithelial cells of the alveolar walls, ________cells of capillaries and the _____ sandwiched between them.

- type I epithelial of alveolar walls - endothelial of cap - basement membranes sandwiched btwn

when intra-alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure it is considered to be at _____mm Hg.

0

The Gas Composition of Air assumes, _____ percent humidity, but water and humidity can still be a factor

0%

PCO2 =

0.003 x 760 → 0.23 mm Hg

Air is only _____% CO2

0.03 %

How thin are alveoli?

0.2 mm in diameter

PO2 =

0.21 x 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg

Equilibration occurs in ____ sec

0.25

Diffusion is a very rapid process taking about _____seconds or within the first ____ of the capillary length in the alveoli.

0.25 sec 33% of cap length in alveoli

partial pressures of carbon dioxide in a room is

0.3 mm Hg

PN2 =

0.79 x 760 mm Hg = 600 mm Hg

CF effects 1 in _____ people, especially northern europeans

1 in 2500

why are the partial pressure of O2 and CO2 different in the atm and in the alveoli (3)

1. Exchanges of gas between alveoli and capillaries. 2. Mixing of atmospheric air with air of anatomic dead spaces. 3. Saturation of alveoli air with water vapor.

Resistance to airflow is affected by (3)

1. Passive forces exerted on the airways. 2. Smooth muscles in bronchioles 3. Secretion of mucous into airways

PO2 of arterial blood

100 mm Hg

pressure of oxygen in alveoli air, pulmonary veins, and systemic arteries (arterial system)

100 mm Hg

the air then enters the lungs and pulmonary capillaries, where PO2 is

100 mmHg

when you inhale air, PO2 becomes

100 mmHg (alveolar air)

When four oxygen molecules are bound to the molecule, it is said to be

100% saturated

When oxygenated blood enters the tissue the PO2 is _____ mm Hg and that of PCO2 is ____mm Hg.

100, 40

average exspiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

1000 mL

average residual volume (RV)

1200 mL

cancer is ____ times more likely for a light user of cigarettes, _____ times more likely if heavy and after 10 years of quitting it is only ____ times more likely than the normal rate

15, 64, 1.1

partial pressures of oxygen in a room is

160 mm Hg

PO2 of air outside

160 mmHg

Other 98.5 % of oxyen is transported in arterial blood is transported by Hb, which is

197 mL out of 200 mL

Carbon dioxide is about _______ more soluble than oxygen in water (and blood)

20 x

To maintain a pH of 7.4 the ratio of bicarbonate to carbon dioxide should remain at a _____ to ____ ratio

20:1

Acidosis causes

CNS over excitement

Alkalosis causes

CNS over-excitation

Hb serves as a buffer for the increase in H ion resulting from

CO2

The PO2 affects the ability of the blood to carry

CO2

When H+ increases in the blood it combines with HCO3- to form

CO2

While hydrogen ion are not able to cross the blood brain barrier, ____ can

CO2

increased metabolic activity leads to increased

CO2

in the force for air flow equation, ___ is constant

P atm

Laplace's Law: the air pressure (P) necessary to prevent the collapse of an alveolus is ______ proportional to the surface tension (T) and _______ proportional to the alveolus's radius (r)

P directly proportional to surface tension P inversely proportional to radius

Changes in ______ are primary stimuli for changes in ventilation under normal conditions

PCO2

The main cause of decreases in pH is an increase in

PCO2.

Spirometry is a type of ___________ ________________ test.

Pulmonary Function Test

________stimulation causes relaxation of smooth muscle (bronchodilation) while _______ stimulation causes contraction (bronchoconstriction).

Sympathetic, parasympathetic

causes about 3 million deaths worldwide each year (about 2 million people estimated infected at this time)

TB

example of compliance decreases from thickening of lung tissue

TB

Surfacant decreases surface tension, therefore lowering ____ and ____ in Laplace's Law equation

Temperature and Pressure

What is total lung volume

Vt + ERV+ IRV + RV

At 100 mmHg partial pressure in water [O2] in water is _____, and the [CO2] in water is _____

[O2] in water is 0.15 mMoles/liter [CO2] in water is 3.0 mMoles/liter

Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation

pulmonary pressure and mechanics of breathing

The impact of surface tension on lung compliance is lessened by ______

pulmonary surfactant

external respiration involves ______

pulmonary ventilation

movement of air in and out of the lungs.

pulmonary ventilation

During _______ breathing the breathing cycle consists in the contraction of the inspiratory muscles followed by relaxation of the same muscle during expiration

quiet

The rapidness of the rate of diffusion is due to the

relative thinness of the respiratory membrane.

this passive process of expiration refers to, the relaxing of the ______ muscles, the relaxation of the ____, the recoil of ______ and _____, and a ______ in the volume of the thoracic cavity

relaxation of external intercostal muscles relaxation of diaphragm ( external intercostal muscles and diaphragm make up inspiratory muscles) recoil of lungs and chest wall decrease in volume of thoracic cavity

during exercise, PO2 and PCO2

remains nearly normal because of respiratory regulation

Cheyne-Stokes respiration

repeated breathing pattern characterized by fluctuation in the depth of respiration: first deeply, then shallow, then not at all

the Hb buffer acts as a

reserve

Some partial pressure for O2 is lost in the

residual space of lungs and tissues - depends on activity levels

which cannot be measured by Spirometry

residual volume

The volume of air remaining after a maximum expiration

residual volume (RV)

in the mitochondrion, ____ occurs

respiration

the process of gas exchange and occurs on two levels:

respiration

Respiratory disturbances that change [CO2] can result in acid-base imbalances such as

respiratory acidosis and alkalosis

blood pH is regulated by ____ and ____ systems

respiratory and renal systems

from the terminal bronchiole air then passes into the

respiratory bronchiole

which part of the pathway consists of the respiratory unit

respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, and alveoli


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