Rococo Art Test

The Raft of the Medusa

At the Salon of 1819, the title ____ ______ __ ___ ______ was changed to simply A Shipwreck Scene, in order to avoid the politically inflammatory reference to the specific disaster whose cause lay in royal Bourbon favoritism.

A Shipwreck Scene

At the Salon of 1819, the title The Raft of the Medusa was changed to simply _ ________ _______, in order to avoid the politically inflammatory reference to the specific disaster whose cause lay in royal Bourbon favoritism.

must obey the laws or be forced to do so as long as they remained a resident of the state.

In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's direct democracy, all citizens

people give up all their rights to "the whole community," all the people.

In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract,

The Oath of the Horatii (1784)

What is the name of this painting?

The Oxbow (Connecticut River near Northampton) (1836)

What is the name of this painting?

The Raft of the Medusa (1818-19)

What is the name of this painting?

The Shore of the Turquoise Sea (1878)

What is the name of this painting?

The Swing (1768)

What is the name of this painting?

The Third of May (1808, 1814-15)

What is the name of this painting?

The Wolf River, Kansas (1859)

What is the name of this painting?

Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851)

What is the name of this painting?

Escorial Deposition (1435)

What is the name of this painting? (Note: this is just a part of the painting)

private property

What is the root of inequality, murder, and war according to Rousseau?

Louis XIII

When King Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, his nine-year-old son, _________, inherited the throne.

Chasm of the Colorado (1874)

What is the name of this painting?

Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi (1785)

What is the name of this painting?

Death of Sardanapalus (1826)

What is the name of this painting?

Domes of the Yosemite (1867)

What is the name of this painting?

Emperor Napoleon (1807)

What is the name of this painting?

Escorial Deposition (1435)

What is the name of this painting?

Coup of 18-19 Brumaire

(November 9-10, 1799), a coup d'état planned by the Director Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès and the former foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord with the support of the young general Napoleon Bonaparte that overthrew the Directory in France and replaced it with the Consulate, making way for the despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Grace at Table (1740)

What is the name of this painting?

examined the limitations of human reason and of human capacity to understand the world

18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant

Napoleon Bonaparte

A French Revolutionary general from Corsica who successfully lead the French Revolutionary Army in Northern Italy during the War of the First Coalition and who seized power during the Coup of Brumaire. After seizing power in November 1799, he effectively ruled as a dictator in the newly-established Consulate. As First Consul, he established a national education system, formulated a new constitution, signed an agreement with the Catholic Church known as the Concordat, and created the Napoleonic Code, a universal legal code for the whole of France. In 1804, he declared the First Empire of the French and crowned himself Emperor of the French. He lead a series of wars against the European powers before being defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 during the War of the Sixth Coalition, after which he was deposed and exiled to the isle of Elba. After escaping Elba in the March of 1815, he seized power from the restored Bourbon monarch King Louis XVIII and once again ruled France for one hundred days before being defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo. After his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he was imprisoned on the island of Saint Helena, where he died.

lévee en masse

A decree by the National Convention on 23 August 1793. All unmarried able-bodied men between 18 and 25 were requisitioned with immediate effect for military service. This significantly increased the number of men in the army, reaching a peak of about 1,500,000 in September 1794, although the actual fighting strength probably peaked at no more than 800,000. In addition, much of the civilian population was turned towards supporting the armies through armaments production and other war industries as well as supplying food and provisions to the front.

Tennis Court Oath

A dramatic act of defiance by representatives of the nonprivileged classes of the French nation (the Third Estate) during the meeting of the Estates-General (traditional assembly) at the beginning of the French Revolution. The deputies of the Third Estate, realizing that in any attempt at reform they would be outvoted by the two privileged orders, the clergy and the nobility, had formed, on June 17, a National Assembly. Finding themselves locked out of their usual meeting hall at Versailles on June 20 and thinking that the king was forcing them to disband, they moved to a nearby indoor tennis court (salle du jeu de paume). There they took an oath never to separate until a written constitution had been established for France. In the face of the solidarity of the Third Estate, King Louis XVI relented and on June 27 ordered the clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly.

Liberty Leading the People (1830)

What is the name of this painting?

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A law passed on 12 July 1790 during the French Revolution, that subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government. Forced all clergy members to swear allegiance to the new form of government. Angered the rural peasantry, which felt that the Church was being attacked. Confiscated and sold Church land to raise funds and solve the debt crisis. Issued notes representing confiscated Church land.

Limbs (1818)

What is the name of this painting?

The Great Fear

A period of panic and riot by peasants and others between 17 July and 3 August 1789 amid rumours of an "aristocratic conspiracy" by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate. The gathering of troops around Paris provoked insurrection, and on July 14 the Parisian rabble seized the Bastille. In the provinces the peasants rose against their lords, attacking châteaus and destroying feudal documents. To check the peasants, the National Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of the feudal regime and introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Jean-Paul Marat

A physician, political theorist and scientist best known for his career in France as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. His journalism became renowned for its fierce tone, uncompromising stance toward the new leaders and institutions of the revolution, and advocacy of basic human rights for the poorest members of society. One of the most radical voices of the French Revolution. He became a vigorous defender of the sans-culottes, publishing his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers, notably his L'Ami du peuple (Friend of the People), which helped make him their unofficial link with the radical, republican Jacobin Club that came to power after June 1793. He was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, while taking a medicinal bath for his debilitating skin condition. In his death, he became an icon to the Jacobins as a revolutionary martyr, as portrayed in Jacques-Louis David's famous painting.

regicide

A prominent Jacobin named Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the ________ cause, the murder was heaven-sent. Jacques-Louis David quickly organized a state funeral. As the headless body of Louis XVI was being quietly reduced to nothing in a lime pit, Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau was given death rites rivaling those held by Achilles for Patroclus in the Iliad. (David had painted this very subject as a student in Rome.) The draped corpse was displayed in the Place Vendome on a high catafalque. Antique candelabras and tripods with smoking incense flanked the pedestal. The lying in state lasted four days; it was said that even those who never knew Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau publicly wept for him. David also produced a painting of Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau on his bier, which was hung behind the speaker's chair at the Convention. Lest anyone forget why he was being so honored, David painted in Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau's ballot paper, on which could be read, "I vote the death of the tyrant."

Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau

A prominent Jacobin named __________ __ ______-________, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. Jacques-Louis David quickly organized a state funeral. As the headless body of King Louis XVI was being quietly reduced to nothing in a lime pit, ____________ __ ______-__________ was given death rites rivaling those held by Achilles for Patroclus in the Iliad. (David had painted this very subject as a student in Rome.) The draped corpse was displayed in the Place Vendome on a high catafalque. Antique candelabras and tripods with smoking incense flanked the pedestal. The lying in state lasted four days; it was said that even those who never knew __________ __ ______-________ publicly wept for him. Jacques-Louis David also produced a painting of ___________ __ _______-__________ on his bier, which was hung behind the speaker's chair at the Convention. Lest anyone forget why he was being so honored, David painted in ____________ __ ______-________'s ballot paper, on which could be read, "I vote the death of the tyrant."

Jacobin

A prominent ________ named Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. Jacques-Louis David quickly organized a state funeral. As the headless body of Louis XVI was being quietly reduced to nothing in a lime pit, Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau was given death rites rivaling those held by Achilles for Patroclus in the Iliad. (David had painted this very subject as a student in Rome.) The draped corpse was displayed in the Place Vendome on a high catafalque. Antique candelabras and tripods with smoking incense flanked the pedestal. The lying in state lasted four days; it was said that even those who never knew Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau publicly wept for him. David also produced a painting of Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau on his bier, which was hung behind the speaker's chair at the Convention. Lest anyone forget why he was being so honored, David painted in Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau's ballot paper, on which could be read, "I vote the death of the tyrant."

Maximilien Robespierre

A radical Jacobin leader and one of the principal figures in the French Revolution. In the latter months of 1793 he came to dominate the Committee of Public Safety, the principal organ of the Revolutionary government during the Reign of Terror, but in 1794 he was overthrown and executed in the Thermidorian Reaction.

National Convention

A single-chamber assembly in France from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire IV under the Convention's adopted calendar) during the French Revolution. It succeeded the Legislative Assembly and founded the First Republic. The first French assembly elected by universal male suffrage, without distinctions of class. Imposed price controls, issued the Levy en Masse, abolished the monarchy and slavery, tried and executed King Louis XVI, introduced a new calendar system, formed the Committee of Public Safety, launched a process of "de-Christianization", established the Cult of the Supreme Being, standardized weights and measures, and successfully waged war against the European powers.

Declaration of Pillnitz

A statement issued on 27 August 1791 at Pillnitz Castle near Dresden (Saxony) by Frederick William II of Prussia and the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II who was Marie Antoinette's brother. It declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and of Prussia for King Louis XVI of France against the French Revolution.

What Is the Third Estate?

Abbe Sieyes writes a pamphlet entitled

the need for food

According to Charles Montesquieu, what motivated humans to associate with each other and to seek to live in a society?

an absolute monarchy

According to Hobbes, the best form that the sovereign could take was

with the people, exercising their general will.

According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, all political power must reside

free, equal, peaceful, and happy

According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, humans in a state of nature were

the people have the right to overthrow him

According to John Locke, should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property,

an agreement between the people and the sovereign.

According to John Locke, the social contract was

the law-making legislature

According to John Locke, the supreme authority of government should reside in

they had no right to revolt against him.

According to Thomas Hobbes, once the people had given absolute power to the king,

the separation of powers

According to the theory of ____ _________ __ ______ (put forward by Montesquieu), the best guarantee of individual rights lay in the creation of separate and independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, each of which would provide checks and balances to the powers of others.

European overseas empires

Another factor in the development of the new attitudes of the Enlightenment was the growth of the ___________ _________ __________.

Enlightenment

Another factor in the development of the new attitudes of the _____________ was the growth of the European overseas empires.

a "white terror" led to a wave of executions of former revolutionaries and the victimization of very many others.

After the Thermidorian Reaction on July 27th, 1794,

the defeated Girondins fled Paris to stir up revolt in the provinces. The Girondins allied with big merchants, middle class landowners, and aristocrats. Within weeks, much of southern and western France was controlled by Girondin counterrevolutionaries. The Vendée was held by royalists, anti-Jacobins handed the southern port of Toulon over to the British, foreign armies marched towards Paris, and a young Girondin named Charlotte Corday assassinated Jean-Paul Marat.

After the successful pro-Jacobin insurrections in the early summer of 1793 in Paris, the Revolution was beset on all sides by enemies:

absolute monarchy

Although Thomas Hobbes provided a defense for _________ __________, Thomas Hobbes made a break with the past in applying the scientific method-philosophical, rational explanations-to government.

scientific method

Although Thomas Hobbes provided a defense for absolute monarchy, Thomas Hobbes made a break with the past in applying the ________ ______-philosophical, rational explanations-to government.

philosophical, rational explanations

Although Thomas Hobbes provided a defense for absolute monarchy, Thomas Hobbes made a break with the past in applying the scientific method-____________, _______ _________-to government.

Thomas Hobbes

Although _______ ________ provided a defense for absolute monarchy, ________ ________ made a break with the past in applying the scientific method-philosophical, rational explanations-to government.

Madwoman (Envy) (1822-23)

What is the name of this painting?

The Concordat

An agreement reached on July 15, 1801, between Napoleon Bonaparte and papal and clerical representatives in both Rome and Paris, defining the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ending the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution. It was formally promulgated on Easter day, 1802. In the agreement the first consul (Napoleon) was given the right to nominate bishops; the bishoprics and parishes were redistributed; and the establishment of seminaries was allowed. The pope (Pius VII) condoned the actions of those who had acquired church property, and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the bishops and curés suitable salaries. This agreement restored the Vatican's authority over the French clergy and reestablished traditional Catholic practices in France.

French Academies

As a leading patron of culture, King Louis XIV sponsored the ______ ________, which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences. During his reign, French culture, manners, and customs replaced those of Renaissance Italy as the standard for European taste. In both foreign and domestic affairs, however, many of Louis's policies were costly failures.

King Louis XIV

As a leading patron of culture, _____ _______ _____ sponsored the French Academies, which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences.

August Decrees

As stories of the Great Fear spread, on August 4th, 1789 the National Constituent Assembly decided to end many of the privileges of the nobility by abolishing the system of dues and taxes that peasants had to make to the nobility, the nobility's exclusive hunting rights, private tolls, the payment of tithes, the purchase of public offices. These decrees are known as the:

emphasized the importance of ethical thought as a guide to conduct

Baruch Spinoza, the son of a Jewish family in Amsterdam, made his living as a grinder of lenses for spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes. Baruch Spinoza developed a system of philosophy that ________________________________________________________________________. His philosophy questioned the organized religions of his day, both Judaism and Christianity. Although he believed in God, Baruch Spinoza denied the divine inspiration of the Bible and rejected miracles and all religious manifestations of the supernatural. To him, ethics determined by human reason were more important than the tenets of revealed religion.

questioned

Baruch Spinoza, the son of a Jewish family in Amsterdam, made his living as a grinder of lenses for spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes. Baruch Spinoza developed a system of philosophy that emphasized the importance of ethical thought as a guide to conduct. His philosophy ____________ the organized religions of his day, both Judaism and Christianity. Although he believed in God, Baruch Spinoza denied the divine inspiration of the Bible, and rejected miracles and all religious manifestations of the supernatural. To him, ethics determined by human reason were more important than the tenets of revealed religion.

denied the divine inspiration of the Bible and rejected miracles and all religious manifestations of the supernatural

Baruch Spinoza, the son of a Jewish family in Amsterdam, made his living as a grinder of lenses for spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes. Baruch Spinoza developed a system of philosophy that emphasized the importance of ethical thought as a guide to conduct. His philosophy questioned the organized religions of his day, both Judaism and Christianity. Although he believed in God, Baruch Spinoza __________________________________________________________________________. To him, ethics determined by human reason were more important than the tenets of revealed religion.

ethics determined by human reason were more important than the tenets of revealed religion.

Baruch Spinoza, the son of a Jewish family in Amsterdam, made his living as a grinder of lenses for spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes. Baruch Spinoza developed a system of philosophy that emphasized the importance of ethical thought as a guide to conduct. His philosophy questioned the organized religions of his day, both Judaism and Christianity. Although he believed in God, Baruch Spinoza denied the divine inspiration of the Bible, and rejected miracles and all religious manifestations of the supernatural. To Spinoza, ________________________________________________________________________.

cut away the great obstacles inherited from the past to a fully market based society.

Being driven by the bourgeoisie, the French Revolution

eighty

Between 1808 and 1814, Spain was occupied by Napoleonic forces and, through passionate guerrilla warfare, maintained a bloody resistance to the foreign invaders. Goya quietly recorded, like a photographer at the front, his eyewitness experience of rape, pillaging, murder, mutilation, compiling a grisly, but all too factual anthology that was only to be published posthumously, in 1863, as a series of ______ etchings, the Disasters of War.

Disasters of War

Between 1808 and 1814, Spain was occupied by Napoleonic forces and, through passionate guerrilla warfare, maintained a bloody resistance to the foreign invaders. Goya quietly recorded, like a photographer at the front, his eyewitness experience of rape, pillaging, murder, mutilation, compiling a grisly, but all too factual anthology that was only to be published posthumously, in 1863, as a series of eighty etchings, the _________ __ ____.

Goya

Between 1808 and 1814, Spain was occupied by Napoleonic forces and, through passionate guerrilla warfare, maintained a bloody resistance to the foreign invaders. ______ quietly recorded, like a photographer at the front, his eyewitness experience of rape, pillaging, murder, mutilation, compiling a grisly, but all too factual anthology that was only to be published posthumously, in 1863, as a series of eighty etchings, the Disasters of War.

Napoleonic

Between 1808 and 1814, Spain was occupied by ____________ forces and, through passionate guerrilla warfare, maintained a bloody resistance to the foreign invaders.

Spain

Between 1808 and 1814, _______ was occupied by Napoleonic forces and, through passionate guerrilla warfare, maintained a bloody resistance to the foreign invaders.

before

Both John Comenius and Hugo Grotius wrote ______ the Enlightenment.

The Raft of the Medusa

By conferring tragic status upon anonymous victims rather than classical or modern military heroes, by demonstrating that the human potential of terror and chaos was more compelling than that of reason and order, Gericault set out to destroy the premises of Davidian traditions, while nevertheless working within their language of ideal form. Indeed, like Goya's The Third of May 1808, painted only five years before, ____ ____ __ ___ _______ extinguishes the Age of Enlightenment, revealing the dark and the terrifying truths that lie below the layer of reason. And in terms of French history painting, ___ _____ __ ___ ______ offers the fullest contradiction of David's epic veneration of human will and heroic action.

Gericault

By conferring tragic status upon anonymous victims rather than classical or modern military heroes, by demonstrating that the human potential of terror and chaos was more compelling than that of reason and order, _________ set out to destroy the premises of Davidian traditions, while nevertheless working within their language of ideal form. Indeed, like Goya's The Third of May 1808 (fig. 28), painted only five years before, The Raft of the Medusa extinguishes the Age of Enlightenment, revealing the dark and the terrifying truths that lie below the layer of reason. And in terms of French history painting, The Medusa offers the fullest contradiction of David's epic veneration of human will and heroic action.

Cardinal Jules Mazarin

Cardinal Armand Richelieu handpicked his able successor, _________ _______ _______. When five-year-old Louis XIV inherited the throne in 1643, the year after Richelieu's death, _________ ______ _______ was in place to serve as chief minister. Like Richelieu, _________ _______ ________ worked tirelessly to extend royal power.

the legislative, executive, and judicial powers were separate and kept each other in check to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful

Charles Montesqieu believed that the best form of government was one in which

the English constitutional monarchy

Charles Montesqieu favored which system of government?

individuals were so fearful that they avoided violence and war

Charles Montesquieu believe that in the state of nature

maintain law and order, political liberty, and the property of the individual

Charles Montesquieu wrote that the main purpose of government is to

The intertwining of the interests of the nobility and the bourgeoisie did not stop them being attracted towards opposite visions of French society. One looked back to the past, to the defense of aristocratic privilege and feudal dues against all change. The other looked towards a society built around the formal equality of the marketplace, where ancestry alone could not hold back the 'man on the make'.

Chris Harman on the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy in France:

Napoleon at St. Bernard (1800)

What is the name of this painting?

the importance of the individual and his rights as a member of the society

Define individualism:

the conviction of Enlightenment theorists that humans had the ability to arrive at the truth through the power of reasoning

Define rationalism:

the idea that different ideas, cultures, religions, values, and behavior have equal merit to one's own

Define relativism:

The basic principle of this document was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" (Article 1), which were specified as the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression (Article 2). All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly (Article 6); no one was to be arrested without a judicial order (Article 7). Freedom of religion (Article 10) and freedom of speech (Article 11) were safeguarded within the bounds of public "order" and "law."

Describe the contents of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen:

Estates General

During his reign, King Louis XIV did not once call a meeting of the _________ ________, the medieval council made up of representatives of all French social classes. In fact, the _________ _______ did not meet between 1614 and 1789. Thus, unlike the English Parliament, the ________ __________ played no role in checking royal power.

not only royalists, Girondins, and other counterrevolutionaries but also left-wing populists such as Jacques-René Hébert who represented the interests of the sans-culottes and moderate Jacobins such as Danton who were known for their corruption.

During the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety targeted

many of the Directors were corrupt and wasted money, economic conditions were bad, and famine stalked part of France. However, the Directory was successful in its war policies.

During the reign of the Directory,

20,000 nobles left France

During the summer months of 1789,

Napoleon Bonaparte

Early on Jacques-Louis David portrays _________ __________ as the visionary military hero, crossing the Saint-Bernard Pass on a fiery white stallion (in point of fact, __________ __________ had quite sensibly made the crossing on a mule). Later, there is ___________ __________ as the tireless statesman, posed in front of a desk piled high with papers and a copy of the code __________. Most famously, David immortalized ___________ __________ as emperor in the great coronation picture, which now takes up more than 600 square feet of wall space at the Louvre. As a display of imperial power and pomp, it has few rivals in the history of art--and it pleased __________ ________ immensely. Jacques-Louis David was made First Painter to the Emperor.

The French economy grew at 1.9 percent a year throughout the 18th century. Textile output grew 250 percent, coal output seven or eightfold, and iron output from 40,000 tons to 140,000 tons. By 1789 a fifth of France's population were employed in industry or handicrafts.

Economic growth in France prior to the Revolution:

the upper and middle classes of France

Enlightenment ideas were popular among

improve conditions on earth rather than concern themselves with religion and the afterlife.

Enlightenment thinkers wanted to

an assembly of representatives from each of the three Estates of the Ancien Regime

Estates General:

Jean-Paul Marat

Even by the gory standards of revolutionary Paris, the funeral rites for ____-_____ _______ were a macabre spectacle. A radical journalist and self-styled "Friend of the People," _____-_____ _______ had been stabbed to death as he sat working in his bath on the night of July 13, 1793.

Clergy

First Estate:

a trial held by the National Convention found King Louis XVI guilty of treason and sentenced him to death.

In January 1793,

from the summer of 1793 to the summer of 1794

France was now swept by Jean-Paul Marat mania. Prints of the dead Jean-Paul Marat were distributed by the thousands; a play and songs told his Story; more than 30 towns were renamed in his honor. One patriotic parent even christened his son Brutus-Lepelletier-Marat. It was in the name of these martyrs to liberty that the concept of a holy purge--the Terror--took monstrous shape; its chief instrument a bookish and ascetic lawyer from Arras named Maximilien Robespierre. In the terrible months ______________________________________ there were at least 16,000 Frenchmen put to death across the country. During the Terror, the Committee of Public Instruction--David served on it with particular distinction--had the task of inculcating patriotic (Jacobin) ideals on a mass scale. Exhibitions, concerts, theatrical performances and a whole range of public "entertainments" were systematically transformed into organs of republican edification. None were more effective than festivals, of which David was the unrivaled impresario.

festivals

France was now swept by Jean-Paul Marat mania. Prints of the dead Jean-Paul Marat were distributed by the thousands; a play and songs told his Story; more than 30 towns were renamed in his honor. One patriotic parent even christened his son Brutus-Lepelletier-Marat. It was in the name of these martyrs to liberty that the concept of a holy purge--the Terror--took monstrous shape; its chief instrument a bookish and ascetic lawyer from Arras named Maximilien Robespierre. In the terrible months from the summer of 1793 to the summer of 1794 there were at least 16,000 Frenchmen put to death across the country. During the Terror, the Committee of Public Instruction--Jacques-Louis David served on it with particular distinction--had the task of inculcating patriotic (Jacobin) ideals on a mass scale. Exhibitions, concerts, theatrical performances and a whole range of public "entertainments" were systematically transformed into organs of republican edification. None were more effective than ________, of which Jacques-Louis David was the unrivaled impresario.

Committee of Public Instruction

France was now swept by Jean-Paul Marat mania. Prints of the dead Jean-Paul Marat were distributed by the thousands; a play and songs told his Story; more than 30 towns were renamed in his honor. One patriotic parent even christened his son Brutus-Lepelletier-Marat. It was in the name of these martyrs to liberty that the concept of a holy purge--the Terror--took monstrous shape; its chief instrument a bookish and ascetic lawyer from Arras named Maximilien Robespierre. In the terrible months from the summer of 1793 to the summer of 1794 there were at least 16,000 Frenchmen put to death across the country. During the Terror, the ___________ __ _____ _________--Jacques-Louis David served on it with particular distinction--had the task of inculcating patriotic (Jacobin) ideals on a mass scale. Exhibitions, concerts, theatrical performances and a whole range of public "entertainments" were systematically transformed into organs of republican edification. None were more effective than festivals, of which David was the unrivaled impresario.

Napoleon at his Study (1812)

What is the name of this painting?

Maximilien Robespierre

France was now swept by Jean-Paul Marat mania. Prints of the dead Jean-Paul Marat were distributed by the thousands; a play and songs told his Story; more than 30 towns were renamed in his honor. One patriotic parent even christened his son Brutus-Lepelletier-Marat. It was in the name of these martyrs to liberty that the concept of a holy purge--the Terror--took monstrous shape; its chief instrument a bookish and ascetic lawyer from Arras named ___________ ______________. In the terrible months from the summer of 1793 to the summer of 1794 there were at least 16,000 Frenchmen put to death across the country. During the Terror, the Committee of Public Instruction--David served on it with particular distinction--had the task of inculcating patriotic (Jacobin) ideals on a mass scale. Exhibitions, concerts, theatrical performances and a whole range of public "entertainments" were systematically transformed into organs of republican edification. None were more effective than festivals, of which David was the unrivaled impresario.

the Terror

France was swept by Jean-Paul Marat mania. Prints of the dead Jean-Paul Marat were distributed by the thousands; a play and songs told his Story; more than 30 towns were renamed in his honor. One patriotic parent even christened his son Brutus-Lepelletier-Marat. It was in the name of these martyrs to liberty that the concept of a holy purge--___ _______--took monstrous shape; its chief instrument a bookish and ascetic lawyer from Arras named Maximilien Robespierre. In the terrible months from the summer of 1793 to the summer of 1794 there were at least 16,000 Frenchmen put to death across the country. During ___ _______, the Committee of Public Instruction--David served on it with particular distinction--had the task of inculcating patriotic (Jacobin) ideals on a mass scale. Exhibitions, concerts, theatrical performances and a whole range of public "entertainments" were systematically transformed into organs of republican edification. None were more effective than festivals, of which David was the unrivaled impresario.

1789

French Revolution began in

the Napoleonic Code

French civil code enacted on March 21, 1804, and still extant, with revisions. Established a national legal code for the entirety of France. It was the main influence on the 19th-century civil codes of most countries of continental Europe and Latin America. Under the code all male citizens are equal: primogeniture, hereditary nobility, and class privileges are extinguished; civilian institutions are emancipated from ecclesiastical control; freedom of person, freedom of contract, and inviolability of private property are fundamental principles. The code subordinated women to their fathers and husbands, who controlled all family property, determined the fate of children, and were favored in divorce proceedings. Established freedom of religion, public education, limited economic and commercial rights for women, the legal equality of all French citizens, and abolished the feudal system and the aristocracy.

The Consulate

French government established after the Coup of 18-19 Brumaire (Nov. 9-10, 1799), during the French Revolution. The Constitution of the Year VIII created an executive consisting of three consuls, but the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, wielded all real power, while the other two, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès and Pierre-Roger Ducos (1747-1816), were figureheads. The principles of representation and legislative supremacy were discarded. The executive branch was given the power to draft new laws, and the legislative branch became little more than a rubber stamp. Elections became an elaborate charade, with voters stripped of real power. Napoleon abolished this system of government when he declared himself emperor in 1804.

actively encouraged reform of the French political, social, and economic system.

French intellectuals in the 18th century

Festival of the Supreme Being

If the Festival of Unity had heralded the beginning of the Terror, the _______ __ ___ ________ _____ marked the beginning of its end.

Huguenots and Catholics

From the 1560s to the 1590s, religious wars between ___________ ____ _________ tore France apart.

Festival of Unity

If the ________ __ _____ had heralded the beginning of the Terror, the Festival of the Supreme Being marked the beginning of its end.

Napoleon at the Pest House at Jaffa (1804)

What is the name of this painting?

the most heroic moments of the Spanish resistance

Goya proposed to the interregnum regency council in Madrid that he paint ___________________________________________, and they agreed. The results were two enormous paintings that provide a two-part documentation of (1) the popular insurrection against the French mercenary forces at the Puerta del Sol, Madrid, on May 2, 1808, and (2) the reprisals of May 3, 1808, when the French shot, without trial, all the Spaniards suspected of complicity.

the popular insurrection against the French mercenary forces at the Puerta del Sol, Madrid, on May 2, 1808

Goya proposed to the interregnum regency council in Madrid that he paint the most heroic moments of the Spanish resistance, and they agreed. The results were two enormous paintings that provide a two-part documentation of (1) ___________________________________________________________________, and (2) the reprisals of May 3, 1808, when the French shot, without trial, all the Spaniards suspected of complicity.

the reprisals of May 3, 1808, when the French shot, without trial, all the Spaniards suspected of complicity

Goya proposed to the interregnum regency council in Madrid that he paint the most heroic moments of the Spanish resistance, and they agreed. The results were two enormous paintings that provide a two-part documentation of (1) the popular insurrection against the French mercenary forces at the Puerta del Sol, Madrid, on May 2, 1808, and (2) ______________________________________________________________________

was an agreement only among the people and not between them and their king.

Hobbes maintained that the social contract

prescribing laws to govern international affairs.

Hugo Grotius is best remembered for ____________________________________________________. Although wars are sometimes inevitable, Hugo Grotius said, the only just war is a war of self-defense. Preventive wars and wars waged for territory, conquest, or to spread an unwanted form of government, however beneficial, are unjust. Moreover, even in a just war, nations have the obligation to conform to civilized standards of behavior

a war of self-defense.

Hugo Grotius is best remembered for prescribing laws to govern international affairs. Although wars are sometimes inevitable, Hugo Grotius said, the only just war is _ ___ __ ____-_______. Preventive wars and wars waged for territory, conquest, or to spread an unwanted form of government, however beneficial, are unjust. Moreover, even in a just war, nations have the obligation to conform to civilized standards of behavior.

nations have the obligation to conform to civilized standards of behavior

Hugo Grotius is best remembered for prescribing laws to govern international affairs. Although wars are sometimes inevitable, Hugo Grotius said, the only just war is a war of self-defense. Preventive wars and wars waged for territory, conquest, or to spread an unwanted form of government, however beneficial, are unjust. Moreover, even in a just war, ____________________________________________________.

Preventive wars and wars waged for territory, conquest, or to spread an unwanted form of government, however beneficial,

Hugo Grotius is best remembered for prescribing laws to govern international affairs. Although wars are sometimes inevitable, Hugo Grotius said, the only just war is a war of self-defense. ______________________________________________________________________________________ are unjust. Moreover, even in a just war, nations have the obligation to conform to civilized standards of behavior

King Henry IV

In 1589, a Huguenot prince inherited the French throne. Knowing that a Protestant would face severe problems ruling largely Catholic land, he became Catholic. "Paris is well worth a Mass," he is supposed to have said. To protect Protestants, however, he issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598. It granted the Huguenots religious toleration and allowed them to fortify their own towns and cities.

must regard themselves as one

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. King Louis XIV declared that France and Spain "_____________________." But neighboring powers led by England were determined to prevent this union. The War of the Spanish Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

never to unite the two crowns

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. Louis declared that France and Spain "must regard themselves as one." But neighboring powers led by England were determined to prevent this union. The War of the Spanish Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed ____ __ _____ ___ ___ _______.

Treaty of Utrecht

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. Louis declared that France and Spain "must regard themselves as one." But neighboring powers led by England were determined to prevent this union. The War of the Spanish Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the _______ __ _______. Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

War of the Spanish Succession

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. Louis declared that France and Spain "must regard themselves as one." But neighboring powers led by England were determined to prevent this union. The ___ __ ___ _______ ________ dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

England

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. Louis declared that France and Spain "must regard themselves as one." But neighboring powers led by _______ were determined to prevent this union. The War of the Spanish Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

Phillip V

In 1700, King Louis XIV's grandson ______ _ inherited the throne of Spain. Louis declared that France and Spain "must regard themselves as one." But neighboring powers led by England were determined to prevent this union. The War of the Spanish Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Treaty of Utrecht. _______ _ remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

Jean-Paul Marat

In 1792, _____-____ ______ helped get Jacques-Louis David elected as deputy to the National Convention, thus beginning the painter's fairly impressive record of political office-holding, including terms as secretary and president of the Convention.

the levee en masse, under which all the resources of the nation were to be made available to win the war.

In 1793, the National Convention decreed

declared war on Austria and Prussia

In April of 1792, France

the Bastille

In June 1789 members of the Third Estate, summoned to Versailles to help solve the government's financial woes, commandeered an indoor tennis court and declared themselves a "National Assembly." In a scene strangely reminiscent of David's Horatii, they swore to create a new constitution for France based-like America's--on liberty and equality. On July 14, a mob stormed ___ ______.

Horatii

In June 1789 members of the Third Estate, summoned to Versailles to help solve the government's financial woes, commandeered an indoor tennis court and declared themselves a "National Assembly." In a scene strangely reminiscent of Jacques-Louis David's ________, they swore to create a new constitution for France based-like America's--on liberty and equality. On July 14, a mob stormed the Bastille.

National Assembly

In June 1789 members of the Third Estate, summoned to Versailles to help solve the government's financial woes, commandeered an indoor tennis court and declared themselves a "_________ __________" In a scene strangely reminiscent of David's Horatii, they swore to create a new constitution for France based-like America's--on liberty and equality. On July 14, a mob stormed the Bastille.

Third Estate

In June 1789 members of the ______ _______, summoned to Versailles to help solve the government's financial woes, commandeered an indoor tennis court and declared themselves a "National Assembly." In a scene strangely reminiscent of David's Horatii, they swore to create a new constitution for France based-like America's--on liberty and equality. On July 14, a mob stormed the Bastille.

the radical bourgeoisie in the Jacobin club united with the revolutionary sans-culottes of the Parisian sections against the moderate Girondin bourgeoisie in order to safeguard against the possibility of a counterrevolution.

In May-June of 1793 in Paris,

Crucifixion

In The Third of May 1808, Goya has inverted the message, putting into question whether there are any moral ends to justify these immoral means. The central sacrificial victim, singled out from his companions by a piercing light, is almost a pathetic re-creation of the Christian themes of the _________ (even his right hand seems to be wounded) or, even more, the Agony in the Garden; and the motif of an outrage to Christianity is further echoed in the monastery complex on the horizon, an architectural backdrop that seems deathly and inert, as if the church, too, had been extinguished with the people it had once protected. And the same sense of an irrevocably violated Christianity is conveyed by the helpless friar, who bends his tonsured head forward in a final, useless prayer. Even the strident contrasts of light and dark take on a symbolic resonance, as in so many of the Caprichos, implying here that the forces of night and death are engulfing an ever-more irrational world. And the regimental grouping of the faceless executioners becomes an ironic restatement of the kind of noble, patriotic unity of such warrior heroes as David's Horatii, their forked legs and outstretched arms turning them into a robot factory of death, in which their bodies are almost at one with their rifles. In contrast to this military precision, the victims fall to their knees in confusion, each of their faces desperately individualized. For here, too, Goya has turned a Western tradition upside down. In place of a Christ or a Hector or their modern reincarnations in a Peirson or a Marat, Goya's hero is really an antihero, a nameless civilian who dies ignobly with his compatriots. Goya has revealed a new view of history in which the ideal moral and political structures of the West have crumbled, leaving as raw fact only the collision of anonymous masses.

Goya

In The Third of May 1808, _____ reveals a new view of history in which the ideal moral and political structures of the West have crumbled, leaving as raw fact only the collision of anonymous masses.

state of nature

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a ______ __ _______ was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "____________________________________________." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

selfish and egotistical

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were _______ ___ ___________, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

romanticism

In the 19th century, a new intellectual movement emerged that rejected the rationalism of the Enlightenment and emphasized the emotional side of human beings, the exotic and remote, the virtues of nature, and the perfectibility of society. This intellectual movement is called:

Niagara (1857)

What is the name of this painting?

social contract

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a ______ ________. As a part of the ______ ________, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

to use his absolute power to prevent conflict

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged ___________________________________. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

to accept his authority

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated __ _________ ___ __________. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

their freedom in return for order.

In Thomas Hobbes' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered _______________________________________.

The Third of May 1808

In ___ _____ __ ____ ____, Goya puts into question whether there are any moral ends to justify these immoral means. The central sacrificial victim, singled out from his companions by a piercing light, is almost a pathetic re-creation of the Christian themes of the Crucifixion (even his right hand seems to be wounded) or, even more, the Agony in the Garden; and the motif of an outrage to Christianity is further echoed in the monastery complex on the horizon, an architectural backdrop that seems deathly and inert, as if the church, too, had been extinguished with the people it had once protected. And the same sense of an irrevocably violated Christianity is conveyed by the helpless friar, who bends his tonsured head forward in a final, useless prayer. Even the strident contrasts of light and dark take on a symbolic resonance, as in so many of the Caprichos, implying here that the forces of night and death are engulfing an ever-more irrational world. And the regimental grouping of the faceless executioners becomes an ironic restatement of the kind of noble, patriotic unity of such warrior heroes as David's Horatii (fig. 15), their forked legs and outstretched arms turning them into a robot factory of death, in which their bodies are almost at one with their rifles. In contrast to this military precision, the victims fall to their knees in confusion, each of their faces desperately individualized. In place of a Christ or a Hector or their modern reincarnations in a Peirson or a Marat, Goya's hero is really an antihero, a nameless civilian who dies ignobly with his compatriots.

The Third of May 1808

In ___ ______ __ ____ _____, Goya reveals a new view of history in which the ideal moral and political structures of the West have crumbled, leaving as raw fact only the collision of anonymous masses.

Thomas Hobbes

In ________ ________' pessimistic view, human life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Without authority, human beings were selfish and egotistical, hence were frequently in conflict with each other, and required governments which would protect them. Unable to rule themselves, men and women voluntarily surrendered their own political authority to a ruler in a social contract. As a part of the social contract, the ruler was obliged to use his absolute power to prevent conflict. For their part, the ruler's subjects were obligated to accept his authority. They surrendered their freedom in return for order.

the individual should obey the king or choose death

In any conflict between divine and royal law, Hobbes wrote,

Salon

In polite society, the center of intellectual life was a new institution called the _______. _______s were weekly meetings at private homes where women of wealth entertained writers, the clergy, bankers, patrons, and aristocrats. In these _______s, people of different origins discussed the leading political and social theories of the day. The ______ provided a unique opportunity for women to participate in intellectual and political activity.

France

In the 18th century, _______ became the center of the Enlightenment.

an argument based on the nature of human beings

In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes justified absolute monarchy with

a more optimistic view of the nature of humans

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented _ ____ ________ ____ __ ___ ______ __ ________. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

rational beings-peaceful, not warlike

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact ______ _______-_______, ___ _______. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

state of nature

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a ______ __ _______, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

freedom and equality

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in __________ ___ ________, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is __________________________________. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

life, liberty, and property

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were ____, ________, ___ _______. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

social contract

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a ______ _______, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the _____ _______ as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

Thomas Hobbes

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, John Locke rejected ________ ________' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like ________ ________, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike ________ _________, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

John Locke

In the Two Treatises on Civil Government, ____ _______ rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. ______ _______ contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, _____ _____ argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to _____ ______, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, _____ ______ believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, _____ _______ perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

Two Treatises on Civil Government

In the ___ ________ __ ____ ____________, John Locke rejected Thomas Hobbes' theories and presented a more optimistic view of the nature of humans. John Locke contended that humans in their natural state are in fact rational beings-peaceful, not warlike. In a state of nature, John Locke argued, humans lived in freedom and equality, and since this is true, government's only role in a civilized society is to protect and preserve the inalienable rights of humankind. These natural rights, to John Locke, were life, liberty, and property. Like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke believed that government is a social contract, but unlike Thomas Hobbes, John Locke perceived the contract as one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler. Should the ruler fail to protect life, liberty, or property, the people have the right-even the duty-to overthrow him.

Versailles

In the countryside near Paris, Louis XIV turned a royal hunting lodge into the immense palace of _________. He spared no expense to make it the most magnificent building in Europe. Its halls and salons displayed the finest paintings and statues, and glittering chandeliers and mirrors. In the royal gardens, millions of flowers, trees, and fountains were set out in precise geometric patterns. _________ became the perfect symbol of the Sun King's wealth and power. As both the king's home and the seat of government, it housed at least 10,000 people, from nobles and officials to servants.

King Louis XIV

In the countryside near Paris, _____ ____ ____ turned a royal hunting lodge into the immense palace of Versailles. He spared no expense to make it the most magnificent building in Europe. Its halls and salons displayed the finest paintings and statues, and glittering chandeliers and mirrors. In the royal gardens, millions of flowers, trees, and fountains were set out in precise geometric patterns. Versailles became the perfect symbol of the Sun King's wealth and power. As both the king's home and the seat of government, it housed at least 10,000 people, from nobles and officials to servants.

the Jacobins saw that the alternative to the revolution going forward was a bloody counterrevolution which neither they nor the gains of the previous four years would survive. The Jacobins could also see the only way to push the revolution forward was to ally with the Parisian masses once more and make concessions to the peasantry, even if that meant taking measures which clashed with bourgeois interests.

In the early summer of 1793 in France,

the largest number of seats was won by the Jacobin faction, which intended to establish a republic in France

In the election for the National Convention,

the ban on speculation in food was lifted.

In the last days of the Reign of Terror,

hemlock

Invoking the image of Socrates' suicide, Maximilien Robespierre declared, "Let them prepare the _______ for me. I will await it on these sacred seats." When Robespierre gave the same speech at the Jacobin Club, Jacques-Louis David, creator of a famous painting on this very subject, jumped up and exclaimed, to his later and everlasting regret, "My friend, if you drink the ________, so will I."

Maximilien Robespierre

Invoking the image of Socrates' suicide, __________ ____________ declared, "Let them prepare the hemlock for me. I will await it on these sacred seats." When ___________ __________ gave the same speech at the Jacobin Club, Jacques-Louis David, creator of a famous painting on this very subject, jumped up and exclaimed, to his later and everlasting regret, "My friend, if you drink the hemlock, so will I."

Jean-Paul Marat

It was Jacques-Louis David's search for support in his battle with the Royal Academy that brought him into the Jacobin Club, and the chance to rub elbows with political heavyweights like Robespierre, the Comte de Mirabeau and the doctor-turned-journalist _____-____ ______. Most men recoiled from _____-_____ ______'s disfiguring skin condition, which produced running sores on his body, as well as from the ferocity of his revolutionary invective. But _____-______ _____ and Jacques-Louis David became allies, possibly because both saw themselves as victims of persecution at the hands of despotic academicians. In _____-_____ ______'s case, a thriving practice as the purveyor of electrotherapy, using what he called "igneous fluids," had been ruined when the Royal Academy of Science rejected him as a member.

Jacobin Club

It was Jacques-Louis David's search for support in his battle with the Royal Academy that brought him into the _________ _____, and the chance to rub elbows with political heavyweights like Robespierre, the Comte de Mirabeau and the doctor-turned-journalist Jean-Paul Marat. Most men recoiled from Jean-Paul Marat's disfiguring skin condition, which produced running sores on his body, as well as from the ferocity of his revolutionary invective. But Jean-Paul Marat and Jacques-Louis David became allies, possibly because both saw themselves as victims of persecution at the hands of despotic academicians. In Jean-Paul Marat's case, a thriving practice as the purveyor of electrotherapy, using what he called "igneous fluids," had been ruined when the Royal Academy of Science rejected him as a member.

Royal Academy

It was Jacques-Louis David's search for support in his battle with the ______ _________ that brought him into the Jacobin Club, and the chance to rub elbows with political heavyweights like Robespierre, the Comte de Mirabeau and the doctor-turned-journalist Jean-Paul Marat. Most men recoiled from Jean-Paul Marat's disfiguring skin condition, which produced running sores on his body, as well as from the ferocity of his revolutionary invective. But Jean-Paul Marat and Jacques-Louis David became allies, possibly because both saw themselves as victims of persecution at the hands of despotic academicians. In Jean-Paul Marat's case, a thriving practice as the purveyor of electrotherapy, using what he called "igneous fluids," had been ruined when the _____ _________ of Science rejected him as a member.

Marie Antoinette

Jacques-Louis David was also an active member of the Committee of General Security, one of the policing agencies of the Terror; his signature is on nearly 300 arrest orders. However, unlike Robespierre, who witnessed none of his victims' deaths (public executions, he said, brutalized the character), Jacques-Louis David was known to sit in the Cafe Regence sketching the tumbrel's occupants as they went to the guillotine. His most famous subject was the "Widow Capet," ______ _________, sketched on her way to her beheading.

Committee of General Security

Jacques-Louis David was also an active member of the ____________ __ ________ _________, one of the policing agencies of the Terror; his signature is on nearly 300 arrest orders. However, unlike Robespierre, who witnessed none of his victims' deaths (public executions, he said, brutalized the character), Jacques-Louis David was known to sit in the Cafe Regence sketching the tumbrel's occupants as they went to the guillotine. His most famous subject was the "Widow Capet," Marie Antoinette, sketched on her way to her beheading.

Festival of Unity and Indivisibility

Jacques-Louis David's ________ __ _____ ___ ______________, held on August 10, 1793, served as a kind of inspirational kickoff for the Terror.

Brutus

Jacques-Louis David's ________ soon came to be taken as a daring commentary on the current political scene--a strident call for vigilance and revenge against all traitors to liberty. This surely came as news to David, who had struggled with the picture for more than two years. Nevertheless, revolutionary Paris was swept up in a wave of ________ mania. Speeches and pamphlets invoked his name--"The people of France demands its ________!" A revival of Voltaire's play _______ became regular fare around the country, with costumes, settings and stage direction based on David's painting. Performances were accompanied by cheers of "Vive la Liberte!" The Jacobins, destined soon to become the most radical and merciless of the revolutionary political clubs, adopted ________ as a kind of patron saint.

a contract, both social and political, among the people themselves under which the individual will of members of the society combined into the General Will.

Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that the community depended on

the individual should never be forced to give up his or her natural rights to a king

Jean-Jacques Rousseau agreed with John Locke that

a direct democracy in which everyone voted to express the general will and to make the laws of the land.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in what type of system of government?

was naturally good and was corrupted by society

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that man

divided and weakened the state

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that religion

was not a willing agreement but a fraud against the people committed by the rich

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the social contract upon which the current society was built

the general will

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed the sovereign of society should be

civil state in which security, justice, liberty, and property are protected and enjoyed by all.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's direct democracy is a

small scale, a city-state like his native Geneva.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's direct democracy would occur on a

natural rights such as life, liberty, and property existed in the state of nature and could never be taken away or even voluntarily given up by individuals.

John Locke argued that

enforce and protect the natural rights of the people

John Locke believed that the king acted only to

should be restricted to adult male property owners

John Locke believed the right to vote

democratic theory

John Locke can be considered the father of ___________ ______.

the social contract was broken, and the people had the right to revolt and establish a new government.

John Locke claimed that, if a sovereign violated the natural rights of the people,

humans in their natural state are peaceful, rational beings

John Locke contended that

one among the governed, the majority of whom delegate their authority to the ruler

John Locke perceived the social contract as

Thomas Jefferson

John Locke's ideas were adopted by which famous American revolutionary?

a chicken in every pot

King Henry IV's goal: not the victory of one religious sect over another, but

splendid century

King Louis XIV and his court supported a "_______ ________" of the arts. King Louis XIV sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of King Louis XIV was the classical age of French drama. Jean Racine wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright Moliere (mohl YAIR) turned out comedies, such as The Miser, that poked fun at French society. In painting, music, architecture, and decorative arts, French styles became the model for all Europe. A new form of dance drama, ballet, gained its first great popularity at the French court. As a leading patron of culture, King Louis XIV sponsored the French Academies, which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences.

Moliere

King Louis XIV and his court supported a "splendid century" of the arts. King Louis XIV sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of King Louis XIV was the classical age of French drama. Jean Racine wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright _______ turned out comedies, such as The Miser, that poked fun at French society.

the classical age of French drama

King Louis XIV and his court supported a "splendid century" of the arts. King Louis XIV sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of Louis XIV was ___ _______ ___ __ _______ ______. Jean Racine wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright Moliere turned out comedies, such as The Miser, that poked fun at French society.

intendant(s)

King Louis XIV expanded the bureaucracy and appointed _________, royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers, and carried out his policies in the provinces. The office of ________ and other government jobs often went to wealthy middle-class men. In this way, Louis cemented ties between the middle class and the monarchy.

I am the state

King Louis XIV is often quoted as saying

Jean Racine

King Louis XIV of France and his court supported a "splendid century" of the arts. King Louis XIV sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of Louis XIV was the classical age of French drama. ____ ______ wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright Moliere turned out comedies, such as The Miser, that poked fun at French society.

72

King Louis XIV ruled France for __ years, far longer than any other monarch. During his reign, French culture, manners, and customs replaced those of Renaissance Italy as the standard for European taste. In both foreign and domestic affairs, however, many of Louis's policies were costly failures.

Huguenots

King Louis XIV saw France's Protestant minority as a threat to religious and political unity. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes. More than 100,000 ___________ fled France. The persecution of the __________ was perhaps the king's most costly blunder. The __________ had been among the most hard-working and prosperous of Louis's subjects.

Edict of Nantes

King Louis XIV saw France's Protestant minority as a threat to religious and political unity. In 1685, he revoked the ______ __ ______. More than 100,000 Huguenots fled France. The persecution of the Huguenots was perhaps the king's most costly blunder. The Huguenots had been among the most hard-working and prosperous of Louis's subjects.

Protestant minority

King Louis XIV saw France's ___________ _____ as a threat to religious and political unity. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes. More than 100,000 Huguenots fled France. The persecution of the Huguenots was perhaps the king's most costly blunder. The Huguenots had been among the most hard-working and prosperous of Louis's subjects.

sun

King Louis XIV took the _____ as the symbol of his absolute power. Just as the _____ stands at the center of the solar system, he argued, so the ____ King stands at the center of the nation.

King Louis XVI

King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792. He was guillotined on January 21, 1793.

Portrait of Madame Bergeret (1746)

What is the name of this painting?

Robert Andrews and His Wife (1750)

What is the name of this painting?

used the idea of natural law to justify one-man, absolute rule.

Living in exile in Paris during Cromwell's rule, Thomas Hobbes published his treatise on political philosophy, Leviathan. In his treatise Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes _____________________________________________________________________. Thomas Hobbes replaced the divine-right justification of absolute monarchies with an argument based on the nature of human beings.

the nature of human beings

Living in exile in Paris during Cromwell's rule, Thomas Hobbes published his treatise on political philosophy, Leviathan. In his treatise Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes used the idea of natural law to justify one-man, absolute rule. Thomas Hobbes replaced the divine-right justification of absolute monarchies with an argument based on ____ _______ __ ______ _______.

Leviathan

Living in exile in Paris during Cromwell's rule, Thomas Hobbes published his treatise on political philosophy, _________. In his treatise ___________, Thomas Hobbes used the idea of natural law to justify one-man, absolute rule. Thomas Hobbes replaced the divine-right justification of absolute monarchies with an argument based on the nature of human beings.

Thomas Hobbes

Living in exile in Paris during Cromwell's rule, ________ ________ published his treatise on political philosophy, Leviathan. In his treatise Leviathan, _________ _______ used the idea of natural law to justify one-man, absolute rule. _________ _______ replaced the divine-right justification of absolute monarchies with an argument based on the nature of human beings.

After us, the deluge

Louis XIV outlived his sons and grandsons. When he died in 1715, his five-year-old great-grandson inherited the throne as Louis XV. Although France was then the strongest state in Europe, years of warfare had drained the treasury. The prosperity nurtured by Colbert evaporated under the burden of bad harvests, heavy taxes, and other problems. Louis XV was too weak a king to deal with such problems. He devoted his days to pleasure, ignoring the growing need for reform. He often quoted an old proverb, "______ __, ___ _____." The _____ came during the reign of the next king.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Louis XIV outlived his sons and grandsons. When he died in 1715, his five-year-old great-grandson inherited the throne as Louis XV. Although France was then the strongest state in Europe, years of warfare had drained the treasury. The prosperity nurtured by ____ _________ _______ evaporated under the burden of bad harvests, heavy taxes, and other problems. Louis XV was too weak a king to deal with such problems. He devoted his days to pleasure, ignoring the growing need for reform. He often quoted an old proverb, "After us, the deluge." As you will read, the deluge came during the reign of the next king.

Louis XV

Louis XIV outlived his sons and grandsons. When he died in 1715, his five-year-old great-grandson inherited the throne as ______ __. Although France was then the strongest state in Europe, years of warfare had drained the treasury. The prosperity nurtured by Colbert evaporated under the burden of bad harvests, heavy taxes, and other problems. ________ _______ was too weak a king to deal with such problems. He devoted his days to pleasure, ignoring the growing need for reform. He often quoted an old proverb, "After us, the deluge." As you will read, the deluge came during the reign of the next king.

1715

Louis XIV outlived his sons and grandsons. When he died in ____, his five-year-old great-grandson inherited the throne as Louis XV. Although France was then the strongest state in Europe, years of warfare had drained the treasury. The prosperity nurtured by Colbert evaporated under the burden of bad harvests, heavy taxes, and other problems. Louis XV was too weak a king to deal with such problems. He devoted his days to pleasure, ignoring the growing need for reform. He often quoted an old proverb, "After us, the deluge." As you will read, the deluge came during the reign of the next king.

levee/rising

Louis XIV perfected elaborate ceremonies that emphasized his own importance. Each day began in the king's bedroom with a major ritual known as the _______, or ______. High-ranking nobles competed for the honor of holding the royal wash basin or handing the king his diamond-buckled shoes. At night, the ceremony was repeated in reverse. Wives of nobles vied to attend upon women of the royal family.

competed for the honor of holding the royal wash basin or handing the king his diamond-buckled shoes

Louis XIV perfected elaborate ceremonies that emphasized his own importance. Each day began in the king's bedroom with a major ritual known as the levee, or rising. High-ranking nobles _________________________________. At night, the ceremony was repeated in reverse. Wives of nobles vied to attend upon women of the royal family.

vied to attend upon women of the royal family.

Louis XIV perfected elaborate ceremonies that emphasized his own importance. Each day began in the king's bedroom with a major ritual known as the levee, or rising. High-ranking nobles competed for the honor of holding the royal wash basin or handing the king his diamond-buckled shoes. At night, the ceremony was repeated in reverse. Wives of nobles _________________________.

balance of power

Louis XIV poured vast resources into wars to expand French borders. At first, he did gain some territory. His later wars were disastrous, though, because rival rulers joined forces to check French ambitions. Led by the Dutch or the English, these alliances fought to maintain the ________ __ _______, a distribution of military and economic power that would prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.

January 21, 1793

Louis XVI was executed on

Salisbury Cathedral across the Meadows (1829-34)

What is the name of this painting?

mercantilist

Louis's brilliant finance minister, Jean Baptiste Colbert , followed __________ policies to bolster the economy. Colbert had new lands cleared for farming, encouraged mining and other basic industries, and built up luxury trades such as lacemaking. To protect French manufacturers, he put high tariffs on imported goods. He also encouraged overseas colonies, such as New France in North America, and regulated trade with the colonies to enrich the royal treasury.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Louis's brilliant finance minister, ____ ________ ______, followed mercantilist policies to bolster the economy. ______ _____ ______ had new lands cleared for farming, encouraged mining and other basic industries, and built up luxury trades such as lacemaking. To protect French manufacturers, he put high tariffs on imported goods. He also encouraged overseas colonies, such as New France in North America, and regulated trade with the colonies to enrich the royal treasury.

October 16, 1793

Marie Antoinette was executed on

he stood for a new form of society in which the essential values of the middle class would be realized. However, he could not set about creating this society without disciplining the middle class itself.

Maximilien Robespierre believed

populist republicans who put forward demands that frightened the respectable, propertied middle class.

Maximilien Robespierre cracked down on

in July 1794

Maximilien Robespierre was executed

Thermidor

Maximilien Robespierre's death occurred in which month according to the new revolutionary calendar?

Severed Heads (1818)

What is the name of this painting?

the requirement of beginning the conflict with a declaration of war and the obligations to honor treaties, to protect civilians, and to treat prisoners decently.

Most of the duties and rights outlined by Hugo Grotius have been recognized as the rules for conducting war throughout modern times, including ______________________________________________________________________________________.

Hugo Grotius

Most of the duties and rights outlined by ____ _______ have been recognized as the rules for conducting war throughout modern times, including the requirement of beginning a conflict with a declaration of war, and the obligations to honor treaties, to protect civilians, and to treat prisoners decently.

ordinary people, mostly farmers and workers

Most of the victims of the Reign of Terror were

the ending of feudal dues, the creation of an independent peasantry, the ending of internal customs posts, the creation of a uniform national administration, and the determination of government policy in the light of bourgeois goals rather than dynastic or aristocratic ones.

Napoleon Bonaparte consolidated many of the French Revolution's achievements, such as:

Slave Ship (1840)

What is the name of this painting?

anonymous figures culled from daily life

No French painter who inherited the great traditions of David and the old masters so completely subverted their human and political messages as did Theodore Gericault (1791-1824). Thoroughly steeped in both the Neoclassic world of his teacher, Pierre-Narcisse Guerin, and in the grand images of those masters, from Titian to Rembrandt, whose works he copied at the Louvre, he early had at his command a resonant framework of grand-scale figural and landscape compositions. But by the end of the Napoleonic era, when one ideal after another was toppling, the conventional themes of these old masters could appear strangely out of joint with the often disillusioning realities of modern experience. Gericault soon searched for, and found, a new kind of subject matter that usurped the place of Christ, of Hector, of Napoleon with ____________________________________, and that replaced the domain of reason and morality with a trip to human hells where, among his contemporaries, perhaps Goya alone would be no stranger.

a God-given right and is God's representative on earth.

Proponents of divine-right theory maintained that the monarch rules by ________________________________________. As such, the monarch should have absolute power over his subjects.

Theodore Gericault

No French painter who inherited the great traditions of David and the old masters so completely subverted their human and political messages as did _________ ________ (1791-1824). Thoroughly steeped in both the Neoclassic world of his teacher, Pierre-Narcisse Guerin, and in the grand images of those masters, from Titian to Rembrandt, whose works he copied at the Louvre, he early had at his command a resonant framework of grand-scale figural and landscape compositions. But by the end of the Napoleonic era, when one ideal after another was toppling, the conventional themes of these old masters could appear strangely out of joint with the often disillusioning realities of modern experience. ________ soon searched for, and found, a new kind of subject matter that usurped the place of Christ, of Hector, of Napoleon with anonymous figures culled from daily life, and that replaced the domain of reason and morality with a trip to human hells where, among his contemporaries, perhaps Goya alone would be no stranger.

Flight to Varennes

Occurred during the night of 20-21 June 1791. was a significant episode in the French Revolution in which King Louis XVI of France, his queen Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family attempted unsuccessfully to escape from Paris. They escaped only as far as the small town of Varennes, where they were arrested after having been recognized at their previous stop in Sainte-Menehould.

a Paris mob, mostly shopkeepers and craftsmen, forced the Legislative Assembly to suspend the king and to imprison him and his family.

On August 9 and 10, 1792,

The marquis de Lafayette's guards opened fire on a crowd of republican petitioners gathered on the Champ de Mars in Paris who were demanding the abdication of the king. Lafayette's National Guard killed or wounded about 50 demonstrators.

On July 17, 1791 in Paris,

71 of Robespierre's former supporters were executed by the Thermidorian National Convention, making it the largest mass execution in the history of the revolution.

On July 29th, 1794, the day after Robespierre's execution,

drink the hemlock

On July 31, three days after Maximilien Robespierre and 100 of his friends were guillotined, Jacques-Louis David finally put in an appearance at the National Convention. Pale, stuttering, with waves of sweat pouring off him, he tried to assure the deputies that he was no great ally of Robespierre's. His offer to "______ ____ _______" was held up to him as a most damning piece of evidence to the contrary. This was misheard, taken out of context, David contended. The National Convention arrested him on August 2. He spent several months in prison, his life no longer in any real danger since the worst bloodletting was past.

spent several months in prison

On July 31, three days after Maximilien Robespierre and 100 of his friends were guillotined, Jacques-Louis David finally put in an appearance at the National Convention. Pale, stuttering, with waves of sweat pouring off him, he tried to assure the deputies that he was no great ally of Robespierre's. His offer to "drink the hemlock" was held up to him as a most damning piece of evidence to the contrary. This was misheard, taken out of context, David contended. The National Convention arrested him on August 2. Jacques-Louis David _______ ________ ______ __ ______, his life no longer in any real danger since the worst bloodletting was past.

Maximilien Robespierre

On July 31, three days after __________ ___________ and 100 of his friends were guillotined, Jacques-Louis David finally put in an appearance at the National Convention. Pale, stuttering, with waves of sweat pouring off him, he tried to assure the deputies that he was no great ally of Robespierre's. His offer to "drink the hemlock" was held up to him as a most damning piece of evidence to the contrary. This was misheard, taken out of context, David contended. The National Convention arrested him on August 2. He spent several months in prison, his life no longer in any real danger since the worst bloodletting was past.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

On June 8, 1794, David produced his most elaborate spectacle yet, the famous Festival of the Supreme Being. It was intended as a kind of mass indoctrination for Robespierre's new state religion--a fairly imprecise form of worship ("its temple is the universe...its religion virtue") based on the philosophies of _____-________ __________, whose works Robespierre is said to have kept by his bedside.

Maximilien Robespierre

On June 8, 1794, David produced his most elaborate spectacle yet, the famous Festival of the Supreme Being. It was intended as a kind of mass indoctrination for _________ ___________'s new state religion--a fairly imprecise form of worship ("its temple is the universe...its religion virtue") based on the philosophies of Rousseau, whose works __________ __________ is said to have kept by his bedside.

Festival of the Supreme Being

On June 8, 1794, David produced his most elaborate spectacle yet, the famous _________ __ ___ __________ ______. It was intended as a kind of mass indoctrination for Robespierre's new state religion--a fairly imprecise form of worship ("its temple is the universe...its religion virtue") based on the philosophies of Rousseau, whose works Robespierre is said to have kept by his bedside.

formally accept the new constitution

On September 14, 1791, the king was summoned to the National Assembly ______________________________________________.

National Assembly

On September 14, 1791, the king was summoned to the ________ __________ to formally accept the new constitution.

the revolutionary army halted the invading forces at Valmy. The next day the new Convention—the first legislature of any country in history to be elected by the vote of the whole male population—abolished the monarchy and declared France 'the republic, one and indivisible'. The remnants of feudalism were swept away in deed as well as word, as were the tithes which people had been forced to pay to keep bishops and abbots in luxury. There were plans to encourage education and extend scientific knowledge, bringing the ideas of the Enlightenment into everyday life. The customs posts which impeded trade routes in order to benefit local notables were gone. In the volunteer militia units at the front ordinary soldiers voted for their fellows to become officers.

On September 20th, 1792 in France,

hunting and fishing rights, exemption from taxes, and the right to sell government and church offices.

On the night of August 4th, the nobles and clergy in the National Assembly renounced all of their privileges, including

July 14

On what day was the Storming of the Bastille, and on what day is Bastille Day celebrated?

Napoleon

Once out of prison Jacques-Louis David vowed he was through with politics, but for a hopeless hero-worshiper like David, the young _________--dashing, charismatic and rapidly gathering up the reins of power--proved irresistible. After meeting _________ at a dinner in 1797, David offered to paint his portrait.

Jacobins

One of Jacques-Louis David's first pageants was the Festival of Liberty, in April 1792. Ethically, it was a somewhat dubious occasion; the honorees were soldiers who had mutinied and been sold as galley slaves for their sins. Declaring they were not criminals at all but victims of oppression, the ________ bought their freedom and arranged a kind of homecoming celebration.

Festival of Liberty

One of Jacques-Louis David's first pageants was the ________ __ _______, in April 1792. Ethically, it was a somewhat dubious occasion; the honorees were soldiers who had mutinied and been sold as galley slaves for their sins. Declaring they were not criminals at all but victims of oppression, the Jacobins bought their freedom and arranged a kind of homecoming celebration.

absolute

Proponents of divine-right theory maintained that the monarch rules by a God-given right and is God's representative on earth. As such, the monarch should have _________ power over his subjects.

Enlightenment

The 18th-century ______________ is in many ways a continuation of the scientific revolution which preceded it. The thinkers of the ________________ hoped to apply the scientific method to human beings and to society.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

One of the basic charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. Its 17 articles, adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789, by France's National Assembly, served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1791. The basic principle of this document was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" (Article 1), which were specified as the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression (Article 2). All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly (Article 6); no one was to be arrested without a judicial order (Article 7). Freedom of religion (Article 10) and freedom of speech (Article 11) were safeguarded within the bounds of public "order" and "law." The document reflects the interests of the elites who wrote it: property was given the status of an inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given (Article 17); offices and position were opened to all citizens (Article 6). The sources of this document included the major thinkers of the French Enlightenment, such as Montesquieu, who had urged the separation of powers, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wrote of general will—the concept that the state represents the general will of the citizens. The idea that the individual must be safeguarded against arbitrary police or judicial action was anticipated by writers such as Voltaire. French jurists and economists had insisted on the inviolability of private property. Other influences on the authors of this document were foreign documents such as the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) in North America. The French Declaration went beyond these models, however, in its scope and in its claim to be based on principles that are fundamental to man and therefore universally applicable. On the other hand, this document is also explicable as an attack on the pre-Revolutionary monarchical regime. Equality before the law was to replace the system of privileges that characterized the old regime. Judicial procedures were insisted upon to prevent abuses by the king or his administration, such as the lettre de cachet, a private communication from the king, often used to give summary notice of imprisonment.

1. Ancien Regime 2. National Assembly 3. National Constituent Assembly 4. Legislative Assembly 5. National Convention 6. The Directory 7. The Consulate 8. The First Empire of the French

Order of the forms of government during the French Revolution:

Slave Ship (detail) (1840)

What is the name of this painting?

The Death of Marat (1793)

What is the name of this painting?

A Committee of Public Safety--which reported at least once a week to the convention and was subject to reelection each month--was empowered to take whatever emergency measures were appropriate. A 'law of the maximum' imposed prince controls on bread and speculation in people's hunger became a capital crime. There was a forced loan on the rich to pay for the war and a progressive tax, starting at 10 percent and rising to 50 percent, on all income over the minimum needed to keep a family. The economy became increasingly subject to central direction, with an important nationalized sector producing war supplies. The land seized from émigrés and the church was divided into small plots to placate peasant anger. Army units elected their officers. All single men between the ages of 18 and 25 were required to do military service, without the old exemptions which allowed the well-to-do to pay substitutes to take their place.

Policies of the Jacobin-led National Convention:

optimism regarding human nature; rationalism; individualism; natural laws for politics

Political attitudes of the Enlightenment:

Food shortages, price rises, and unemployment drove the artisans and tradespeople (known as sans-culottes because the men wore trousers rather than the breeches of the wealthy classes) as well as the labourers to the point of desperation. January and February 1792 saw food riots in Paris, while in the countryside bands of poor peasants descended on markets to impose price reductions on corn and bread.

Popular agitation during the initial years of the French Revolution:

tax exemption, legal autonomy through the ecclesiastical courts, the power to collect tithes

Privileges of the First Estate (Clergy):

tax exemption, the right to collect feudal dues, varying degrees of political power and autonomy, and eligibility for high-ranking positions in the military and the Church

Privileges of the Second Estate (Aristocracy):

divine-right

Proponents of ______-_____ theory maintained that the monarch rules by a God-given right and is God's representative on earth. As such, the monarch should have absolute power over his subjects.

monarch

Proponents of divine-right theory maintained that the _______ rules by a God-given right and is God's representative on earth. As such, the ________ should have absolute power over his subjects.

Marie-Antoinette

Queen consort of King Louis XVI of France (1774-93). Imprudent and an enemy of reform, she helped provoke the popular unrest that led to the French Revolution and to the overthrow of the monarchy in August 1792.

a "civil religion" that accepted God, but concentrated on the sacredness of the social contract

Regarding religious matters, Jean-Jacques Rousseau favored

The Death of Socrates (1787)

What is the name of this painting?

turned them into courtiers angling for privileges rather than warriors battling for power

Rituals such as the levee served a serious purpose. French nobles were descendants of the feudal lords who held power in medieval times. Left at their estates, these nobles were a threat to the power of the monarchy. By luring nobles to Versailles, King Louis XIV _______________________. King Louis XIV carefully protected their prestige and left them free from paying taxes.

as middle class as the Girondins.

Robespierre's Jacobins were

Oath of the Horatii

Roman virtues were writ large in Jacques-Louis David's great _____ __ ____ ________, in which three brothers, lined up toe to toe, embrace as they swear an oath to fight to the death for their homeland. The painting caused a sensation when it appeared at the Salon in 1785 (the American minister to France, Thomas Jefferson, was particularly enthusiastic). It is easy to see why, four years later, the painting was adopted as the perfect emblem of the French Revolution. At the time, however, the end of the monarchy was the furthest thing from David's mind. In fact, the _______ __ ___ _______ was commissioned for the king himself.

Aristocracy (Nobility)

Second Estate:

the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture

The French Revolution provided Jacques-Louis David a chance to take revenge on which French art institution?

Fronde

Soon after Louis XIV became king, disorder again swept France. In an uprising called the ________, nobles, merchants, peasants, and the urban poor rebelled—each group for its own reasons. On one occasion, rioters drove the boy king from his palace. It was an experience Louis would never forget.

consisted of conservative nobility and clergy who thought that the revolution had gone too far. They believed that the king should retain his authority and that the privileges renounced on August 4th by the nobility and clergy should be reclaimed.

The "right wing" of the National Constituent Assembly:

scientific revolution

The 18th-century Enlightenment is in many ways a continuation of the ___________ ____________ which preceded it. The thinkers of the Enlightenment hoped to apply the scientific method to human beings and to society.

made up the majority of the National Constituent Assembly and was considered moderate. This group believed the revolution was over and imagined that France would become a constitutional monarchy, perhaps like a Great Britain.

The "center" of the National Constituent Assembly:

consisted of radical "patriot" deputies, who wanted more rights for all. For example, they wanted political rights and legal equality for Protestants. It is important to note that they did not argue for ending the monarchy

The "left wing" of the National Constituent Assembly:

The Death of the General Wolfe (1770)

What is the name of this painting?

female equality

The Constituent Assembly ignored what issue?

attempted to apply the concept of natural law to human existence

The Dutchman Hugo Grotius was an early theorist who _______________________________________________________. Humans are rational beings, Hugo Grotius maintained, and as creatures of God they have natural duties and natural rights that transcend human-made laws. Those natural rights include the right to exist and to participate in society.

natural rights

The Dutchman Hugo Grotius was an early theorist who attempted to apply the concept of natural law to human existence. Humans are rational beings, Hugo Grotius maintained, and as creatures of God they have natural duties and ________ ______ that transcend human-made laws. Those _________ _______ include the right to exist and to participate in society.

the right to exist and to participate in society

The Dutchman Hugo Grotius was an early theorist who attempted to apply the concept of natural law to human existence. Humans are rational beings, Hugo Grotius maintained, and as creatures of God they have natural duties and natural rights that transcend human-made laws. Those natural rights include ________________________________________________________.

Humans are rational beings

The Dutchman Hugo Grotius was an early theorist who attempted to apply the concept of natural law to human existence. ________ ___ ________ _______, Hugo Grotius maintained, and as creatures of God they have natural duties and natural rights that transcend human-made laws. Those natural rights include the right to exist and to participate in society.

Hugo Grotius

The Dutchman _____ ______ was an early theorist who attempted to apply the concept of natural law to human existence. Humans are rational beings, ______ _________ maintained, and as creatures of God they have natural duties and natural rights that transcend human-made laws. Those natural rights include the right to exist and to participate in society.

scientific revolution

The Enlightenment not only had roots in the ___________ ____________ but was also a response to the political strife of the 17th century, especially the havoc wreaked by the Thirty Years' War.

a response to the political strife of the 17th century, especially the havoc wreaked by the Thirty Years' War.

The Enlightenment not only had roots in the scientific revolution but was also _______________________________________, _________________________________.

individualism, relativism, and rationalism

The Enlightenment was rooted in three new theories about human beings:

nationalism and patriotism

The French Revolution heralded the advent of which two modern ideologies?

liberty, equality, and fraternity

The French Revolution was the first attempt in Europe to put into practice the dramatic ideals of the Enlightenment:

The Directory

The French Revolutionary government set up by the Constitution of the Year III, which lasted four years, from November 1795 to November 1799. It included a bicameral legislature known as the Corps Législatif. The lower house, or Council of Five Hundred (Conseil de Cinq-Cents), consisted of 500 delegates, 30 years of age or over, who proposed legislation; the Council of Ancients (Conseil des Anciens), consisted of 250 delegates, 40 years of age or over, who held the power to accept or veto the proposed legislation. The Ancients also picked the executive—the five Directors (Directeurs)—from lists drawn up by the Five Hundred. A Director had to be at least 40 years old and to have formerly served as a deputy or minister; a new one was chosen each year, on rotation. The Directors chose government ministers, ambassadors, army generals, tax collectors, and other officials. However, though nominally inheriting many of the centralized powers of the former Committee of Public Safety, they had no funds to finance their projects or courts to enforce their will. It suffered from widespread corruption. Its policies aimed at protecting the positions of those who had supported the Revolution and preventing the return of the Bourbons. Despite its unsavory reputation, it consolidated many of the achievements of the National Convention, such as the creation of a system of elite centralized schools, the grandes écoles. The French economy recovered from the disruption caused by the Terror, and the successes of the French armies laid the basis for the conquests of the Napoleonic period.

had to pay feudal dues to landowners, tithes to the Church, and high taxes from which the nobility and the clergy were exempt and suffered terribly if their crops failed or the prices of things they had to buy rose.

The French peasantry

the right to private property

The Jacobins, despite their radicalism, were devoted to protecting

18

The __th-century Enlightenment is in many ways a continuation of the scientific revolution which preceded it. The thinkers of the Enlightenment hoped to apply the scientific method to human beings and to society.

Brutus

The almost inhumanly patriotic Roman consul who had his own sons executed for plotting to restore the emperor is the subject of which of Jacques-Louis David's paintings?

it established the inviolability of private property, gave greater liberty to employers, and showed little concern for employees.

The Napoleonic Code was a product of bourgeois ideology due to the fact that

allowed the bourgeoisie to remain in firm control of the revolution, even when it was at its most radical.

The Reign of Terror and the economic concessions made to the sans-culottes

the emotional desire for revenge with the rational understanding that, under conditions of civil war, opponents of the revolutionary regime would seize every opportunity to do it damage. Prison would not deter counterrevolutionaries, since they would expect to be released once their plots were successful.

The Reign of Terror combined

not only to defend the revolution but also to symbolize the way in which the state was being centralized by a political group balancing between the masses and the revolutionary elements in the bourgeoisie.

The Reign of Terror functioned

divert the sans-culottes masses away from a path full of danger for the middle class.

The Reign of Terror served to

defending the revolutionary regime from royalist counterrevolution.

The Reign of Terror succeeded in

neoclassicism

The Royal Academy tended to favor this manlier brand of classical virtue, and painters eager for state commissions were encouraged to cull their Livy and Plutarch for likely subjects. The day came, of course, when idealistic Frenchmen would decide to transform their admiration for republican Rome into harsh reality. But at first, this ____________ was merely a fashion. No one saw the convulsion coming, least of all the king, whose art collection became a virtual gallery of antique wisdom and austere, patriotic virtues. Eager to be in step with his times, young David buried himself in the classical past. After completing studies at the Academy, he spent nearly five years in Rome filling 12 fat volumes with his drawings.

two brief sans-culottes uprisings in April and May 1795.

The Thermidorian National Convention crushed

Royal Academy

The _____ ________ tended to favor the manlier brand of classical virtue, and painters eager for state commissions were encouraged to cull their Livy and Plutarch for likely subjects. The day came, of course, when idealistic Frenchmen would decide to transform their admiration for republican Rome into harsh reality. But at first, this neoclassicism was merely a fashion. No one saw the convulsion coming, least of all the king, whose art collection became a virtual gallery of antique wisdom and austere, patriotic virtues. Eager to be in step with his times, young Jacques-Louis David buried himself in the classical past. After completing studies at the Academy, he spent nearly five years in Rome filling 12 fat volumes with his drawings.

Jacobins

The ________ were the most radical and merciless of the revolutionary political clubs during the French Revolution.

Enlightenment

The ______________ not only had roots in the scientific revolution but was also a response to the political strife of the 17th century, especially the havoc wreaked by the Thirty Years' War.

the rising middle class of France, consisting of merchants, traders, industrialists, lawyers, and other professionals. They, like the peasantry, were responsible for paying numerous state taxes and were not eligible for prominent positions in the military, the Church, or the government under the Ancien Regime.

The bourgeoisie were

the Medusa

The captain of ___ _______ was an incompetent seaman of noble birth, whose appointment depended on his connections with the Bourbon Restoration government, and whose haste to save himself and other senior officers while abandoning the lower ranks to the raft was a shocking indictment of aristocratic privilege.

Executions were a common occurrence during the Ancien Regime. During the Ancien Regime, poor people could be hanged for stealing a piece of cloth. The foreign army marching towards Paris from the north would have installed its own terror, much greater than that of the Jacobins, if it had been able to take the city. Counterrevolutionaries who took over Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon executed republican sympathizers on a mass scale. Royalists the Vendée were particularly ruthless in their counterrevolutionary violence, killing 524 republicans at Machecoul. On top of this, there was the enormous death toll in the battles on France's northern border.

The context of and circumstances surrounding the Reign of Terror:

divine-right monarchy

The dominant form of government of the 17th and 18th centuries was ______-_____ ________

The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone (1872)

What is the name of this painting?

Money had become the central preoccupation of the French monarchy in the 1780s. It had spent enormous sums on the Seven Years' War with Britain and Prussia, and more again during the American war with Britain. Bankruptcy threatened if it did not find ways to increase its tax revenue. But it found this almost impossible. The exemption of the nobles and clergy from taxation meant the burden fell on the lower classes, and the point had been reached where most of them simply could not pay more. Average living standards in the countryside were falling, while wages in the towns had risen by only 22 percent against price rises of 65 percent. What is more, the method of raising tax was hopelessly inefficient, with considerable sums being siphoned off by the 'tax farmers' who collected it.

The economic situation in France in the 1780s:

Denis Diderot

The editor of the Encyclopedia whose purpose was to collect the writings and the technological discoveries of the Enlightenment thinkers.

the women of Paris began demonstrations for bread

The final revolutionary act of 1789 came on October 5, when

The Haywain (1821)

What is the name of this painting?

middle class

The growth of a new, literate _______ _____ in France created a large reading public who eagerly absorbed new ideas and concepts, such as those of the philosophes.

people who had suffered under the old regime, who knew they would suffer even more if it came back and whose friends and relatives were already dying daily at the front as a result of betrayal and corrupt profiteering.

The impetus for the Reign of Terror came from

sans-culottes

The impetus for the interventionist economic policies executed by the Jacobin National Convention during the Reign of Terror came from the

The Miser

The king and his court supported a "splendid century" of the arts. Louis sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of Louis XIV was the classical age of French drama. Jean Racine wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright Moliere turned out comedies, such as ___ _____, that poked fun at French society.

Voltaire

The leader of the French Enlightenment was the philosopher __________ (pen name of Francois-Marie Arouet). __________ popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment. _________ brought a humorous or satiric touch to most of his writings. __________ was especially critical of religious bigotry.; however, _________ was Deist.

Legislative Assembly

The legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to 20 September 1792 during the years of the French Revolution. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention. Formed after elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Representatives could only be male property owners. Based on the English constitutional monarchy.

Girondists

The matter of King Louis XVI's punishment caused shouting matches in the Convention, mostly between the Jacobins, who called for immediate death, and the more moderate __________, who urged some less permanent solution. (Tom Paine suggested sending Louis to America for rehabilitation as a good republican.) The vote to execute passed--with David's "Qui" dutifully following the Jacobin lead--but not by much. There were last-ditch attempts to have the sentence reconsidered. The Jacobins found themselves under attack as dangerous extremists. Then a prominent Jacobin named Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. David quickly organized a state funeral.

Jacobin(s)

The matter of King Louis XVI's punishment caused shouting matches in the Convention, mostly between the _________, who called for immediate death, and the more moderate Girondists, who urged some less permanent solution. (Tom Paine suggested sending Louis to America for rehabilitation as a good republican.) The vote to execute passed--with David's "Qui" dutifully following the ________ lead--but not by much. There were last-ditch attempts to have the sentence reconsidered. The _________ found themselves under attack as dangerous extremists. Then a prominent _________ named Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. David quickly organized a state funeral.

Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau

The matter of Louis XVI's punishment caused shouting matches in the Convention, mostly between the Jacobins, who called for immediate death, and the more moderate Girondists, who urged some less permanent solution. (Tom Paine suggested sending Louis to America for rehabilitation as a good republican.) The vote to execute passed--with David's "Qui" dutifully following the Jacobin lead--but not by much. There were last-ditch attempts to have the sentence reconsidered. The Jacobins found themselves under attack as dangerous extremists. Then a prominent Jacobin named ___________ __ ______-__________, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. David quickly organized a state funeral.

King Louis XVI

The matter of _____ _______ ___'s punishment caused shouting matches in the Convention, mostly between the Jacobins, who called for immediate death, and the more moderate Girondists, who urged some less permanent solution. (Tom Paine suggested sending Louis to America for rehabilitation as a good republican.) The vote to execute passed--with David's "Qui" dutifully following the Jacobin lead--but not by much. There were last-ditch attempts to have the sentence reconsidered. The Jacobins found themselves under attack as dangerous extremists. Then a prominent Jacobin named Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, who had voted for the king's execution, was stabbed to death in a cafe by a former member of the royal guard. As an opportunity to divert sympathy to the regicide cause, the murder was heaven-sent. David quickly organized a state funeral.

The Lovefest (1717)

What is the name of this painting?

Jean Jacques Rousseau

The most radical of the French political theorists was

Jean Jacques Rousseau

The most radical of the French political theorists was ___ ________ ________. Unlike the philosophes, ___ _______ ______ rejected civil society and glorified man in his natural state: "the noble savage." In The Social Contract, ____ ________ _________ envisioned a perfect society in which the people rule themselves. _____ ________ __________ believed that the community depended on a contract, both social and political, among the people themselves. The contract was an understanding under which the individual will of members of the society combined into the General Will. This General Will should be the sovereign of the society. Rulers, be they kings or representatives, were only delegates of the people. _____ _______ _________'s ideas serve as a bridge between the idea of the Enlightenment thinkers and the emergence in the 19th century of a new intellectual movement, romanticism, which placed more emphasis on the emotional side of human beings, on the exotic and remote, on the virtues of nature, and on the perfectibility of society. The blend of Enlightenment political thought and _____ ________ __________'s romanticism was manifested in the French Revolution.

inadequate revenues

The most serious problem the French government faced in the 18th century was

"Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."

The opening line of Jean-Jacquess Rousseau's treatise The Social Contract:

The Thermidorian Reaction

The parliamentary revolt initiated on 9 Thermidor, year II (July 27, 1794), which resulted in the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the collapse of revolutionary fervour and the Reign of Terror in France. By June 1794 France had become fully weary of the mounting executions (1,300 in June alone), and Paris was alive with rumours of plots against Robespierre, a member of the ruling Committee of Public Safety and a leading advocate of the Terror. On 8 Thermidor (July 26) he gave a speech full of appeals and threats. The next day, the deputies in the National Convention shouted him down and decreed his arrest. He was arrested at the Hôtel de Ville, along with his brother Augustin, François Hanriot, Georges Couthon, and Louis de Saint-Just. The same guillotine that on 9 Thermidor executed 45 anti-Robespierrists executed, in the following three days, 104 Robespierrists, inaugurating a brief "White Terror" against Jacobins throughout France. The coup was primarily a reassertion of the rights of the National Convention against the Committee of Public Safety and of the nation against the Paris Commune. It was followed by the disarming of the committee, the emptying of the prisons, and the purging of Jacobin clubs. Social and political life became freer, more extravagant, and more personally corrupt. There was a splurge of fashion and a conspicuous consumption of bourgeois wealth, while the poor suffered from harsh economic conditions.

Ancien Regime

The social structure, particularly in France, in the 17th and 18th centuries (means "Old Rule")

The Reign of Terror

The period of the French Revolution from September 5, 1793, to July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor, year II). With civil war spreading from the Vendée and hostile armies surrounding France on all sides, the Revolutionary government decided to make "Terror" the order of the day (September 5 decree) and to take harsh measures against those suspected of being enemies of the Revolution (nobles, priests, hoarders). In Paris a wave of executions followed. In the provinces, representatives on mission and surveillance committees instituted local terrors. Aristocrats and clergymen were executed, but the vast majority of the people executed were peasants due to their connection with and sympathies for the Church. The Terror had an economic side embodied in the Maximum, a price-control measure demanded by the lower classes of Paris, and a religious side that was embodied in the program of de-Christianization pursued by the followers of Jacques Hébert. During the Terror, the Committee of Public Safety (of which Maximilien de Robespierre was the most prominent member) exercised virtual dictatorial control over the French government. In the spring of 1794, it eliminated its enemies to the left (the Hébertists) and to the right (the Indulgents, or followers of Georges Danton). Still uncertain of its position, the committee obtained the Law of 22 Prairial, year II (June 10, 1794), which suspended a suspect's right to public trial and to legal assistance and left the jury a choice only of acquittal or death. The "Great Terror" that followed, in which about 1,400 persons were executed, contributed to the fall of Robespierre on July 27 (9 Thermidor). During this period, at least 300,000 suspects were arrested; 17,000 were officially executed, and perhaps 10,000 died in prison or without trial.

Thomas Hobbes

The philosopher __________ _________ lived in England during the time of its civil war and witnessed the overthrow of the divine-right monarch Charles I and Oliver Cromwell's experiment with a republican form of government.

not only the aristocracy but also the wealthier sections of the bourgeoisie.

The popular rage of the lower classes during the French revolution was directed at

by the wars of King Louis XIV

The price exacted ________________________ left France discontent with absolute rule.

the Dead Christ

The recumbent pose of the slain Jean-Paul Marat in Jacques-Louis David's famous painting resembles the familiar image of

divine-right theory

The rise of scientific theory and decline of orthodox religions challenged _______-_____ ______.

By conferring tragic status upon anonymous victims rather than classical or modern military heroes, by demonstrating that the human potential of terror and chaos was more compelling than that of reason and order, Gericault set out to destroy the premises of Davidian traditions, while nevertheless working within their language of ideal form. Indeed, like Goya's The Third of May 1808, painted only five years before, The Medusa extinguishes the Age of Enlightenment, revealing the dark and the terrifying truths that lie below the layer of reason. The Raft of the Medusa offers the fullest contradiction of David's epic veneration of human will and heroic action.

The themes of Gericault's The Raft of the Medusa:

once they had detected the laws governing human society, these laws could be used to improve the human condition.

The theorists of the Enlightenment were optimists who believed that ____________________________________, _______________________________________________. Some theorists of the Enlightenment saw human society as potentially perfect.

Enlightenment

The theorists of the _________________ were optimists who believed that once they had detected the laws governing human society, these laws could be used to improve the human condition. Some theorists of the ___________________ saw human society as potentially perfect.

the inequities of the social system of the ancien regime, the opposition of the intellectuals to the status quo, the absolute power of the French monarchy, the personal inadequacies of Kings Louis XV and XVI, and the financial crisis which confronted the French government in the years immediately preceding the Revolution.

The underlying reasons for the first stage of the French Revolution in 1789:

reason, science, religious tolerance, and the natural rights of life, liberty, and property.

The values of the Enlightenment:

the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie

The weakness of King Louis XV strengthened the positions of which social classes?

A Pilgrimage to Cythera (1717)

What is the name of this painting?

Commoners (including the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, and the urban workers)

Third Estate:

the church become a department of the king's government, which would closely control all religious affairs.

Thomas Hobbes advised that

the people agreed among themselves to "lay down" their natural rights of equality and freedom and give absolute power to a sovereign.

Thomas Hobbes asserted that

religion could become a source of civil war

Thomas Hobbes feared that

the church meddling with the king's government

Thomas Hobbes warned against

bore the burden of the tax system and were required to pay an annual tithe of 10 percent of their earnings to the Roman Catholic Church

Though landless, powerless, and disadvantaged, French peasants under the Ancien Regime nevertheless

neoclassical

Today Jacques-Louis David is best known as one of the great masters of French painting--the defining artist of an austere ____________ style that dominated European art for almost a half-century--and one of the precursors of modern painting. But for a few remarkable years Jacques-Louis David was also the propaganda minister of the French Revolution--the man who could turn an unruly mob, ready to kill for a loaf of bread, into tearful patriots willing to die for the cause. On demand Jacques-Louis David produced State funerals and martyr portraits, multimedia pageants for casts of thousands--all designed to keep the revolutionary faith alive, even when the bodies were piling up ten deep beside la guillotine.

propaganda minister

Today Jacques-Louis David is best known as one of the great masters of French painting--the defining artist of an austere neoclassical style that dominated European art for almost a half-century--and one of the precursors of modern painting. But for a few remarkable years Jacques-Louis David was also the ___________ ________ of the French Revolution--the man who could turn an unruly mob, ready to kill for a loaf of bread, into tearful patriots willing to die for the cause. On demand Jacques-Louis David produced State funerals and martyr portraits, multimedia pageants for casts of thousands--all designed to keep the revolutionary faith alive, even when the bodies were piling up ten deep beside la guillotine.

Jacques-Louis David

Today _______-______ ______ is best known as one of the great masters of French painting--the defining artist of an austere neoclassical style that dominated European art for almost a half-century--and one of the precursors of modern painting. But for a few remarkable years ________-______ ______ was also the propaganda minister of the French Revolution--the man who could turn an unruly mob, ready to kill for a loaf of bread, into tearful patriots willing to die for the cause. On demand ________-_______ ______ produced State funerals and martyr portraits, multimedia pageants for casts of thousands--all designed to keep the revolutionary faith alive, even when the bodies were piling up ten deep beside la guillotine.

False

True or False: the idea of female equality was part of Enlightenment theory

After Death (~1820)

What is the name of this painting?

Back from the Market (1739)

What is the name of this painting?

King Louis XIV

Under _____ _____ ___, the French army became the strongest in Europe. The state paid, fed, trained, and supplied up to 300,000 soldiers. ______ ______ ______ used this highly disciplined army to enforce his policies at home and abroad.

taxed heavily

Unlike the First and Second Estates, the Third Estate was

rejected civilized society and glorified man in his natural state as "the noble savage."

Unlike the philosophes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty to limited power

What brought the French Revolution to an end?

Critique of Pure Reason

What is the name of 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant's magnum opus?

Slave Ship (detail) (1840)

What is the name of this (part of this) painting?

The Oxbow (detail of self-portrait) (1836)

What is the name of this (part of this) painting?

George Washington

When the American Revolution broke out, to many French people it seemed as if the era of republican Rome had come to life across the Atlantic. France (to the king's later and bitter regret) supported England's rebellious colonies with men and a great deal of money. Stories about these brave citizen-soldiers, rising up against a half-mad despot, read like a page from Plutarch. And, although the French had trouble with his name, _________ __________ was idolized as a paragon of fancied Roman virtues--brave, self-sacrificing, devoted to his comrades-in-arms and very tall.

American Revolution

When the _________ __________ broke out, to many French people it seemed as if the era of republican Rome had come to life across the Atlantic. France (to the king's later and bitter regret) supported England's rebellious colonies with men and a great deal of money. Stories about these brave citizen-soldiers, rising up against a half-mad despot, read like a page from Plutarch. And, although the French had trouble with his name (sometimes it came out "Waginston"), George Washington was idolized as a paragon of fancied Roman virtues--brave, self-sacrificing, devoted to his comrades-in-arms and very tall.

coffee-houses

Where was Enlightenment literature read and where were Enlightenment ideas discussed in France (300 of them in Paris)?

Battle of Trenton; December 26, 1776

Which battle is George Washington about to fight in in this painting? What is the date of this battle?

The Invasion of Russia, 1812

Which disastrous military campaign lead to Napoleon's eventual defeat by the Sixth Coalition?

property

Which natural right did John Locke believe was the most important?

the peasantry

Which social group made up the bulk of French society?

a representative government such as the English Parliament, which had a hereditary House of Lords and an elected House of Commons.

Which style of government did John Locke favor?

The Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security

Which two committees lead the government of France during the Reign of Terror and were dominated by Robespierre and the Jacobins?

Cole

Who is the artist of this (part of this) painting?

(Jacques-Louis) David

Who is the artist of this painting?

Angelica Kauffmann

Who is the artist of this painting?

Benjamin West

Who is the artist of this painting?

Bierstadt

Who is the artist of this painting?

Boucher

Who is the artist of this painting?

Chardin

Who is the artist of this painting?

Church

Who is the artist of this painting?

Cole

Who is the artist of this painting?

Constable

Who is the artist of this painting?

Delacroix

Who is the artist of this painting?

Emanuel Leutze

Who is the artist of this painting?

Fragonard

Who is the artist of this painting?

Gainsborough

Who is the artist of this painting?

Gericault

Who is the artist of this painting?

Goya

Who is the artist of this painting?

Gros

Who is the artist of this painting?

Moran

Who is the artist of this painting?

Rogier Van der Weyden

Who is the artist of this painting?

Turner

Who is the artist of this painting?

Watteau

Who is the artist of this painting?

Rogier Van der Weyden

Who is the artist of this painting? (Note: this is just a part of the painting)

a young woman from Caen named Charlotte Corday

Who murdered Jean-Paul Marat?

a young Girondist named Charlotte Corday

Who murdered the Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat in July 1793?

A Jacobin who produced a paper called Le Père Duchesne that was specially directed at and championed the cause of the sans-culottes. Jacques-René Hébert was later executed during the Reign of Terror by the Committee of Public Safety due to his radical populist views.

Who was Jacques-René Hébert?

a radical faction among those who supported the Revolution that consisted mostly of members of the bourgeoisie.

Who were the Jacobins?

The middle class in France. This class consisted of male property owners, such as financiers, bankers, manufacturers, traders, merchants, lawyers, middle-class professionals, business owners, doctors, small businessmen, and entrepreneurs. The bourgeois were generally educated.

Who were the bourgeoisie?

a group of French philosophers who publicized and popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment

Who were the philosophes?

the common people of the lower classes in late 18th century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime.

Who were the sans-culottes?

Abbe Sieyes

Who wrote the pamphlet entitled "What Is the Third Estate?"

Brussels

With the fall of Napoleon in 1815 and the restoration of the monarchy, Jacques-Louis David, now in his 60s, was among those exiled as a punishment for regicide. He spent his final years in _________, where he died in 1825.

Napoleon Bonaparte

With the fall of _________ __________ in 1815 and the restoration of the monarchy, Jacques-Louis David, now in his 60s, was among those exiled as a punishment for regicide. He spent his final years in Brussels, where he died in 1825.

the reduction of conflict between humans depended on the spread of education.

Writing during the Thirty Years' War, the German John Comenius was a forerunner of modern political thinkers. John Comenius challenged traditional views of politics and war, and sought to reduce conflict by remaking society. For John Comenius, ____________________________________________________________________.

John Comenius

Writing during the Thirty Years' War, the German ____ __________ was a forerunner of modern political thinkers. _____ __________ challenged traditional views of politics and war, and sought to reduce conflict by remaking society. For ____ ________, the reduction of conflict between humans depended on the spread of education.

German

Writing during the Thirty Years' War, the _____ John Comenius was a forerunner of modern political thinkers. John Comenius challenged traditional views of politics and war, and sought to reduce conflict by remaking society. For John Comenius, the reduction of conflict between humans depended on the spread of education.

Thirty Years' War

Writing during the _____ _____ __, the German John Comenius was a forerunner of modern political thinkers. John Comenius challenged traditional views of politics and war, and sought to reduce conflict by remaking society. For John Comenius, the reduction of conflict between humans depended on the spread of education.

King Louis XIV

____ _____ ___ saw France's Protestant minority as a threat to religious and political unity. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes. More than 100,000 Huguenots fled France. The persecution of the Huguenots was perhaps the king's most costly blunder. The Huguenots had been among the most hard-working and prosperous of ____ _____ ___'s subjects.

King Louis XIV

____ ______ ___ ruled France for 72 years, far longer than any other monarch. During his reign, French culture, manners, and customs replaced those of Renaissance Italy as the standard for European taste. In both foreign and domestic affairs, however, many of Louis's policies were costly failures.

Hugo Grotius

____ _______ is best remembered for prescribing laws to govern international affairs. Although wars are sometimes inevitable, ____ ________ said, the only just war is a war of self-defense. Preventive wars and wars waged for territory, conquest, or to spread an unwanted form of government, however beneficial, are unjust. Moreover, even in a just war, nations have the obligation to conform to civilized standards of behavior.

Baron de Montesquieu

_____ __ _________ argued that climate, geography, history, and social and economic conditions affect the form of government a society should adopt. _____ __ _________ argued that republics can flourish only in small countries or city-states; monarchies, in nations of moderate size and temperate climates; and despotism, in large empires in hot climates. _____ __ _________ was the founder of the theory of the separation of powers. According to the theory of the separation of powers, the best guarantee of individual rights lay in the creation of separate and independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, each of which would provide checks and balances to the powers of others.

King Louis XIV

_____ ______ ___ poured vast resources into wars to expand French borders. At first, he did gain some territory. His later wars were disastrous, though, because rival rulers joined forces to check French ambitions. Led by the Dutch or the English, these alliances fought to maintain the balance of power, a distribution of military and economic power that would prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.

John Locke

_____ ______ can be considered the father of democratic theory.

King Louis XIV

_____ _______ ___ and his court supported a "splendid century" of the arts. _____ _______ ___ sponsored musical entertainments and commissioned plays by the best writers. The age of _____ _____ ___ was the classical age of French drama. Jean Racine wrote tragedies based on ancient Greek myths. The actor-playwright Moliere turned out comedies, such as The Miser, that poked fun at French society. In painting, music, architecture, and decorative arts, French styles became the model for all of Europe. A new form of dance drama, ballet, gained its first great popularity at the French court. As a leading patron of culture, ______ ________ ___ sponsored the French Academies, which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences.

Goya

_____ proposed to the interregnum regency council in Madrid that he paint the most heroic moments of the Spanish resistance, and they agreed. The results were two enormous paintings that provide a two-part documentation of (1) the popular insurrection against the French mercenary forces at the Puerta del Sol, Madrid, on May 2, 1808, and (2) the reprisals of May 3, 1808, when the French shot, without trial, all the Spaniards suspected of complicity.

Baruch Spinoza

_______ ________, the son of a Jewish family in Amsterdam, made his living as a grinder of lenses for spectacles, telescopes, and microscopes. _______ _________ developed a system of philosophy that emphasized the importance of ethical thought as a guide to conduct. His philosophy questioned the organized religions of his day, both Judaism and Christianity. Although he believed in God, ________ _________ denied the divine inspiration of the Bible, and rejected miracles and all religious manifestations of the supernatural. To him, ethics determined by human reason were more important than the tenets of revealed religion.

Deists

_______ believe a good and powerful God exists, created life, and should be worshipped. ________ also believe that the existence of God is revealed in reason and in the order of nature. ________ believe in eternal life. ______ reject orthodox Christianity, which they view as based on superstition, not reason. _______ compare the universe to a watch, with God serving the role of watchmaker who created the universe and set it in motion. As his creation, it ran perfectly and hence did not require his intervention.

Cardinal Armand Richelieu

________ _______ ________ sought to destroy the power of the Huguenots and nobles, two groups that did not bow to royal authority. He smashed the walled cities of the Huguenots and outlawed their armies, while still allowing them to practice their religion. At the same time, he defeated the private armies of the nobles and destroyed their fortified castles. While reducing their independence, he tied nobles to the king by giving them high posts at court or in the royal army.

King Louis XIV

__________ outlived his sons and grandsons. When __________ died in 1715, his five-year-old great-grandson inherited the throne as Louis XV. Although France was then the strongest state in Europe, years of warfare had drained the treasury. The prosperity nurtured by Colbert evaporated under the burden of bad harvests, heavy taxes, and other problems. Louis XV was too weak a king to deal with such problems. He devoted his days to pleasure, ignoring the growing need for reform. He often quoted an old proverb, "After us, the deluge." As you will read, the deluge came during the reign of the next king.

Immanuel Kant

___________ _____ was an 18th-century German philosopher who examined the limitations of human reason and of human capacity to understand the world in his chief work entitled Critique of Pure Reason.

The rise of scientific theory and decline of orthodox religions

___________________________________________________________________________ challenged divine-right theory.

Jacobins

a group within the Legislative Assembly with radical views that believed that the French revolution had not gone far enough, that the constitutional monarchy and the last vestiges of the ancien regime must be abolished.

a sudden overthrow of government by a few

define coup d'etat:

The Storming of the Bastille

occurred in Paris, France, on the morning of 14 July 1789. The medieval fortress and prison in Paris known as the Bastille represented royal authority in the centre of Paris. The prison contained just seven inmates at the time of its storming but was a symbol of the abuse of the monarchy: its fall was the flashpoint of the French Revolution. Triggered by high bread prices. Forced King Louis XVI and the royal family to move to Paris; National Constituent Assembly also moved to Paris. Provoked a mass exodus of aristocrats from France

The Continental System

the blockade designed by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain through the destruction of British commerce. The decrees of Berlin (November 21, 1806) and Milan (December 17, 1807) proclaimed a blockade: neutrals and French allies were not to trade with the British. Although it stimulated manufacturing in some parts of France, the system damaged regions dependent on overseas commerce. Because the British had an overwhelming superiority at sea, though, enforcing the system proved disastrous for Napoleon. His efforts to halt evasions of his blockade stretched French forces too thin, and ultimately provoked his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812.

the sans-culottes

the common people of the lower classes in late 18th century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Régime.