Rest of notes for final

What are the processes of water treatment to have drinkable water?

*Source Protection*: -Limited land use in area that contributes water -Control sediments -Limit waste disposal -Wellhead protection programs *Raw Water Intake*: -Divert water from river, reservoir, or pump groundwater -Usually not from top of stream or reservoir (avoid debris) or at bottom (avoid bottom deposits) -Water sources often mixed to improve temperature and quality of raw water *Pretreatment*: -Flocculation/Coagulation: Water is held in concrete or steel sedimentation basins *Chemicals (aluminum potassium sulfate, activated silica) added to cause fine suspended matter to settle *Produce "Floc" = coagulated particles (occurs within 10-30 minutes) •Floc falls to the bottom as sludge •Viruses become trapped in sludge and settle with sediment and are removed -Filtration: After floc has settled, water passed through layers of sand and gravel to eliminate turbidity, odor and color *Gravity forces water through sand and out the bottom of the filter *Filters are backwashed periodically to remove wastes and to avoid clogging *Water passed to holding tank - Aeration for high iron or H2S - Water softening-Lime softening (Ames/Des Moines) •Lime is added to post-floc water which raises pH to 11 and causes dissolved Ca and Mg to precipitate. The solid sinks to the bottom of the tank, where it can be removed. CO2 is added to bring pH down to 8-9 (distributed to city) TASTE!!!! *Membrane filtration •Water forced through a large tubular membrane filter with a high surface area *Final Treatment*: - Fluoridation: Sodium fluoride added to improve health of teeth - Disinfection: Chlorine gas or liquid is added to water •Imparts smell and taste - activated carbon (charcoal) used to counteract •Produces disinfection byproducts: trihalomethanes, halogenic acetic acids, haloacetonnitrils, chlorine hydrates, chloropicrin, chlorophenols, N-chloramines, halofuranones, bromohydrins - New Disinfection Technologies * Ozonation with ozone gas * Ultraviolet light •Kills almost 100% of all microbes in water •Slow and expensive *Distributions*: - Delivery network:Treated water is stored in covered concrete or steel reservoirs *Delivery pipes run from reservoirs and pumped to water towers, then below roads to homes (in water mains) - Water pressure * Critical to properly move water *Storage tanks usually at topographic high points or pumped in water towers

What is criticism of prior appropriation?

- "Use it or Lose It" does not promote water conservation - Water left in stream considered "waste" - 5-10 years of non-use = abandonment - Rules are evolving *Oregon: new rules for ability to sell "salvage water" (conserved water) along with its priority date; helps stretch water supplies * However, could sale of water possibly alter return flow that other users rely on? •Less infiltration, less baseflow to stream, etc.

What is Ada Hayden lake?

- Ames' backup water supply: 1 billion gallons - Three wetlands were created to intercept and remove pollutants contained in surface water flowing to the lake - Chemical, physical and biological mechanisms should operate to remove pollutants before water enters the lake

What is the nitrogen cycle?

- Ammonification: decomposition of organic nitrogen to ammonia (storehouse for nutrients in soil) - Nitrification: conversion of organic nitrogen to nitrate via bacteria acting on ammonia •Aerobic process (with oxygen) - Denitrification: bacteria convert nitrate stepwise to nitrogen gas•Anaerobic process (without oxygen)

Why was the water allocation law constructed?

- Constructed to ensure consistency in decisions on use of water * Goal to maintain level to satisfy demand and ensure water is available for normal [unregulated] domestic and livestock use * Competing uses are considered when water is allocated * Provisions for public involvement in issuing water allocation permits * Administrative procedure to resolve conflicts * Must consider effects on landowners with "prior or superior rights"

What is English Common Law?

- English and French were creating settlements along the humid eastern seaboard of America where precipitation was at least 30 inches/year * A familiar ppt. regime in Western Europefrom whence they came * So, most water allocation disputes were settled by English Common Law * Rules developed over the years by courts handing down rulings to settle disputes (case law)

What is a summary of beneficial use?

- Example beneficial uses: Grow vegetables, make cement, grow fish, irrigation, mining, industry, stock watering, domestic and municipal use, and other non-wasteful economic activities - Definition of beneficial use of water has expanded to include environmental, dust control, and snowmaking, among others

What is the Spanish Water Allocation Law?

- In 1680, King Carlos II addressed the use of streams for navigation , irrigation and digging of wells * no one could divert water without a grant from the King or Queen of Spain * Domestic water use for drinking and cooking was unlimited * In the New World, water allocation concepts were developed by indigenous peoples who were irrigating in Mexico and Arizona * water scarcity was an issue and riparian doctrine of more humid Spain did not work as well in the arid climate of the Southwestern US - Pueblo Water Rights * King/Queen granted use of water that ran through a town to the citizens * Later treaties between US and Spain awarded some of these rights to communities and are still used today * LA has a Pueblo right for use of all water from the LA river, including the alluvial groundwater * City can expand the right as urban growth occurs-some families still own rights * Exist in San Diego and Las Vegas NM

What are trends in water allocation law?

- In general: prior appropriations out west, some mixed form in many states along the 100th Meridian - 31 Eastern states and many foreign countries use riparian doctrine - California Doctrine = Prior Appropriation in dry regions, Riparian in humid regions - Colorado Doctrine = strict Prior Appropriation

What is the code of hammurabi?

- King of Babylonia (1795-1750 BCE) reigned over Mesopotamia - Brought together all aspects of criminal and civil law *Laws etched on a diorite tablet called the Code of Hammurabi * Contained 300 section of law from water allocation to marriage to theft * code ensured responsible irrigation practices, by requiring compensation for a neighbor's lost crops

What was the doctrine of prior appropriation of western states (1800-1847)?

- Less abundant water than the states in the eastern US * concentrated instead on sharing of scarce water resources * between 1800 - 1847, the population numbers remain low and so was competition for water * water controlled by missionaries, the Mexican gov't and the US Military at that time - demand for irrigation water grew when the Mormon settlers came to Salt Lake City in 1847 * invented the beneficial use concept * no one could divert more water than was needed for their beneficial use * shared water and ditch maintenance * water master or "Bishop" controlled use * concept continued for 30 years until the state adopted a priority system of water ownership and use

What is the Des Moines Water works lawsuit of 2015-2017?

- March 11, 2015 Lawsuit filed by the DMWW in Federal District Court against the Board of Supervisors in their capacity as trustees of 10 drainage districts in the 3 counties Lawsuit tested the Clean Water Act, which specifically exempts "normal" agricultural activities and "agricultural storm water discharge" Sought to reverse the "agricultural exemption" and enforce NPDES regulation for drainage tiles. Was expected to go to U.S. Supreme Court Final ruling: March 17, 2017: Federal District Judge Leonard Strand sides with the Iowa Supreme Court, does not address CWA exemption, and throws the ball to the Iowa Legislature for a remedy Redressability. Should damages be assessed to an entity not created to control pollution and with no legal obligation to do so? Judge Strand reluctant to set new CWA precedent

What were English Mill Rights?

- Mill operations began in 1600s and peaked in 1800s * Mill Acts passed in Maryland and Massachusetts to push construction * Brought in money, jobs, products to these areas (wood, grain) * Dependent upon hydrologic cycle for an energy source - Mill dams reduced flow, caused naviagation problems, flooded riparian landowners' property * local officials ignored the impacts (such as flooding) on other riparian water rights * Mills were favored over other land owners because of economic benefits * Many water rights cases were based on mill rights

What type of doctrine does Iowa use?

- Modified riparian - Iowa uses a combination of riparian and prior appropriation * Focuses on preservation of instream water uses * Concept originated in South Carolina and Mississippi. Iowa is the first state to implement it extensively

What is the permit system?

- Permits used to assure "water rights" - "Tied" to the land in question. If a property is sold, it does not follow the person - All permits must consider "effect on the natural flow" and the river's established "average minimum flow" * Reasonable use versus natural flow •Reasonable use = riparian users cannot hurt other riparian users •Natural flow = cannot hurt natural quality and quantity of stream - Example: * Withdrawals in excess of 25,000 gallons/day from streams or aquifers require a permit from IDNR-Permits for municipalities are written for multiple years and will have an upper limit that they cannot exceed without a new permit

What are riparian doctrine principles?

- Reasonable use * riparian landowner can divert and use a quantity of water on riparian lands * riparian landowner cannot interfere with the reasonable use of other riparian landowners - Correlative Rights * riparian landowner must share total flow of water in stream * proportion of allocation based on waterfront property owned * reasonable amount allotted to each * water is shared during drought - Idea of allotment and permits based on use * becoming more popular in US to avoid water use conflicts

What were the Riparian Water Rights for the Romans in the 6th century?

- Romans were the first civilization to view law as a science - organized and established extensive bodies of laws for citizens and their property * Roman Emperor Justinian I in 528 CE ordered compilation of 13 centuries of law, including water allocation * called the Justinian Code and is the basis for all modern civil laws

What is the doctrine of prior appropriation?

- Rule of "first come, first served" came from mining principles - 1853, California Supreme Court established Prior Appropriation: * Water users could divert water from a stream for use on non-riparian lands * Could divert even though it may be detrimental to downstream landowners * Riparian rights impractical because claims may be away from river or water body - Concept spread quickly throughout the western U.S. * Extended to water use for irrigation * In Colorado, irrigation ditches could be built across property of others as long as compensation was paid - Water Rights under P.A. * Limited to amount of water beneficially used-Priority by date * "First in time, first in right" * Diversion right based on flow rate (cubic feet/second) * Non-use may result in reversion of the water right back to priority system. "Must use it or lose it" * Basin-wide system * Can be sold, leased, or moved as long as senior rights (older priority date) are not injured * Issued by local courts or state agencies * Senior appropriators have the superior water right * Junior appropriators come later * Junior appropriators are barred from diverting water if insufficient water exists for senior appropriator * Historically, no water rights were given for environmental uses

What does Iowa DNR say about water allocation?

- The authority for regulating water allocation arises from the State's mission to protect public health and welfare. The use of water by one person can affect other nearby water users and the general public. All waters, surface and groundwater, are "public waters and public wealth" of Iowa citizens. Iowa statute provides an allocation system based on the concept of "beneficial use". The key points are: •Water resources are to be put to beneficial use to the fullest extent possible. •Waste, unreasonable use, and unreasonable methods of water use are prevented. •Water conservation is expected. •Minimum instream flows are protected.

What is a summary of prior appropraition?

- The water right is the legal right to use the physical supply of available water, but does not give ownership of the water itself - The use of the water is saleable - A property right is established when the water is put to beneficial use - The new owner must show beneficial use and get permission of state

What was the first court case regarding the Riparian Doctrine?

- Tyler v Wilkinson (1827), Rhode Island, first court decision regarding riparian doctrine in US * Supreme Court - Justice Joseph Story * Cannot reduce or obstruct the flow of water in a stream to the detriment of a downstream riparian landowner - Landmark ruling: all eastern US States adopted similar methods of water allocation (Note: water supplies abundant there)

What is return flow?

- Unused water returned to stream * Riparian doctrine: out of basin transfers not allowed * Prior Appropriations: once junior users have established a right based on return flow, water cannot be diverted if it harms their right - Water returned may not be of suitable quality for all downstream uses

What was the prior appropriation in 1900 and beyond?

- Various legal forms - User must file for specific quantity of water - Must diligently continue to develop water or will lose right - Rights can be owned by companies, individuals, irrigation districts, municipalities - Rights can be bought and sold

What is riparian doctrine?

- based on ownership of land next to riparian areas - water use cannot harm other users

What was the doctrine of prior appropriation of western states (1848-1899)?

- had its start in the Cali Gold Rush, 1848 - technically, title to all lands in region were held by Mexican gov't, no American property rights existed - land where water needed may not be rest to a water source

What is the Riparian Doctrine?

- land owner next to stream has right to make reasonable use of water in stream because they own land next to stream - riparian landowners cannot harm or be harmed by unreasonable water use, or must be compensated - diverted water returned unimpaired - water rights cannot be separated from land- transferable upon sale of land - use something without ownership

What are classifications of water use?

- off-stream (withdrawal) - in-stream

What is doctrine of proper appropriation?

- priority date - beneficial use - appropriation= something set aside by formal action for specific use

What is the purpose of water law?

- promote desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior - resolve conflicts in an orderly fashion - define and protect property rights with enough security to encourage development and investments * will not invest unless right is defined and protected

What was the Riparian Doctrine for the Romans in the 6th century?

- the common law of water. it was developed within the Justinian Code and become the framework for water allocation throughout the Roman Empire * water in stream belongs to public for use by fishermen/navigation * cannot be controlled by private individuals * reasonable use by land owner allowed as no harm is caused to navigation * landowner must return diverted water back to stream unchanged in quality - appropriate water uses included milling, domestic, and agricultural purposes - Germanic invaders (visigoths) in Spain took these rules further and established rules that prohibited the construction of any structure that could inhibit fish migration as well as navigation - During the 8th and 9th centuries the invading Moors introduced irrigation ditches and water mills (Arabic concepts) in Spain and Portugal, and these were later transferred to the New World *Spanish rulers used irrigation for tax revenue

What does the riparian doctrine emphasize?

- use, not ownership - Riparian owner has the right to prohibit the use of the stream water by non-riparian neighbors - This right by no means makes the water in the stream his/her property. The water is considered a "wealth" of the people of the State. (old Roman Law concept).

What was water treatment in the 1700s-1800s?

1703 - Philippe de le Hire encouraged all households in Paris to install sand filters on home systems 1754 - Bethlehem, PA became the first American city to develop a municipal water works 1801 - Philadelphia pumped water from the Schuylkill River using steam engines -Funded from proceeds of the will of Benjamin Franklin who left funds to Philadelphia for a new public water system 1804 - Paisley, Scotland was the first city in the world to provide filtered drinking water to an entire town

What are US Regulations for water treatment?

1914 - U.S. Department of the Treasury set the nation's first bacterial standard of 2 coliforms/100 ml for drinking water -For the first time, it made federal government responsible for safety of public drinking water supplies -Forced most cities to add filtration and chlorination to treatment facilities -As a result, most waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera were widely reduced 1942 - U.S. Public Health Service set the first comprehensive drinking water standards 1948 - Federal Pollution Control Act was passed to reduce pollution to rivers Neither of these had enforcement mechanisms and were often ignored until the Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA) of 1974

Why is water banking like a savings account?

2001, Arizona Water Banking Agreement Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) pays a counterpart in Arizona to buy water from farms there and store it underground In return, SNWA could, in later years, take an equivalent portion of Arizona's share of the Colorado River directly from Lake Mead. Cost to store the water is $200/acre-foot 2004, California Water Bank-Southern Nevada Water Authority stores unused Colorado River water in California-SNWA received $45 million and returns the funds if they ever need the water Since 1987, SNWA injected treated Colorado River water into aquifers in Nevada in years when River allocation exceeded demand

What was love canal?

A 70-acre landfill that became the site of a massive environmental disaster in the 1970s Decades of dumping toxic chemicals harmed the health of hundreds of residents The area was cleaned up over the course of 21 years in a Superfund operation under CERCLA, ending in 2004

What are riparian rights for groundwater in most states?

Allocates specific amount to all users Allows restrictions on pumping Distance requirements between wells Information required -Location and groundwater quantity (storage) -Recharge rates -Flow rate and direction

What is he resource conservation and recovery act 1976?

Amendments passed in 1996 to provide more flexibility in regulations -Created the Source Water Assessment and Protection (SWAP) program to evaluate the safety of all public water supplies (run by EPA) -Responsible for Consumer Confidence Reports that are mailed to residence every year RCRA directed EPA to regulate land disposal of hazardous waste due to poor waste management and disposal practices that had been occurring up until then -Also municipal wastewater sludge Sets up chain of custody requirement (from creation to disposal) to help track waste and identify potentially responsible parties In 1984, Act amended to regulate landfills and underground storage tanks - The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) governs the management of hazardous wastes. •Hazardous materials training •Chain of custody •Authorized disposal

What is hardness?

Amount of dissolved calcium, magnesium, and iron present in water (Soft to Hard water) -Measured as concentration of calcium carbonate (mg/L) -Comes from geologic materials Hard water does not readily produce suds, but causes scale buildup on pipes, bathtubs, water heaters, etc. Soft water is better for pipes, but suds do not rinse off easily Groundwater is often hard water; surface water is often soft water Water softeners use an ion exchange process that replaces Ca and Mg ions with Na ions (that is why softeners require salt - NaCl)

What is the value of water?

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) held that the source of an item's value is based on its need -Distinguished between the value of an item for use and value for exchange -"Of everything which we possess, there are two uses; for example, a shoe is used for wear (a use) and it is also used for exchange" Aristotle

What was waste like in the mid-1800s in the USA?

At about the the same time in the 1860s, the Civil War was raging in the U.S. and there was little understanding of wastewater contamination -Union and Confederate soldiers alike often disposed of wastes in a river upstream while drawing drinking water downstream from it -Dysentery (bacterial infection) was widespread and fatal

What is the goal of water treatment?

Can be used for drinking (cooking and washing, too) -Sources of water: lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and groundwater -Groundwater most commonly used for small homeowners, with little to no treatment needed •Nitrate, organic compounds, viruses, heavy metals can be a problem -Ocean water - critical in areas with scarce fresh water (desalination)

What is the cuyahoga river fire?

Caught fire June 22, 1969 Blaze lasted 30 minutes Caused approximately $50,000 in damage Sparks from a passing train ignited an oil slick in the river Also caught on fire in 1868, 1883, 1887, 1912, 1922, 1936, 1941, 1948, and in 1952 - kind of a regular thing on the river!!

Where are water costs rising?

Cities around the Great Lakes are paying more for water

What is the waste problem?

Civilization developed along lakes and waterways -People dispose of waste water into the same rivers and lakes and groundwater -used for drinking water Cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne diseases were common and reduced human life span -Nature controlled population growth -Sophistication of a society can be judged by sewage disposal practices

Why is phosphorus in water?

Common nutrient in soil and water -Sources: rocks, animal and human waste, fertilizers, detergents -Binds to sediments (it likes Fe+3); thus, carried in runoff -Also dissolved in GW and SW No direct health effects on humans -Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient in aquatic systems. Causes algae and diatom blooms (HAB: harmful algal bloom; toxic to humans and animals)

What is CERCLA?

Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act -Authorized EPA to identify sites where hazardous material threatens public health and environment and to identify responsible party; allowed to inspect a site without a search warrant -Authorizes Superfund cleanup •Tries to get responsible party to do it, if they can't/won't then EPA manages the clean up

What are point sources?

Contamination discharged from an identifiable location or pipe Less than a few acres in size (pipes, landfills, surface impoundments, lagoons, pits, spills) Relatively easy to quantify - has been enforced Need a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit

What is dissolved oxygen (DO)?

Critical for aquatic plants and wildlife (measured in ppm or mg/L) Sources -Dissolution (diffusion) of oxygen from the atmosphere into water -Aeration of moving water over falls -Waste product of photosynthesis Concentration is function of temperature, salinity, atmospheric pressure, and O2 demand from aquatic life

What is the history of drinking water treatment?

Early General Concerns -Taste, temperature, appearance Early Treatments -Let sediment settle, remove water -Egyptians added alum to remove suspended solids -Hindu in India used boiling -Sand filters to improve clarity and taste (Romans)

Why did the river on fire start an avalanche?

Earth Day, April 1970 That same year, President Richard Nixon created a council on environmental reform, which became the Environmental Protection Agency In 1972, Congress overrode Nixon's veto to pass the Clean Water Act (CWA), which created national water quality standards

What are water resource economics?

Economics of water is based on its allocation among different uses, based on value -Value is determined by two elements: •Demand - the utility to humans and willingness to pay for that item •Supply - the cost of providing the resource in a certain quantity, quality, and location (varies across the world) -Do we pay to drink from a public fountain? What is water's value?

What is tertiary treatment?

Effluent from secondary treatment is generally discharged into streams -Contains 5-20% of original organic matter - can be discharged safely -Stream discharge must accomodate Tertiary treatment may be needed -Add flocculating chemicals -Nutrients: nitrate and phosphate cause eutrophication; denitrifying bacteria in sand filters; precipitate P -Adding Chlorine or UV for disinfection -All these add $$$$ cost to consumers

What was the "sewage difficulty"?

English civil engineer Baldwin Latham gave a famous "Lecture on the Sewage Difficulty" discussing the waste and water pollution -Committees were formed all over Europe to address "sewage difficulty" •Suggested applying it to farms where the N cycle would take care of it •Municipal sewage pumped to farms in London, Berlin, Paris and Sydney (not necessarily a benign activity) •1881 farm at Pullman, IL (near Chicago)

What is water ranching?

Entire farms/ranches are bought for groundwater -Water is moved from land to city, land tax assessment plummets, resulting in a loss in property taxes from that land -State of Arizona passed a law in 1991 requiring cities to pay the equivalent of the property tax for purchased land -In some cases a "replenishment tax" is required if groundwater mining is occurring

What does the CWA cover?

Established basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into waters of the U.S. Gave EPA the authority to implement pollution control programs (e.g.,wastewater standards) Maintained existing requirements to set water quality standards for contaminants in SW Made unlawful for any person to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters, unless a permit was obtained Funded construction of sewage treatment plants under the construction grants program Recognized the need to address the critical problems posed by nonpoint source pollution

What was waste like in the middle ages?

Everyone forgot about sanitation -In Europe, sewage was dumped into streets -Streets of Paris in 1200 had sewage running down the center of cobblestone streets and everything ended up in the Seine River -A stone-lined sewer was constructed in 1370 to drain the wastes directly to the Seine, but the conditions remained intolerable

What are examples of nonpoint sources?

Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes and faulty septic systems Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines Atmospheric deposition (acid rain)

Who is Dr. Louis Pasteur?

Existence of microorganisms not known until later in the 19th century -French biologist -1861: Louis Pasteur proved microbes existed in air, water and on solids -Developed pasteurization -Created vaccines for anthrax and rabies

What was the water treatment in the Middle Ages?

Fall of Rome in 476 CE until Renaissance (14th Century) -Cleanliness and healthful drinking water were largely ignored -Personal and public sanitation were nonexistent -People bathed only 1-2 times/year -As a result, the Middle Ages were marked by disease, plague, and death

Who is Dr. John Snow?

First to make connection between diseases and water pollution In mid-1800s, sewage was being dumped into Thames or open pits (cesspools) -People getting water from lower Thames were getting sick at higher rates than those getting water from upper Thames In 1854, cholera appeared in London Dr. Snow connected deaths from cholera to a single pump at Broad St. (500 people died within 10 days); officials removed handle on the pump -One outbreak was linked to cesspit of a home 3 feet from well in which a mother washed the diapers of a child with cholera - likely leaking fecal bacteria into pipes

What happened in Flint, Michigan?

Flint made the switch to getting its water from the Flint River back in April 2014, as a money-saving exercise. Previously it got its water from Detroit, which cost the city millions of dollars. The issue is that the water from the Flint River is naturally quite corrosive; it contains relatively high levels of dissolved chloride ions (about 8 times more than the Detroit water) which can cause metals such as iron and lead to leach into the water. The high chloride levels are largely due to road salt which runs into the river. The problem was exacerbated not long after the switch to the Flint River water supply. In the August following the switch, E. coli was found in the water, and to combat this extra chlorine was added as a disinfectant to remove it. However, this higher level of chlorine generated unsafe levels of trihalomethanes, compounds which are byproducts of the chlorine reacting with organic matter in the water. To combat this, ferric chloride (FeCl3) was added. Ferric chloride, FeCl3, acts a coagulant, allowing for the removal of organic matter from the water. However, it also helps to increase the chloride concentration, making the water even more corrosive, and causing the concentration of lead in the water to increase. The corrosiveness of the Detroit water can be compared to that of the Flint River using their chloride to sulfate mass ratios (CSMR). For the Detroit water before the switch, this had a value of 0.45, indicating low corrosion. After the switch to Flint River water, this increased to 1.60, a value denoting very high corrosion. In areas where lead pipes are present in houses, corrosion inhibitors are used to prevent the lead getting into the water. A common corrosion inhibitor is orthophosphate; this is simply phosphoric acid, or salts of phosphoric acid. Orthophosphates form low-solubility complexes with the lead in the pipes, forming a layer inside the pipe and preventing lead getting into the water. These compounds were used in the Detroit water supply before the switch, even though the water had a comparatively low corrosiveness. In Flint, orthophosphates weren't used; nor were any other corrosion inhibitors. This meant that there was nothing preventing the lead from home pipes from getting into the water supply. It also led to the unpleasant discoloration present in the Flint River water coming out of residents' taps, because iron in the pipes was also corroded by the water.

Where is PFAS?

Food packaged in PFAS-containing materials (popcorn bags) or grown in PFAS-contaminated soil or water Commercial household products, including stain- and water-repellent fabrics (Gore-Tex), nonstick products (e.g., Teflon), polishes, waxes, paints, cleaning products, dental floss, and fire-fighting foams -PFOA is the main Teflon chemical -PFOS is an ingredient in 3M's Scotchgard Workplace (e.g., chrome plating, electronics manufacturing or oil recovery) that use PFAS Drinking water (manufacturer, landfill, wastewater treatment plant, firefighter training facility) Living organisms, including fish, animals and humans, where PFAS have the ability to build up and persist over time

What are legal approaches to groundwater?

Four legal doctrines evolved 1. Rule of capture: unlimited withdrawal of water below owner's land 2. Reasonable use: withdrawal for reasonable and beneficial purposes 3. Correlative rights: Landowners have right to proportionate share (all users get some) 4. Prior appropriation: First to put water to beneficial use can continue to do so

How did the Greeks and Romans treat their water?

Greek Physician Hippocrates (460-377 BCE) promoted the concept of "healthy" drinking water -The ancient Estruscans in modern-day Italy and later Romans transported "pristine water" great distances to their cities via aqueducts •Sand and other sediments were allowed to settle out into depressions along regular intervals in the aqueducts •Open aqueducts allowed UV light from the sun to provide disinfection Roman military leaders were aware of the need to provide clean water -Noted that water became bad after camping multiple nights in the same place - need to move frequently Romans observed that marshes and swamps caused disease -Advocated draining of swampland to reduce what we know was malaria -Mid-1800's Swamp Land Acts in U.S.

What is greywater and blackwater?

Greywater comes from bath, shower, washing machine, and bathroom sink waste -Lesser quality than potable water, but of higher quality than blackwater Blackwater is water flushed from toilets, the kitchen sink, garbage disposal and dishwasher (high concentrations of organic waste)

Why is greywater used?

Greywater is most suitable for subsurface irrigation of nonedible landscape plants (semi-arid regions) Greywater can be used in some situations for toilet flushing The most obvious advantage of domestic greywater use is that it replaces potable water use

What is groundwater allocation law in Iowa?

Groundwater treated similar to surface water -Rules similar to the riparian doctrine -Permitting system subject to specified conditions •Permits consider drainage area of adjacent stream and proximity to stream •Adjacent wells and existing permits -Restrictions arise or are imposed similar to surface water applications

Where are PFAS in Iowa?

High levels of PFAS contamination have been found in the surface water and groundwater at the Air National Guard bases in Sioux City and Des Moines, where the chemicals were used in special firefighting foam No PFAS in drinking water - yet!

What is hypoxia in water?

Hypoxia, or low oxygen, is an environmental phenomenon where the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water column decreases to a level that can no longer support living aquatic organisms Hypoxic areas, or "Dead Zones," have increased in duration and frequency across our planet's oceans since first being noted in the 1970s

What is the Diamond- Water pardox?

In 1776, the Water-Diamond paradox was discussed in Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" -Water is essential and inexpensive, but diamonds are not essential and are expensive -Argued cost of producing commodity explains the value placed on it -Water was plentiful in the early days of the U.S. and Canada - Smith said this explained water low value

What are PFAS regulations?

In 2018, Congress directed the Federal Aviation Administration to change its rules so that airports could also switch to PFAS-free foams In December 2019, Congress made the historic decision to phase out PFAS in military firefighting foams by 2024

What is the impact of CWA?

Increased the number of U.S. waters that are "fishable and swimmable" 1972: 1/3 2000: 2/3 Now?

What are indicator organisms?

Indicate presence of harmful microorganisms/pathogenic bacteria -Ex. Total coliform: strong indicator of possible unsanitary conditions in water •Coliforms are bacteria -If found, then retest for fecal coliform -Indication of contamination from human sewage or animal waste -E.Coli = one type of fecal coliform •0157:H7 (from contaminated food) •~ 73,000 cases/year in US

What is the groundwater allocation law?

Initially followed the Rule of Capture -Spanish law -No restrictions on groundwater use -A landowner could dig a well and remove groundwater with total disregard of effect on neighbors wells -Based on rule of Absolute Ownership -A landowner owns everything on property from sky to center of Earth Eventually well interference led to disputes that required resolution

What are chemical constituents (natural)?

Inorganic Chemicals (not Carbon) -Metals: elements in the Earth's crust •Lead, Zinc •Arsensic (problem in groundwater due to arsenic-bearing minerals) Minerals: naturally occurring crystalline material of specific chemical composition -Rocks contain minerals -Source of calcium, potassium, sodium, fluoride, silica Inorganic Chemicals -Salt: common NaCl (table salt) •Water flowing overland and percolating through soil and rocks can dissolve salts, leading to high salinity levels in surface and groundwater •Salinization (discussed earlier) Organic Chemicals (C and H) -Natural (sugars, amino acids, proteins) -Synthetic organic chemicals •Petroleum derived products: benzene (solvent), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)(used in electrical transformers), TCE (Trichloroethylene-solvent, degreaser) •Many synthetic organic chemicals are carcinogenic or cause other health and ecosystem problems -Pesticides (herbicides, insecticides) •Approximately 50% of pesticides used for non-ag purposes

What are greywater regulations?

Iowa: No existing regulations Arizona: Greywater means wastewater that originates from clothes washers, dishwashers, bathtubs, showers and sinks, except kitchen sinks and toilets. Greywater from single and multi-family residences may be used for surface irrigation. The design and construction of the system must be approved by the Department. Irrigation sites must be designed to contain a 10-year, 24-hour rainfall event and greywater have less than 25 colony forming units per 100 milliliters (CFU/ml) fecal coliform and less than 2.0 mg/l chlorine for surface irrigation.

What is water marketing in surface water?

It is happening! Surface water is marketed now in CO, UT, WA, CA, NV, NM, and southeastern Australia, between the following groups: -Irrigators and municipalities -Irrigators and industry -Irrigators and individuals Price is set by market forces of supply and demand

Who came up with the water allocation law?

James B MacDonald - Emeritus professor (1954-89) - UW- Madison Law School

What is modern treatment of waste water?

Large-scale wastewater treatment became commonplace in the 20thCentury in many parts of the world Facilities located in topographic lows so that wastes flow by gravity -If not, wastes can be pumped by pump (lift) stations to the treatment plant (note: drinking water treatment plants and tanks are on high spots) Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

What is the difference between groundwater and surface water allocation laws?

Law and traditional management practices treat groundwater and surface water as separate rather than integrated resources But, we know that groundwater and surface water are a single resource

What is water banking?

Local clearinghouse that holds water rights for sale or lease -Viewed as a way to reduce impacts of permanently removing agricultural water (causing loss of farms, rural communities) In the 1990's, California leased water at $125/acre foot from farmers paying $50/acre foot to reserve that water

Is privatization the answer for rising water costs?

Local governments hire private firms to deliver public services According to the National Association of Water Companies (NAWC), private water companies own ~ 16% of all drinking water services and maintain 100,000 miles of water distribution pipes in the U.S.

What are challenges in groundwater management?

Long-term sustainability of aquifers Recognition of interconnectedness of surface and groundwater Designation of groundwater basins (groundwatersheds) Monitoring aquifer water quality and quantity Recognition of value of ecosystem services and health Recognition of the value of injecting water for underground storage

What is temperature?

Many characteristics of water are dependent on temperature -Higher temps accelerate chemical processes (dissolution of minerals) -Dissolved oxygen concentrations decrease with higher temperatures -High temp releases "shock" fish and other aquatic species; release of cold water from a dam also shocks fish -Heat on lake surface = spring turnover -Groundwater temp = mean air temp.

Why is water undervalued?

Many of the world's water shortages occur because we do not place proper economic value on water supplies -Mexico: irrigators pay 11% of cost -Indonesia & Pakistan: irrigators pay 13% of cost -Egypt: irrigators do not pay directly -U.S. subsidizes irrigation water under Reclamation Act of 1902

What is externality?

Many transactions of public or private good involve positive or negative benefits to a third party who is unrelated to the transaction This is called an Externality -In water, externalities are almost always negative (water pollution) •An oil tanker or oil well spills oil that ends up affecting wildlife in the sea as well as people consuming the water •FYI - 10-year anniversary of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf

What is turbidity?

Measure of water clarity Suspended matter (silt, salt, diatoms) in water reduces transmission of light -Block sunlight for aquatic plants -Dangerous environment for recreation Toxic chemicals, metals, and waterborne diseases attach to suspended particles Increases cost and difficulty of treating drinking water Secchi disk: standard measure of clarity. Record depth at which it disappears

What is wetland processing?

Mechanical - weirs slow down water, retaining sediment and organic matter Phosphorus adsorbs to sediment particles that are deposited on the wetland bed, or are used by algae or plants that require them for growth Nutrients sequestered by algae and plants become incorporated into the food web, including invertebrates and waterfowl that eat them Physical structure created by plants further promotes sedimentation by reducing water flow rates

Why is nitrate in drinking water?

Methemoglobinemia (Blue-Baby Syndrome) -Hemoglobin in your blood carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of your body -Nitrate (NO3) ingested from water can be reduced to nitrite (NO2) by stomach bacteria -In the bloodstream, nitrite (NO2) produces and elevates methemoglobin concentrations, which binds O2 and reduces the amount of O2 released into your blood -You turn "blue" because your tissues are not getting enough O2-Methemoglobinemia mostly affects infants less than six months old (10 mg/L NO3-N EPA) drinking water standard

What was water treatment in Late-1800s and early 1900s?

Municipal water suppliers continued to upgrade systems and filtration became standardized 1870 - Poughkeepsie, NY constructed first filtration plant for Hudson River 1909 - Chlorination first used as a disinfectant in water treatment in Jersey City, NJ -Reduced bacteria to negligible levels

What is NPDES?

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System -A NPDES permit required to discharge wastewater into a navigable stream •A body of water, such as a river, canal or lake, is navigable if it is deep, wide and slow enough for a vessel to pass -EPA establishes water quality standards and considers the age of the wastewater facilities, quality of accepting waters, & discharge volume •States usually issue these permits

What is a Wetlands (Swamps, Marshes, etc.)?

Naturally regulates flow -Slow water movement, store flow -Dilute contaminants -Biological and chemical reactions -Enhanced by organic C (trees, leaves) -O2 from wind and inflow -Microbes immobilize heavy metals -95% sediment and pesticide removal Small-scale sewage treatment and stormwater retention

What is pH?

Negative log10 of the hydrogen ion activity (H+) in solution Describe the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution -Range from 0 (greater H+) to 14 (few H+ ions, more OH- ions) -Neutral pH is equal concentrations of H+ ions and OH- ions) -Logarithmic scale: a pH=4 is 10 times more acidic than ph=5

What is water marketing in groundwater?

Not common particularly in the eastern U.S., because groundwater rights cannot be bought separate from the land (remember: Riparian rules are most common in U.S.) Some states follow prior appropriations in the West (except Nebraska) Then, in Arizona "Water Ranching" came along... Georgia, 2001: -Surface and groundwater depletion occurred, which led to irrigators being paid $136/acre to not irrigate -Water depletion in Flint River was reduced - at a cost of $4.5 million! Georgia, 2002 -40,000 acres of land taken out of irrigation at a cost of $5.2 million!

What are chemical constituents of nutrients?

Nutrients -Naturally occurring - exposed to water sources via mining, excavation, and rock weathering (Kesterson) -Needed by living organisms for energy and growth •Macronutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Nitrogen, Phosphorus •Micronutrients: Selenium, Iron, Zinc, Sulfur

What are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances?

PFAS are a group of synthetic organic chemicals that includes PFOA, PFOS, Gen-x, and others Manufactured and used worldwide in a variety of industries, including U.S. starting in the 1940s PFOA and PFOS most extensively produced. Persistent in the environment and the human body; they don't break down (degrade) and they can accumulate over time; i.e., "Forever Chemicals" Testicular, kidney, liver and pancreatic cancer. Weakened childhood immunity

What is the safe drinking water act?

Passed in 1974 to protect the nation's public drinking water supplies from pollution and communicable waterborne diseases -Federal drinking water standards were established to protect public health •Nitrate: 10 mg/L as N •Lead: 15 μg/L -Enforcement by EPA

What is consumptive water use?

Portion of water withdrawal lost in the process of it being used -Becomes part of product (crop) -Conveyance loss (ET, leakage) -Water becomes unavailable for downstream use

What is non-consumptive water use?

Portion remains available for subsequent use (return flow) *Most water uses are partly consumptive and partly non consumptive*

What are market driven policies?

Positives -Raise the price of water •Farmers will be forced to grow economically more valuable crops (to offset water price) -Make the landowners pay the cost of living in floodplains and being flooded repeatedly •Fewer people could afford to live there and would live on high ground Negatives -Markets generally poor at incorporating and promoting public values -Social welfare not considered •Low-income groups adversely affected

What are cons of privatization?

Potential for corruption Rely on smaller companies, less experienced companies subject to bankruptcy Higher user fees that would burden lower income users -See Atlanta experience in Assignment 5

What is the history of the CWA?

Prior to mid-1900s federal government made minimal efforts to protect the environment 1948: Federal Water Pollution Control Act, first major U.S. law to address water pollution 1972: Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to amendments to FWPCA and passage of what we know as the Clean Water Act

What is the Environmental Protection Agency?

Proposed by Nixon & ratified by House and Senate in 1970 Federal regulatory agency with legislative authority to impose substantial monetary fines & jail sentences for noncompliance with federal environmental laws Coordinated federal environmental protection efforts (mostly non-existent) Soon after formation, EPA filed suit against Detroit, Cleveland, and Atlanta for municipal sewage pollution

Is water public or private?

Public Good -Government provides the right to use water by all people for basic human consumption and sanitation, aesthetic values, and environmental protection - no one deprived of use due to inability to pay -One person's use does not preclude use by others -Government responsible for ensuring that basic needs of water quantity and quality are met Private Good -Opposite of public good -It is a product or service provided by a privately owned business for use of the buyer -Developed, traded, sold for economic productivity and financial gain -As a private good, price is determined by supply and demand -Increased interest in this concept, but private water has been mixed

What are riparian rights for groundwater?

Reasonable Use: cannot interfere with reasonable use of other landowners groundwater Correlative Rights: shared water, landowner is allocated amount based property owned

What is secondary treatment?

Reduces Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) that wastewater places on a waterway after discharge -Reduction at plant occurs by aerobic oxidation of nutrients by microorganisms Microorganisms consume nutrients that would otherwise deplete oxygen for other organisms -Wastewater BOD often causes fish kills in rivers Trickling filters -Rectangular or circular beds filled with coarse media of rock and gravel of 2-4 inches diameter -Wastewater trickles down over filters -Microbial film forms on surface of filter media removing BOD as sewage moves through it; air circulation for oxidation -Simple, inexpensive, widely used. But requires lots of space, emits odors, & only 80% of organic matter removed Activated Sludge -Removes material that creates BOD -Effluent constantly agitated and aerated to promote bacterial activity •Sludge seeded with lots of aerobic organisms that digest organic matter •Microorganisms growing in flocs transform material to bacteria, CO2, and water •Monitor sludge for proper pH (6.5-7.5), temperature, flow rates, and D.O. to promote optimal bacterial activity •Leftover floc removed as sludge

What are pros of privatization?

Reduces direct cost of providing basic services (i.e., drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, system maintenance) Cost recovery for service they provide

What is the "free rider" problem?

Refusal of some beneficiaries to pay their share of a public good, from the benefits of which they cannot be excluded For this reason, public goods are normally financed by general taxes rather then specific charges

What is primary treatment?

Removal of suspended solids -Mechanical rakes or revolving screens -Particles are landfilled or incinerated Grit chamber -Allows sand and grit to settle Settling tanks to remove settled solids (sludge) -Chemicals can be added to speed process

What are subsequent amendments?

Revisions in 1981 streamlined the municipal construction grants process, improving the capabilities of treatment plants built under the program Changes in 1987 phased out the construction grants program, replacing it with the State Water Pollution Control Revolving Fund, more commonly known as the Clean Water State Revolving Fund. This new funding strategy addressed water quality needs by building on EPA-state partnerships

What are the differences between riparian doctrine and prior appropriation doctrines?

Riparian Doctrine: - tied to land - never lose right, can establish new uses - water must be used within watershed - share use, no fixed quantity - shortages shared equally Prior Appropriation Doctrine: - divert water and put to beneficial use - non-use destroys right - may use water anywhere (even outside watershed) - assured specific flow or quantity based on seniority - shortages distributed by seniority

What is water marketing?

Sale or lease of a water right in a market-based system

What was waste like in early years?

Sanitation laws go back to 200 BCE in Babylonia -Mandated that waste not be thrown into wells or cisterns -Forbidden to locate a cemetery, furnace, tannery, or animal slaughterhouse within 80 ft of a well Greeks were into personal hygiene, especially bathing, and made a great contribution to civilization

What was waste like in the mid-1800s in the world?

Sanitation started to improve -Napoleon III in the 1860s built 181 miles of additional underground sewers in France -Sewage ways (egouts) were constructed around 4 principal tunnels 18 ft wide and 15 ft high •Formed an underground city with street names clearly marked within sewer tunnels •By 1878, double water supply network (drinking water and one for non drinking water) and sewer network 400 mi long

What was water treatment in the Renaissance and after?

Scientists began investigating ways to improve drinking water quality -Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) conducted experiments on water percolation, boiling, distillation and coagulations -Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) built a microscope to view common forms of bacteria in water Drinking water becomes a science

What is the difference between nonpoint vs point sources?

Section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act: -The term "point source" means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture Section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act: -The term "nonpoint source" is defined to mean any source of water pollution that does not meet the legal definition of "point source" in section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act.

What are requirements of water marketing?

Security of ownership Flexible and fair (adjusts to changing conditions, all parties compensated) Effectiveness in capturing all costs, including social and opportunity costs -Opportunity cost = "cost" incurred by not enjoying the benefit associated with the best alternative choice. The concept of opportunity cost plays a role ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently Social responsibility (reflect social values of clean water and healthy environment)

What are nonpoint sources?

Spatially distributed (diffuse) Several acres to hundreds of square miles in area More difficult to identify and quantify than point sources. As a result, it has been enforced less -Stormwater management is an effort to reduce runoff of rainwater or melted snow into streets, lawns, and other sites to improve of water quality

Is Iowas groundwater allocation law ok?

State laws all tend to be obsolete in using "good" hydro-geological science -Iowa is no exception. Groundwater is treated as "Diffused surface water..." Iowa differentiates between confined and unconfined aquifers. How the groundwater analysis should be done is unresolved (local basis, an aquifer basis, or a "whole-State basis") -Limits to drawdown in the Jordan aquifer based on pre-development water levels

What are sewage lagoons?

The concept of a sewage lagoon was discovered by accident in 1928 -Fessenden, ND ran out of money to build a wastewater treatment plant -Temporarily sent raw sewage to a pothole outside of town -Found that evaporation, seepage through the pond bottom, and natural biodegradation by bacteria adequately treated small amounts of wastewater and eliminated odors (famous lagoon!) Concept was duplicated in many other North Dakota communities and the U.S. Public Health Service tried it in other states -Sewage lagoons (stabilization ponds) became common as an inexpensive and effect wastewater treatment-Bacteria, oxygen, sunlight, wind, decomposed sewage nutrients -Common around the world - but limited due to size

What determines value of water?

Today the values of water is determined by location, quantity, characteristics (physical, chemical, biological, thermal) and use -How much people will pay to be next to and recreate in water •Study on lakes in Iowa evaluating economic benefits -Cost of lost wages and economic output due to illness from contaminated water; Ecological harm

What is water quality?

USGS says: "a measure of the suitability of water for a particular use based on selected physical, chemical, and biological characteristics" Wikipedia says: "chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species, or to any human need or purpose." Each component of the hydrologic cycle has the potential to change the quality of a water body -Precipitation with pollutants causes acid precipitation (rain) -Surface runoff causes erosion, introducing sediment that is transported -Recharge may introduce chemicals to groundwater -Evaporation concentrates pollutants Humans affect water quality -Contribute waste via consumption of resources such as food, clothing, housing, fuel for heating/cooling and transportation World population is putting further stress on water quality -Significant challenges for water managers, environmental protection, industry, and fish and wildlife agencies

What is section 303(d) of CWA?

Under Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act, states are required from "time to time" to submit a list of waters for which effluent limits will not be sufficient to meet all state water quality standards. EPA has defined "time to time" to mean April 1 of even numbered years. The failure to meet water quality standards might be due to an individual pollutant, multiple pollutants, "pollution," or an unknown cause of impairment. The 303(d) listing process includes waters impaired by point sources and non-point sources of pollutants.. EPA regulations that govern 303(d) listing are in Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 130.7.

What are septic tanks?

Used to dispose of sewage wastes from homes not connected to municipal wastewater systems -First used in the U.S. in 1884 -Buried tank to capture sewage, settle out solids, and break down by bacteria -Pumped every year (if no leach field) to 5 years (with leach field) -Use natural filtration capacity of soil to cleanse wastewater -Low maintenance/low operating cost Leach field contains buried perforated pipes that exit the septic tank, allowing sewage to seep through gravel beds into soil -Soil filters bacteria, binds P for vegetation uptake, microorganisms decompose organic material -Located away from drinking water •Found to be sources of pharmaceuticals to groundwater in Wisconsin -Longevity ~10 years before clogging Multiple septic systems in one area can overload the capacity of the soil Have to be careful what you put in (no pesticides, oil, solvents) Source of nonpoint-source pollution Needs to be above the water table for aerobic bacteria to work

what are waterbourne diseases?

Viruses, bacteria, protozoans, parasites -Hepatitis (virus), adenovirus, norovirus -Cholera (bacteria) -Giardia ("beaver fever") •Single-cell microscopic parasite (protozoan) •Animal and human waste •Discovered in Banff, Alberta -Cryptosporidium •Microscopic parasite (protozoan) •Human and animal waste •1993 outbreak in Milwaukee - largest epidemic of waterborne disease in U.S. History -Came from a sewage treatment plant's outlet 2 miles upstream in Lake Michigan from water treatment plant •403,000 of an estimated 1.61 million residents in the Milwaukee area became ill

What is the background of water marketing?

Water getting more expensive in the West. Irrigation and industry may be forced to conserve more. Domestic use increasing Concerned that federal government will try to control water rights Should water be "property"? Water is currently subsidized by taxes and hydropower revenue, water projects

What are costs of water?

Water is a Common Property Resource -Difficult to define private ownership rights (resource belongs to no one) -Individuals not excluded from use -Resource is free, so individuals can use to fullest extent possible Economists generally believe the best way to manage and protect natural resources is through private good, assessing economic value, and using the free market to price the resource

What are issues of water marketing?

Water is a public resource Water is a local resource (not transfer between basins) Federally funded irrigation projects and subsidies helped irrigation districts (and irrigators) develop the water resource...now they are selling the water at huge profits Decline in agricultural economy/ rural lifestyles

What are some of water's amazing properties?

Water is polar (attracts other ions) Water is an excellent solvent (in the water cycle it picks up nutrients) Water has a high heat capacity (takes lots of energy to raise the temperature - buffers) Water has a high heat of vaporization (we use our sweat to absorb body heat and cool off - responsible for evaporative cooling) Water has cohesive properties that result in surface tension and adhesive properties that allow it to stick to substances other than itself Water is less dense as a solid than a liquid (the reason that lakes don't freeze to the bottom)

Why is western strategy evolving?

Western water managers are now less and less likely to try to "engineer themselves out of a water problem" with massive, Hoover Dam-style projects. Instead, they're becoming adept at shuffling a finite — and shrinking — supply of water around to cover the most desperate shortfalls.

What is statutory law?

a law created by a governing body, such as legislature - typical of western water law - forced to enact regulations early on because of limited resource

What is case law (common law)?

one party (plaintiff) brings suit against another party (defendant) - court renders a decision based on facts, laws, and precedents