Rhetorical Theory Final (UC Sharp)
According to Chapter Two, ______ is a term that refers to Virtue, personal excellence, the ability to manage one's personal affairs in an intelligent manner, and to succeed in public life. This term can be used to refer natural leadership ability.
Arete
Scholasticism was a closed and authoritarian approach to education centered on disputation over a fixed body of premises derived largely from the teachings of ___.
Aristotle
Whereas Plato had only hinted at the possibility of a true art of rhetoric in Phaedrus, in Rhetoric, ___ set out a systematic course in rhetoric.
Aristotle
___ refused to write devotional works and books on cooking. Instead, she wrote on philosophical issues and even penned an early work of science fiction called The Blazing World.
Cavendish
According to Chapter Two, ______ is a term used to refer to a rhetorical device that takes its name from the reversing of elements in adjacent clauses.
Chiasmus
Which classical rhetorician had the greatest influence on the shape of rhetorical theory and practice in the Middle Ages?
Cicero
___ rhetoric in the Middle Ages shaped education, civic administration, private life, and Church practice in a variety of ways.
Ciceronian
One classical rhetorician was pointed to as having had the greatest influence on the shape of rhetorical theory and practice in the Middle Ages. Which of this classical rhetorician's works was pointed to as providing the foundation for the vast majority of medieval rhetorical treatises and practices?
De Inventione
According to Chapter Two, ______ is a term used to describe premises that were widely believed or taken to be highly probable. This term is used to describe the probable premises from which dialectic began.
Endoxa
___ is the study of human character, one of the three artistic proofs.
Ethos
Burke's most famous contribution to rhetorical theory is known as his dramatistic pentad, presented in his work, A Grammar of Motives in 1945. As the name "dramatistic pentad" implies, the concept is drawn from the world of drama and divides rhetorical situations into five constituent elements for analysis. Burke sought in the pentad a "grammar of motives," that is, a means of understanding human motivation. The five elements of the pentad are the act, the scene, the agent, agency, and plan. Briefly, the act is what was done or is being done. The scene is the location of the act, its setting. The agent is the person performing the action, while the agency is the means by which the agent performs the act. Finally, the plan is the reason for the action, the intended goal.
False
George Kennedy points out that the Greek tradition of rhetoric is unusually cooperative, seeking agreement with opponents. He does not find this sort of cooperative orientation to be present in the rhetorical practices of other ancient cultures. Kennedy finds other rhetorical traditions to be more oriented toward seeking agreement, and thus less contentious than the Western rhetorical tradition.
False
Innovative and novel treatments of rhetoric provided the basis not just for rhetorical studies, but even for personal conduct. The popularization of interest in rhetoric was assisted in the sixteenth century by the appearance of rhetorical treatises in vernacular languages, particularly English. Thus, education in rhetoric became a possibility for anyone who could read.
False
Jacques Derrida advanced a wide-ranging and novel analysis of the hidden operations of language and discourse. Derrida held that language could not escape the built-in biases of the cultural history that produced it. He sought to reveal the underlying assumptions and irrationalities of the language of political discourse. One goal of his writing is to enlighten his readers to the mechanisms by which language entraps and coerces us, to the concealed power within symbols to dictate thought. Derrida's work of destabilizing discourse by dissecting its underlying structures of meaning and implication has been called excavation.
False
Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca divide the starting points of argumentation into the two categories of "the nexus" and "the maxus." Under the first heading they place well-established facts, widely accepted truths, and uncontested commitments called presumptions. Under the category of "the maxus" they place commonly held values, values arranged into hierarchies, and lines of argument concerning the preferable.
False
Sally Miller Gearhart argued that the history of rhetorical theory is a history of male rhetorical theory and practice, and as such says little if anything about women's understanding of or practice of critical thought and persuasion. Gearhart claims that "any intent to persuade is an act of peace."
False
Sonja Foss and Cindy Griffin have outlined what they term confrontational rhetoric, one that does not require or assume intent to persuade on the part of a source. These authors argue that an confrontational view of rhetoric offers a solution to the male influenced model centered on persuasion.
False
True of False According to Chapter One, one of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse is "Rhetoric Tests Ideas."
False
True or False According to Chapter Once, one of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse is that "rhetoric assists Advocacy."
False
True or False According to Chapter One, one of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse is "Rhetoric Distributes Power."
False
True or False According to Chapter Two, the Sophists developed a view of truth that was absolute. The Sophists developed a view of truth that was absolute. The Sophists Plato adhered to skeptical view that even questioned whether knowledge was possible.
False
True or False According to your reading of chapter three, justice is Greek term for a true art, which Plato contrasts to a sham art or "knack."
False
True or False According to your reading of chapter three, nomos is the Greek term for a belief, opinion, and/or public opinion.
False
True or False According to your reading of chapter three, rhetoric is Greek term employed by Plato to mean a mere belief, as contrasted to true knowledge.
False
True or False Augustine, a leader of the Christian Church, faced the dilemma that rhetoric was useful to the advancement and defense of Christianity, but was also the product of pagan authors of Greece and Rome. Some Christians were suspicious of rhetoric because of its pagan origins. Augustine's resolution of the dilemma was to recommend that Christians study rhetoric, on the reasoning that truth needed trained advocates to counter the promoters of false beliefs. The chapter discusses a second dilemma also faced by Augustine—that Christian teachers are commanded to speak about God, but that no language is adequate to discuss God. Augustine's partial solution of this dilemma was his relational theory, or his theory of symbols, in which he posited that the world is filled with symbols pointing us toward God.
False
True or False Because of the highly structured nature of ecclesiastical Europe, correspondence among various church and government officials came to be highly formalized. Singing hymns acknowledged and helped to maintain social structures.
False
abermas sought to identify the conditions of an unjust and irrational society. His ultimate goal was the liberation of the individual in an egalitarian discourse community. Habermas found the interactive process of critical argumentation a key to overcoming the ideological domination that obtains when a society is no longer rational. He called such critical discourse communicative action.
False
The Sophists' rhetoric, according to Plato, aimed only at persuasion about ___ through the manipulation of public opinion (doxa) or "mere belief" (pistis), whereas an adequate view of ___ must be grounded in true knowledge (episteme), and aim at the well-being of the individual and of the country. According to Plato, the rhetorician "is not a teacher of law courts and other public gatherings as to what is right or wrong, but merely a creator of beliefs . . . ."
Justice
___ is the study of arguments, one of Aristotle's three artistic proofs.
Logos
Plato held that the human soul is complex, consisting of three parts. Plato distinguished the soul's three parts by their characteristic ___. One part ___ wisdom, a second ___ nobility and honor, and a third part ___ appetites or lusts.
Loves
Augustine sought a true art of rhetoric that could be used in the service of Christianity. He believed that there were two tasks for the Christian teacher. One of these tasks is called ___, which refers to discovering divine truth in scriptures.
Modus Inveniendi
Augustine sought a true art of rhetoric that could be used in the service of Christianity. He believed that there were two tasks for the Christian teacher. One of these tasks is called ___, refers to which teaching divine truth to the congregation.
Modus Proferendi
According to Chapter Two, _______ is a term used to describe social custom or convention and is also used to describe rule by agreement among citizens.
Nomos
___ is the study of the psychology of emotion, one of Aristotle's three artistic proofs.
Pathos
According to Chapter Two, ______ is a term used to describe a poet and/or a leader of souls through a kind of incantation.
Psychagogos
Valla held that rhetoric, not philosophy, was the proper basis for education. His views had enormous influence on educational practices in their day and throughout the ___.
Renaissance
For Aristotle, ___ was "the faculty (dunamis) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion."
Rhetoric
According to Chapter One, which of the following is NOT listed as one of the 6 Social Functions of the Art of Rhetoric?
Rhetoric Addresses Contingent Issues
According to Chapter One, which of the following is not listed as one of the 6 Social Functions of the Art of Rhetoric?
Rhetoric Seeks Persuasion
According to Chapter One, which of the following is NOT listed as one of the 6 Social Functions of the Art of Rhetoric?
Rhetoric is Adapted to an Audience
he natural and human sciences are understood as ___ in a variety of ways. (1) Scientific writers must adapt discourse to audiences, must persuade those audiences, and frequently engage in a variety of discursive strategies to achieve their goal of persuasion; (2) Scientists, in having their findings accepted, face a rhetorical problem that demands and receives a rhetorical solution; (3) They must persuade an audience, and they do this by planning discursive strategies.
Rhetorical
Aristotle avoided the moralizing tone of Plato, and approached rhetoric in a pragmatic and ___ way.
Scientific
n order to know that our arguments are ready for appeal to the universal audience, the careful scrutiny that takes place when one person argues directly with another is helpful. Argumentation that is before a single hearer makes a special claim to "reasonableness" and provides another kind of test of arguments. The single hearer sometimes acts like an audience of one's opponents by advancing the counterarguments to one's own arguments. The single listener or reader carefully checks each step in the argumentation, raising objections to it, asking for clarifications, providing arguments in response. The individual listener can in some cases fulfill this role so well that he or she represents the universal audience. If our arguments succeed before an audience of a single, careful critic, they may be ready for the test of the universal audience.
True
Habermas found the interactive process of critical argumentation a key to overcoming the ideological domination that obtains when a society is no longer rational. He called such critical discourse ___
communicative action
he vita activa was contrasted to the life of ___, of which many rhetoricians were suspicious.
contemplation
According to Chapter One, Aristotle apparently thought that rhetoric comes into play when we are faced with practical questions about matters that confront everyone, and about which there are no definite and unavoidable answers. Such __________ questions require deliberation of the weighing of options, not proofs of the type that mathematical might use.
contingent
Habermas found the interactive process of ___ a key to overcoming the ideological domination that obtains when a society is no longer rational.
critical argumentation
___ is concerned that by over-extending the concept of rhetoric, we run the risk of trivializing rhetoric as a study. We also run the risk of leaving students uncertain as to the motives driving and boundaries limiting the study.
Gaonker
enaissance education's preoccupation with rhetoric was encouraged by a rising European interest in classical languages, particularly ___.
Greek
The "humanization of nature" takes place, not through rational or inferential thought, but rather through the innate human capacity to grasp similarities or relationships. The person of practical judgment must be able to discover similarities or analogies between unrelated things. This ability allows human beings to make sense of the world around them, which in turn allowed the initiation of civilization. Vico held that this innate human capacity for recognizing or grasping similarities among different objects was central to the linguistic nature of thought. Analogic thinking allowed insights which were crucial to the ordering and humanizing of the world. Thinking based on ___ is more rhetorical than logical; it results in insights rather than in deductions. It is therefore actually productive of new knowledge, and not merely of reformulations of things already known.
Ingenium
According to Chapter Two, ________ is a term which refers to the right of all male citizens to speak in the Athenian assembly.
Isegoria
In the interaction between Socrates and Polus, Plato compares rhetoric to the "knack" of cooking pleasing foods that make one feel better. Cookery, of course, involves no real knowledge of medicine or of restoring health to the body. Activities that achieve an effect without any true knowledge of how the effect is accomplished are not true arts. Rather, they are examples of "flattery" because they "aim at pleasure without consideration of what is best." The true art that restores lost health to a sick soul is called ___, not rhetoric.
Justice
Plato suggests in Gorgias that certain arts such as ___ and medicine are essential to society. Others, such as the Sophist's brand of rhetoric, are imitations of these essential arts.
Justice
Plato's general argument in Gorgias is that rhetoric as practiced by the Sophists does not embody an adequate conception of ___. This is a dangerous and deceptive activity for the individual and the state, because the Sophists misled their hearers on the most important issue.
Justice
A ___ was a true art. In order to achieve this status, a practice had to involve knowledge of a class of objects. In addition, the practitioner of a ___ should be able to give an account of the art, or explain how it achieves its goals. A ___ should also achieve a good result on a regular basis.
Techne
According to Chapter Two, _______ is a term used to describe a practical art, a science, or a systematic study.
Techne
In Gorgias, Plato criticized rhetoric as a kind of trickery, or a mere knack of persuasion. Aristotle, on the other hand, defined rhetoric as a ___, or true art.
Techne
In Phaedrus Plato considers the possibility of a rhetoric used for the good of the individual and of the society. A ___ of rhetoric would be an art useful for bringing about justice and harmony is society. A true art of rhetoric would be founded on knowledge of justice and of the human soul. The goal of rhetoric is to establish order in the individual and in the state. The wisdom-loving part of the soul persuades the other two parts to submit to its control. Similarly, wisdom-lovers in the society would also be engaged in the activity of persuading others to submit to their control.
Techne
Foucault's interest in language was in large measure a reflection of his interest in "the central problem of power." Power was not, for Foucault, a fixed and predictable element in social structures. Nor was it principally something imposed from above through social structures and hierarchies. Rather, power was a fluid concept closely connected to the strategies of discourse—with the ways we talk, and the systems of talk in which we participate. Foucault was particularly concerned with the systems of talk within the limits of various disciplines such as medicine or law or business. Such discourse systems, he maintained, control how we think and how we know. Power, for Foucault, is a matter of how discourse constrains what we can know.
True
George Campbell advanced a "scientific" rhetoric, but science for him meant something like what philosophy means today--an organized and rational account of a subject. His rhetoric reflects advances in psychology. Campbell connected eloquence to psychology. His theory of eloquence was based on the belief that the mind responds only to ideas it acknowledges as good or true.
True
Wayne Booth in The Rhetoric of Fiction examines the relationship between author and narrator, and between authorial intent and textual content. Booth notes that some works of fiction pretend to an authorial objectivity. That is, author's pretend not to be present in the voices of their characters. However, Booth affirms that the rhetoric of fiction is unavoidable, meaning that "the author's judgment is always present, always evident to anyone who knows how to look for it . . . ." Booth questioned whether a writer could adopt a value-neutral stance in writing. An author cannot achieve neutrality about values. A work's author is always present, never invisible.
True
Foucault believed that discursive texts, understanding the term very broadly, could be treated as archaeological artifacts, and that what they revealed was what he termed an archaeology of knowledge. Foucault's archaeological study was pursued in the search for the episteme of an age, that is, the totality of discursive practices of a society at a particular point in time. As Foucault moved through the various historical strata, he sought to reveal the conditions that allowed people at a particular time to manage the relationship between knowledge and discourse. Foucault sought the history of rational possibilities; he wished to understand the underlying potentialities that made certain thoughts possible at a given time in human history. An episteme is a way of organizing knowledge by regulating discourse, but it is more. It is an underlying and probably largely subconscious set of assumptions and operating hypothesis that make thought and social life possible. Foucault was interested in the discursive practices within a culture which provided the framework for knowledge, meaning, and power.
True
Bitzer defined an exigence as "an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing which is other than it should be." Not all exigencies, however, contribute to rhetorical situations. The particular exigence in question must be one capable of modification by discourse.
True
Feminist rhetorical theory represents a break with male-dominated rhetorics. Nevertheless, some scholars have argued for connections between contemporary feminist rhetorical theory and rhetorical models originating in Greece and Rome. Cicero's vision of the ideal orator joins a moral vision with a life lived for the betterment of the community. Here is a connection between ancient rhetorical theorists such as Cicero and contemporary feminist rhetoricians such as bell hooks.
True
Feminists have pointed up the problems for women that emerge from a male rhetorical history. Feminist critics have identified rhetoric as a particularly destructive influence on the fortunes of women in the west. They have noted that women's experience of the world differs from that of men for a number of reasons. Women's understanding, experience, meaning, and values are not represented by the male history of rhetoric. Women are denied a voice in culture, because their discourse has been excluded from the public realm. They have been denied access to power because they have been denied access to rhetoric. The exclusion of women from the rhetorical mainstream has resulted in the loss of women's meanings, and thus, it is argued, in the loss of women themselves as members of the social world. The exclusion of women from the history of rhetoric and public address are significant for a variety of reasons, but of perhaps the most immediate concern is the role of women as contributors to a democratic society.
True
For Bakhtin, all language is inherently ideological in at least two ways. First, language does not merely reflect, but actually constructs our view of the world. As a result, speaking and writing are never value-free. Second, to speak is to articulate a position, to give voice to a system of beliefs. Language is inherently social for two reasons. First, speech is fashioned from preexisting, historically bound linguistic material. Speech itself is the product of prior social processes. Second, we negotiate the meaning of every word we utter with the person to whom we speak. Thus, discourse always performs a social or relational function.
True
Foucault described his work as exploring archives, which he defined as the rules which, at a particular time and in a given society "define the limits and forms of the sayable." He understood this work as similar to that of the archaeologist digging through the strata revealing the physical or material life of earlier societies. Foucault sought the symbolic or linguistic lives of earlier societies.
True
George Campbell advanced a "scientific" rhetoric, but science for him meant something like what philosophy means today--an organized and rational account of a subject. His rhetoric reflects advances in psychology. Campbell connected eloquence to psychology. His theory of eloquence was based on the belief that the mind responds only to ideas it acknowledges as good or true. Campbell's rhetorical theory reflects the faculty psychology view that the mind consisted of the understanding, the imagination, the passions, and the will. For Campbell, each faculty spoke virtually its own language. For instance, the understanding spoke the language of logic, while the passion spoke the language of emotion. Each part performed a particular function. The understanding was informed and, when satisfied, responded with conviction. The imagination perceived beauty. The passions and will moved one toward action. Thus, each faculty has a part to play in the persuasive process. As he writes, "all the ends of speaking are reducible to four; every speech being intended to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, or to influence the will."
True
In "The Rhetorical Situation," Lloyd Bitzer argued that a rhetorical situation is marked by three elements: an audience, an exigence, and constraints. Bitzer defined an exigence as "an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing which is other than it should be." Not all exigencies, however, contribute to rhetorical situations. The particular exigence in question must be one capable of modification by discourse. The second element in the rhetorical situation is the audience. However, it is again important to point out that not all audiences are rhetorical audiences from Bitzer's point of view. A rhetorical audience is made up only of persons able to be influenced by discourse, and then to mediate change. Finally, Bitzer maintains that rhetorical situations exhibit constraints. Bitzer defines the concept of constraint as follows: "[C]onstraints [are] made up of persons, events, objects, and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence." Bitzer compares constraints to the artistic and inartistic proofs of Aristotle's Rhetoric. He apparently has in mind, then, that constraints are any factors that a rhetorician must contend with in the inventional process. They are factors both limiting and liberating the rhetor as arguments and appeals are both discovered and advanced for audience acceptance.
True
Language is inherently ideological in at least two ways: (1) language does not merely reflect, but actually constructs our view of the world. As a result, speaking and writing are never value-free, and (2) to speak is to articulate a position, to give voice to a system of beliefs.
True
Language is inherently social for two reasons: (1) Speech is fashioned from preexisting, historically bound linguistic material, and (2) we negotiate the meaning of every word we utter with the person to whom we speak. Thus, discourse always performs a social or relational function.
True
Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca define the universal audience as "the whole of mankind, or at least, of all normal, adult persons." The universal audience tests the reasonableness of arguments in a manner transcending local and personal biases. The universal audience is important in the effort to fashion reasonable arguments for particular audiences without bowing to local prejudices. Despite a local audience's response to an argument, writers and speakers must try also to imagine how any normal, rational individual would respond to it. Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca seek in the universal audience an audience of reasonable people available at all times to all rhetors, and not subject to the limitations and biases of any particular audience. In the universal audience, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca reveal their conviction that a rational and morally informed rhetor must possess a vision of the reasonable that transcends a particular social group or geographical location. The reasonable individual seeks a standard, which transcends an audience made up of her friends, or even of her opponents. Argumentation that wins the assent of the universal audience must reach a very high standard of rationality.
True
Renaissance rhetoricians were greatly interested in the active life of civic involvement, or the vita activa. Vico, for instance, found in rhetoric both a rich source for speculative thinking, and the key to practical living. Rhetoric was central to this active life, particularly rhetoric understood on the Ciceronian model of "the union of wisdom and eloquence." As Brian Vickers points out, rhetoric "taught one the essential powers of analysis as well as of presentation that assisted toward the solution of the practical problems facing any city or nation." The vita activa was contrasted to the life of contemplation, of which many rhetoricians were suspicious. Rhetoric applied reason to the solution of the practical problems of human life, and thus made social life possible.
True
Sheridan was particularly concerned with the poor quality of delivery in British public speaking, especially preaching. Delivery was a particular concern of Sheridan's, for it was intimately connected with convincing an audience of the urgency and truthfulness of one's message. Sheridan and other elocutionists emphasized delivery over the other traditional elements in the rhetorical art, such as invention or arrangement.
True
The belletristic movement expanded rhetoric into a study of literature, literary criticism, and writing generally. The movement was marked by an increased attention to matters of style as over against invention and argument.
True
The jian shi were traveling rhetoricians who advised rulers regarding a variety of matters. Their persuasion took place privately rather than publicly.
True
akhtin sought the possibility of a full voice for various perspectives in the novel in order that, as part of the Great Dialogue that is human existence, we might discover the best avenues to truth. Thus, Bakhtin admired the uniphonic nature of Dostoevsky's novels, the quality of each character being fully developed and speaking fully his or her perspective on the world. Bakhtin saw Dostoevsky's works as models for allowing equal voice to varied perspectives in the continuous dialogue among people about their conditions and the truths by which they live.
True
The natural and human sciences are understood as rhetorical in a variety of ways. Scientific writers must adapt discourse to audiences, must persuade those audiences, and frequently engage in a variety of discursive strategies to achieve their goal of persuasion. Scientists, in having their findings accepted, face a rhetorical problem that demands and receives a rhetorical solution. They must persuade an audience, and they do this by planning discursive strategies. John Campbell's work on Darwin, for example, illustrates the power of a rhetorical approach to scientific dilemmas. Campbell shows us a famous and highly influential scientist operating as a skilled and highly successful rhetorician. After reading Campbell's accounts, it is difficult to see Darwin simply as a scientist presenting simple facts. Campbell helps us to see that science itself is inherently rhetorical. Recently the idea that science is not rhetorical has been widely challenged. Some scientists acknowledge the degree to which rhetorical influences shape science itself. Rhetoricians have extended the analysis to other disciplines which were also considered to operate outside the realm of the rhetorical, including, as we have seen, to economics, psychology, anthropology, and biology. There is more to the pursuit of scientific truth than simply conducting experiments and publishing results. Science, it appears, is as rhetorical as are other human pursuits.
True
Thomas Sheridan sought to provide students with a guide to proper and effective public speaking, as well as the reform of education in Britain to correct the neglect of elocution or rhetorical delivery. Sheridan argued that poor preaching and speaking were actually threatening the health of religion, constitutional government, and morality.
True
Thomas Sheridan sought to provide students with a guide to proper and effectivepublic speaking, as well as the reform of education in Britain to correct the neglect of elocution or rhetorical delivery. Sheridan argued that poor preaching and speaking were actually threatening the health of religion, constitutional government , and morality.
True
True of False According to Chapter One, one of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse is that "Rhetoric Addresses Contingent issues."
True
True of False According to Chapter One, one of the 6 distinguishing characteristics of rhetorical discourse is that "Rhetoric Reveals human Motives."
True
True or False According to Chapter Two, the Sophists believed in an relative understanding of truth and culture. Thus they challenged with the notion that Greek culture was superior to other cultures and they challenged the idea that there were absolute truths as some philosophers taught.
True
True or False According to Chapter Two, the Sophists offered a kind of advanced education to anyone capable of paying their high fees. They did not select their students based on family connections or social status. Offering rhetorical training strictly on the basis of ability to pay allowed a much wider range of Athenians access to education, and in the process threatened some members of the aristocracy. Sophists were highly controversial in Athens. They professed to teach virtue, which many Greeks doubted could be taught. The sophists taught for pay, which was frowned upon. They also were often itinerants, traveling from place to place looking for work.
True
True or False Aristotle calls the enthymema or enthymeme "a sort of syllogism." A syllogism is a deductive argument moving from a general premise to a specific and necessary conclusion. Rhetoric is constructed of arguments involving premises shared by the speaker and audience. That is, an enthymeme depends on a previous agreement about a belief, a value, or preference. "Enthymeme" literally means "held in the mind," and enthymemes have at least one reason or claim which both the speaker and members of the audience believe or hold in common. So clear is the agreement on the shared claim that it might not even be stated in the speech itself. Thus, the enthymeme is constructed or completed by rhetor and audience at the same time. Rhetoric in any settings is characterized by enthymemes.
True
True or False For Aristotle, an "artistic proof" was a means of persuasion or "proof" that belonged to the study or "art" of rhetoric. Aristotle contrasted these to "inartistic proofs," or means of persuasion--documents, for example--about which rhetoric offered no instruction.
True
True or False Rhetoric was appropriated to the needs of a vast church hierarchy. The art most easily associated with the purposes of the church was preaching. From the late eleventh century through the fifteenth, preaching was an important and popular art in Europe. The principal goal of preaching was moral instruction of congregants, which meant persuasion toward moral behavior. The need to teach Christian principles to a largely illiterate and almost entirely Christian public called for a rhetoric of preaching.
True
True or False Seven studies made up Martianus Capella's liberal arts. These seven are grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and harmonics. They were divided among the four major or advanced studies of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics called the quadrivium; and the three fundamental studies of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, called the trivium.
True
True or False The Middle Ages is considered a period of fragmentation in rhetorical Theory. During the Middle Ages, European scholars did not have many ancient rhetorical works available to them. They often worked from partial texts, or even from individual sentences or brief sections of classical works known as sententiae. In addition, medieval Europeans knew very little about Greek rhetorical theory, and only a few works of Roman rhetoric.
True
Vico objected to the scientific rationalism of Descartes, and his tendency to dismiss rhetoric in favor of mathematical proofs. Vico argued that mathematics was also dependent on symbols, and that scientific rationalism ignored the rhetorical nature of human thought.
True
Wayne Booth affirms that the rhetoric of fiction is unavoidable, meaning that "the author's judgment is always present, always evident to anyone who knows how to look for it.
True
After carefully reading chapter 4 and taking insanely copious notes, please choose the one term that will fill all, yes ALL, of the following blanks: Rhetoric and ___ represent two complementary and often similar arts of reasoning to probable conclusions on a wide range of topics. In fact, Aristotle asserted that "rhetoric is the counterpart of ___." ___ was a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted propositions. ___ was often employed for resolving foundational questions in philosophy. ___ allowed one to reason on both sides of a question, and thus assisted discovery of knowledge. Rhetoric is similar to ___ in that it employs commonly held opinions as starting points for argument, and in that it is not limited to a specific class of questions. However, rhetoric develops proofs of a type not found in ___—proofs from character and emotion—and it is useful in resolving practical issues of public significance, like those which arise in the political and judicial arenas. The typical form of rhetoric is the speech, and its typical argument is the enthymeme. ___ is typically a matter of briefly stated questions and relatively brief answers, and its typical argument is the syllogism. In addition, the audience for rhetoric is usually larger and not specially trained in reasoning, as contrasted with the single skillful interlocutor or small group of trained advocates that would be the typical audience for ___. Rhetoric is usually directed toward resolving a specific issue such as, "Is Cleanthes guilty of robbing Chaerophon?" ___, on the other hand, addresses general questions such as, "Is it better to suffer injustice, or to commit injustice?"
dialectic
Rhetoric was ___ in the Renaissance curriculum.
dominant
__ is the rhetorical device or trope in which the part substitutes for the whole.
metonym
Madame de Scudery broke with the dominant oratorical model that had prevailed from classical times, and introduced instead a ___ model of rhetoric that invited the opinions of all individuals participating in her salons.
onversational
According to Chapter One, a __________ is anyone engaged in preparing or presenting rhetorical discourse
rhetor
Vico posited that human thinking developed according to four rhetorical ___. The first of these was metaphor, or a comparison of things not apparently similar. Early poets, for instance, compared objects to people, and thus anthropomorphised nature by attributing to inanimate objects human qualities such as emotion. The other three are important to the development of human thought were metonym (the substitution of the part for the whole), synecdoche (wherein the whole object represents the part), and irony (where indirect statement carries meaning). Vico held that rhetoric was essential to all of the arts, and all human ways of making sense of the world. By means of language, humans have imposed order on a fundamentally disordered nature.
tropes
Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca define the ___ as "the whole of mankind, or at least, of all normal, adult persons."
universal audience
Rhetoric was central to this active life, particularly rhetoric understood on the Ciceronian model of "the union of ___ and ___."
wisdom, eloquence
