Rhetoric Millsted

Logos

An appeal to reason. There are two types of appeal to reason, deductive and inductive.

Half-Truths, Suppressed Evidence, Card Stacking, Ignoring the Counterevidence, Slanting

An argument built on only part of the truth leaves out the "rest of the story." This is a fallacy in contexts in which the listener has a right to demand objectivity, such as news stories or scholarly writing. Examples: - The new welfare bill is good because it will get people off the public dole. - Cutting the school day by an hour is great because it will give students time to get to their afternoon activities. - Rationing gasoline is great because it will help save the environment

Pathos

Appeal to emotion There is nothing wrong with using an emotional appeal, but you would not want your argument described as "nothing but" an emotional appeal. (Think of political commercials in which candidates are depicted petting stray dogs and reading to their kids.)

Paradox

Appears false or impossible but turns out to be true. "I lie all the time."

Deductive Argument

Begins with a generalization and moves toward a specific conclusion. A famous example used by Aristotle himself: - All men are mortal. (Generalization) - Socrates was a man. (Specific case) - Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion about the specific case)

Inductive Argument

Begins with pieces of specific evidence and draws a general conclusion from this. Examples: Senator Edward Kennedy once argued, "In Georgia, blacks who killed whites received the death penalty 16.7 percent of the time, while whites who killed blacks received the death penalty only 4.2 percent of the time." The conclusion to be drawn is that blacks disproportionately received the death penalty for crimes compared to whites.

Circular Thinking, Begging the Question

Circular thinking involves assuming, in an argument, the very point one is trying to make. A circular argument fails because only those who already accept the conclusion will judge the reasoning of the argument to be sound. Be sure not to confuse the circular thinking fallacy with the more common usage of the phrase "begs the question," which refers to raising or referring to a question. Examples: - A civilized society must have a death penalty to discourage violence. - The love of baseball is an American tradition. After all, everyone loves baseball. - If speeding were not illegal, then it would not be prohibited by the law

Analogy

Direct comparison to explain; comparison of two things that are alike in some respects

Either-Or Thinking, False Dilemma, Bifurcation

Either-or thinking presents a false dilemma by reducing a solution to only two possible extremes. This line of reasoning is a fallacy because it ignores every possible solution that falls between those extremes. Examples: - America: Love it or leave it. - Either we must ban violent video games, or the social fabric of society will disintegrate.

Arguments by Example

Good examples are the building blocks of an argument by example. - Use more than one example. - Use powerful examples. - Use examples your audience will recognize or connect with. - Provide any necessary background information.

Appeals

How a writer or speaker tries to convince his or her intended audience. Three of the

Arguments by Authority

No one can be a complete expert in any given field. The best historians are rarely direct witnesses to all the events about which they write and reach conclusions. The best surgeon has neither operated in every possible scenario of a case nor on every type of person. It is important to evaluate the sources of the authority to determine the validity of such an argument. The sources need to be: - Impartial - Informed - Cited or recognized - Cross-checked with other sources

Dichotomy

Opposites on the same spectrum (black and white, male and female, good and evil)

Oversimplification, Reductive Fallacy

Oversimplification falsely reduces a complex issue down to overly limited terms. Examples: - Gun control is a simple question of protecting society. - Debates over school uniforms all boil down to questions of conformity. - If we just hired more police officers, crime would go away.

Repetition

Repeated use of sounds, words, or ideas for effect and emphasis

Epiphora

Repetition of the same word or a phrase at the end of successive clause. For example, "I am an American, he is an American and everybody here is an American."

Anaphora

Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses. For example, "We shall fight in the trenches. We shall fight on the oceans. We shall fight in the sky."

Enthymeme

Syllogism missing one part, which is understood or elided Examples: Ms. Milsted is mortal because she's human

"No True Scotsman" Fallacy

The "no true Scotsman" fallacy is a way of reinterpreting evidence in order to prevent the refutation of one's position. Proposed counter-examples to a theory are dismissed as irrelevant solely because they are counter-examples, but purportedly because they are not what the theory is about. If Angus, a Glaswegian, who puts sugar on his porridge, is proposed as ounter-example to the claim "No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge", the 'No true Scotsman' fallacy would run as follows: - (1) Angus puts sugar on his porridge. - (2) No (true) Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. Therefore: - (3) Angus is not a (true) Scotsman. Therefore: - (4) Angus is not a counter-example to the claim that no Scotsmauts sugar on his porridge.

Bandwagon, Ad Populum, Appeal to the Crowd

The bandwagon fallacy cites the growing popularity of an idea as a reason for accepting it as true. This reasoning is faulty because it ignores other reasons that an idea might be popular, such as peer pressure or mass misunderstanding Examples: - Everyone walked out of the meeting. It was the smartest thing to do. - Everybody knows that the earth is flat. - You just have to go buy this new pair of shoes. Everybody is getting them.

Logical Fallacies

The phrase "logical fallacy" covers a wide range of errors in reasoning or faulty thinking. The information below lists different types and names of fallacies as well as provides a description and examples of each.

Broad Generalization, Sweeping Generalization

This fallacy applies a general statement too broadly. One commits the broad generalization fallacy by taking a general rule and applying it to a case in which the rule, due to the specifics of the case, does not apply. The opposite of a broad generalization is a hasty generalization, which infers a general rule from the specifics of one case Examples: - My sister at the university is in debt because college students can't manage their money. - My boyfriend won't let me pick him up because, he says, women can't drive. - Even though she's been twice before, I won't let my grandmother go to Indonesia because older people are too fragile to be very active

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (After This, Therefore because of This)

This fallacy assumes causation too easily on the basis of the mere succession of time. Examples: - I installed new software on my computer, and then my computer crashed; therefore, the new software caused my computer to crash. - The cat scratched me two days ago, and now I have this horrible cold. The cat must have given it to me. - I was failing this class until my friend gave me a lucky rabbit's foot, and now I'm doing great. It must be good luck. If I keep carrying my lucky charm, there's no way I can fail!

Ad hominem, argument to the person, personal attack

This fallacy attacks the character of a person making an argument rather than the argument itself. It also occurs when one tries to discredit a person's argument merely because the person stands to benefit from the policy he or she supports. Examples: - You can't trust Bill Clinton's political opinions because he's a cheater. - Maria claims that tax breaks give added incentives for businesses to develop. Of course, Maria is the president of a big company. - After reviewing the leading studies in her field, the professor, considered an expert, found that regular exercise increases one's life span. Critics discredit this finding by pointing out that the professor is a regular exerciser herself.

Appeal to Emotion

This fallacy attempts to persuade using emotion rather than evidence. Such appeals are fallacious because emotional responses are not always a good guide to truth; emotions can cloud, rather than clarify, issues. Examples: - Our new protein shake will make you feel great! - You will know true happiness once you feel the power of our product! - If we don't introduce stricter immigration laws, the terrorists will have won

Red Herring

This fallacy distracts the listener by introducing an irrelevant or secondary subject in order to divert attention from the primary issue. A red herring is typically a subject about which people have strong feelings, and so nobody notices how their attention is being misled. Examples: - You claim that the death penalty will not deter crime. But what about the victims of crime? - So you think that doctor-assisted suicide is morally acceptable? You probably also think that an unborn human being is just a "choice." - We should support stricter graduation requirements for our students. After all, we are in a budget crisis, and we don't want our salaries affected!

Appeal to Ignorance, Argument from Ignorance

This fallacy suggests that since no one has ever proved a particular claim, it must be false. Appeals to ignorance unfairly shift the burden of proof onto someone else. Examples: - Show me one study that proves cigarettes lead to heart disease - You have yet to show me any evidence that can prove Bigfoot does not exist. Therefore, it is reasonable for me to believe in it.

Slanted Language

Using words that carry strong positive or negative feelings can distract an audience, leading them away from the valid arguments one is making. Examples: - A person would have to be crazy to vote for such a crook. Choose the morally responsible, ethically upright thing and vote for me! - How can you believe the statistical mumbo jumbo provided by corrupted researchers living off tobacco industry grants?

Arguments by Analogy

When you argue by analogy, you argue from one specific case or example to another example, reasoning that because the two examples are similar in some ways, they are also similar in other ways that lead to your persuasive purpose.

Ethos

an appeal based on the nature of the person making the appeal. Examples: Jerome McCready, an American independent gubernatorial candidate said, "As a self-employed businessman, I have learned firsthand what it is like to try to make ends meet in an unstable economy being manipulated by out-of-touch politicians."

Apophasis

mention without mentioning; bringing it up by denying that you're going to bring it up. Examples: "I would never point out that you failed the quiz because you weren't paying attention in class and that every question you missed is something I directly stated in class. That would be mean. I'm just going to leave it to you to figure out why you flunked."

Juxtaposition

putting two things together to draw a particular conclusion; placing of two items side by side to create a certain effect, reveal an attitude, or accomplish some other purpose. Syncrisis is juxtaposition specifically to evaluate worth. Examples: Pointing out that Ms. Rice and I are both Humanities teachers but that we have very different teaching styles is juxtaposition. Pointing out that even though she and I are both Humanities teachers she can hold a class's attention for 47 minutes while people fall asleep in my class would be syncrisis because you're juxtaposing our teaching to show that she is more interesting and therefore better.

Syllogism

A logical argument: if both premises are true, conclusion will be true; just a way to organize. It might not always be in this exact format, but you'll see the order. ∵ a ∈ C & a has B ∀a ∈ C ∴ a has B

Testimonial, Appeal to Authority

A testimonial is fallacious when it comes from someone who is not a recognized authority in a relevant field. Even when testimonials do come from an expert in a relevant field, appeals to authority are problematic when direct observation or evidence can more accurately prove the argument, when the expert is biased, or when the expert's opinion is unrepresentative of his or her field. Examples: - "I'm not a doctor, but I play one on TV." - Leading dentists agree that this new deodorant is the best that's ever been made! - Although 98% of my colleagues disagree, I firmly believe that there is life on the moon.

Metabasis

A transitional statement in which one explains what has been and what will be said; a running summary of your speech as you go