Rome Exam #1

Religious texts

1. Libri Haruspicini: the book of Hauruspex interpretations2. Libri Fulgurales: Books of Lightning Strikes3. Libri Rituales: Books of Ritules

What are three theories of etruscan origin?

1. Nordic: Nicolas Fréret (1688-1749) 2. Indigenous3. Asia Minor

Dentifying features of an Etruscan temple

1. The columns are made of wood2.The porch is "deep"3. The temple has a"staircase entrance'4. The walls are made of mud bricks5.Terracotta statues on the roof (akrotiri)6. The podium is high7. There are three chanbers for statues of gods8. Three deities were worshipped here: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva Usually the pediment is open, there isn't a wall

what features of life/culture did the terramare bring

1.Superiority in the production of field crops (flax, bans, wheat. 2.Breeding of livestock (cattle, sheep, pigs, horses) 3.Pottery making skills 4.Superiority in bronze casting and manufacture of bronze tools and weapons (sickles, axes, chisels, daggers, swords). 5.They introduced the custom of cremating and perhaps an I-E language. The term I-E (Indo-European) is purely linguistic and is used to identify the family of related languages that include Sanskrit in India, Persian, Armenian, the Slavic tongues, Greek, the Celtic dialects, the Germanic languages, English, Latin, all Latin derived languages.Since the term "Terramara" also denotes the material culture of this civilization, we can recognize connections that this culture had with other cultures, especially the Apennine culture.

ADIGE RIVER

2nd longest river in Italy: 250 miles

Latium

A plain on the west coast of Italy on which the city of Rome was built

tegulae (know image

A tapered, semicylindrical roofing tile laid concave side up

mouth of truth (know image)

Across the street from the Temple of Hercules is the Bocca della Verità or the "Mouth of Truth).

Agger of the Servian Wall (know image)

Agger of the Servian Wall . An agger is an ancient Roman embankment or rampart. The deep fossa or ditch served as a large drain

Vetulonia

An Ancient Roman town where a stele was found with a writing style similar to a writing style of the Etruscans.

An Etruscan pediment found at the port-city of Pyrgi. (know image)

An Etruscan pediment found at the port-city of Pyrgi. The pediment is the triangular section above the frieze. It isn't the roof, its basically the front triangle between the walls and the roof.

Etruscan bucchero large trefoil oinochoe

An ancient Etruscan bucchero large trefoil oinochoe, a wine pitcher, with incised bands around the neck, and a thick handle that terminates with two roundels at the mouth. The small circular roundels help to control pouring. Etruria.Ca. 650-575 BC.Height: 11 5/8 in.

Caere

Ancient city of Etruscans known for its city of dead located approximately 30 miles north of Rome- huge cemetaries

Mycenaeans

(A civilization from southern Greece)

Etruria

(After Terramare) Northern region of Italy; home to the Villanovan Culture and later, Etruscans, ended with the first Roman Republic - distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from before the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic, beginning in the late 4th century BC with the Roman-Etruscan Wars.[2] Culture that is identifiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 900 BC, approximately with the Iron Age Villanovan culture, regarded as the oldest phase of Etruscan civilization -The decline was gradual, but by 500 BC the political destiny of Italy had passed out of Etruscan hands.[13] The last Etruscan cities were formally absorbed by Rome around 100 BC.

Minoans

(a civilization on Crete)

Terramare

(middle to late bronze age) 1700-1150 BC; principle period 1200-1000 BC. this period is when the culture primarily flourished an ancient pre-Roman culture

Terramare and Apennine

By around 1800 BC a Bronze Age had emerged in Italy that is best expressed by the Terramaricoli (Terramara) and Apennine cultures.Both of these cultures existed south of Bologna in northern Italy and in the Apennine Mountains.

Describe the cemetary of Banditacci

Cerveteri: The ancient costal city of Caere at its height, around 600 BC, had a population of around 25,000 - 40,000 people. The city was situated about 7 km from the sea and it was served by three ports. The most important port was Pyrgi, also noted for two monumental temples built around 510 BC. Nearby was an Etruscan cemetery (a necropolis) named the Necropoli della Banditaccia or simply, Banditaccia. The necropolis has over one thousand tombs, most identified by characteristic mounds (a tumulus). These tombs have yielded rich and exquisite objects, including ceramics and jewelry and other artifacts. The area of the cemetery of Banditacci covers an area of 990 acres. The tombs date from the 9th to 3rd century BC. The earliest tombs are in the shape of a pit, in which the ashes of the dead were housed

Tumulus tombs at Banditaccia (know image)

Cerveteri: The ancient costal city of Caere at its height, around 600 BC, had a population of around 25,000 - 40,000 people. The city was situated about 7 km from the sea and it was served by three ports. The most important port was Pyrgi, also noted for two monumental temples built around 510 BC. Nearby was an Etruscan cemetery (a necropolis) named the Necropoli della Banditaccia or simply, Banditaccia. The necropolis has over one thousand tombs, most identified by characteristic mounds (a tumulus). These tombs have yielded rich and exquisite objects, including ceramics and jewelry and other artifacts. The area of the cemetery of Banditacci covers an area of 990 acres. The tombs date from the 9th to 3rd century BC. The earliest tombs are in the shape of a pit, in which the ashes of the dead were housed

Cloca Maxima: interior view

Cloca Maxima: interior view

Cloca Maxima: outlet into Tiber river (know image)

Cloca Maxima: outlet into Tiber river

Corbel Vaulting (know image)

Corbel vaulting was an architectural form used in ancient architecture. It was used in the construction of defensive, domestic, and religious architecture. Many cultures of the Mediterranean and European areas used this form.

origin of the terramare

Current scholarship generally regards these Terramara people who settled in the middle Po River valley in northern Italy as having come to Italy from the middle Danube River area in the north east.Perhaps sometime around 1700 BC they migrated from what is now Hungary. It has been suggested (Scullard et.al) that when they arrived they brought a fully developed culture with them.When they entered Italy, they brought significant skills and cultural features, which gave them distinct advantages over the other peoples living in northern and central Italy.

Indigenous Origins

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 BC - after 7 BC). He was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Caesar Augustus. Herodotus (1st half of 5th cent. BC) "Father of History"Etruscans and Lydians

Divination was called

Divination was called "augury." The divination of the future involved two priest, a Haruspex and an Augur. The augur would inspect the entrails (usually the liver) of a sacrificed sheep or bird in order to foretell the future. The haruspex would observe the behavior of birds or track celestial activity.

Fibula

Equates to the modern safety pin: they can be highly decorated, such as with granulation.

Southern Villanovans:

Etruria, Latium, 'hut-urns,' Vulci and Caere, biconical urns, Inhumation, fossa (ae), (Apennines practiced cremation and inhumation)chamber tombs, Wattle and daub, Origins of Southern Villanovans, Ischia island, Pithakoussai, Magna Graecia

Etruria is made up of how many cities

Etruscan civilization flourished in three confederacies of cities: of Etruria (Tuscany, Latium and Umbria), of the Po Valley with the eastern Alps, and of Campania.

Veii

Etruscan town up-river from Rome: could have become "Rome"

carrus (know image)

Etruscan wooden carriage (carrus) with bronze ornamentation and a "funeral bed:" body lays on it Cerveteri Regolini-Galassi tomb

Examples of corbelvaulting: Used by ancient Greeks in architecture, defense and tombs(know image)

Examples of corbelvaulting: Used by ancient Greeks in architecture, defense and tombs

Fasces (know image)

Fasces, insignia of official authority in ancient Rome. The name derives from the plural form of the Latin fascis ("bundle"). The fasces was carried by the lictors, or attendants, and was characterized by an ax head projecting from a bundle of elm or birch rods about 5 feet (1.5 metres) long and tied together with a red strap; it symbolized penal power. When carried inside Rome, the ax was removed (unless the magistrate was a dictator or general celebrating a triumph) as recognition of the right of a Roman citizen to appeal a magistrate's ruling. The discovery of a miniature iron set of fasces in a 7th-century-BCE Etruscan tomb at Vetulonia confirms the traditional view that Rome derived the fasces from the Etruscans.

Chimira

For the Etruscans, it was a mythical creature that has the body of a lion with a snake tail and the neck and head of a ram extending out of its back

Natural Resources:

Forests: Minerals

Hepatoscopy

Hepatoscopy is the word for the divination by the liver of an animal or bird. The Liver of Piacenza was a bronze model of a sheep's liver. When a priest was "reading" a sheep's liver that had been placed on an altar, the liver was oriented in a north/south direction. The liver was considered according to its various sections, as we see outlined on the Piacenza model. Each of the multiple sections represented a deity, and the markings in these zones were important.

TERMS RELATING TO THE ORIGINS OF THE ETRUSCANS

Herrodotus: Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus: Greek Historian Nicolas Fréret: 19th century scholar who believed that the Etruscans came from the north of Italy (Nordic theory) Asia Minor (Modern area of Turkey: also called Anatolia. Lydia: region in SW Turkey

Iron Age posso "urn field" at the Sorbo Necropolis west of Caere (know image)

Iron Age posso "urn field" at the Sorbo Necropolis west of Caere

Lemnos:

Island in Aegean Sea where an inscription was found with a writing style resembling Etruscan writing.

Pithakoussae Island

Island near Neapolis (Naples) 1st known Grk settlement: Now called Ischia.

Lemnos

Island relates to where the Lemnian Stele was found: Why important?The Lemnian language was a language spoken on the island of Lemnos in the 6th century BC. It is mainly attested by an inscription found on a funerary stele, termed the Lemnos stele, discovered in 1885 near Kaminia. Fragments of inscriptions on local pottery show that it was spoken there by a community.[2] In 2009, a newly discovered inscription was reported from the site of Hephaistia, the principal ancent city of Lemnos.[3] Lemnian is largely accepted as being closely related to Etruscan.[4][5][6][7][8] After the Athenians conquered the island in the latter half of the 6th century BC, Lemnian was replaced by Attic Greek.

Lemnian Stelec. 600 BCLemnian script (c. 600 BC)

Lemnian Stelec. 600 BCLemnian script (c. 600 BC)

APENNINE CULTURE

Located in the Apennine Mountains and a few neighboring areas

granulation

Many believe that the Etruscan goldsmiths learned the basic technique of "granulation" from the Phoenicians and then took this technique to new heights of excellence and delicacy through extreme miniaturization. Granulation refers to the side by side application of tiny beads of gold on jewelry.

Sabines

Mountain tribe near Rome that played a key role is Rome's efforts to become a city.

ETRUSCAN CULTURE in the 6th century

Note that although the main occupation area for the Etruscans was in the north there is evidence that they also extended as far as the town of Pompeii in the area of Campania.

Peristyle Garden (know image)

Open colonnaded court with a garden and pool found in ancient Roman homes.

APENNINE MOUNTAIN RANGE

Over 750 miles in lengthheight9,554 ft

Pyrgi Tablets (know image)

Pyrgi Tablets, Caere (Cerveteri), two temples, gold sheets, Phoenician, Etruscan, Astarte (= Etruscan god, Uni)

Temple of Hercules Victor (know image)

Temple of Hercules Victor, Rome. A modification of a Greek tholos. Rome, from the late second century BC.

TERRAMARE CULTURE artifacts

Terramara culture combs made of stag's antlers. Castiglione dei Marchesi, Fidenza - Middle Bronze Age. Decorated handles

Terramare

Terramare, Terramara, or Terremare is a technology complex mainly of the central Po valley, in Emilia-Romagna, Northern Italy,[1] dating to the Middle and Late Bronze Age ca. 1700-1150 BC.[2][3] It takes its name from the "black earth" residue of settlement mounds. Terramare is from terra marna, "marl-earth", where marl is a lacustrine deposit. It may be any color but in agricultural lands it is most typically black, giving rise to the "black earth" identification of it.[2] The population of the terramare sites is called the terramaricoli.

Apennine Culture/period

The Apennine Culture emerged in the middle and late Bronze Age (1800 to 1000 BC) and its principal location was along the Apennine Mountains from the Po Valley to the Gulf of Taranto in the "heel area" of the Peninsula. We see that its pottery is found in museum collections but there is little more to see.

Apennine culture/geography/people

The Apennine Culture was semi-nomadic, essentially pastoral, and they cremated their dead.Found in central and southern Italy all through the Bronze Age.The people of the Apennine culture were cattle herdsmen who grazed their cattle in meadows and groves in the mountainous regions mainly of central Italy. But, it is important to remember that their range was not necessarily confined to the hills. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters.But by 1000 BC, both the Terramara and the Apennine Cultures were using cremation, whichillustrates Terramara influence. However, the fusion between the twocultures should not be exaggerated because the old Apennine culture with 33its practice of inhumation persistedwell into the Iron Age(after 1,000 BC) in central and southern Italy, i.e. after 1000 BC

The Monterozzi necropolis

The Monterozzi necropolis is an Etruscan necropolis on a hill east of Tarquinia in Lazio, Italy. The necropolis has about 6,000 graves, the oldest of which dates to the 7th century BC. About 200 of the gravestones are decorated with frescos.

Villanovan Culture

The Villanovan culture (c. 900 BC - 700 BC) was the earliest Iron Age culture of Central Italy and Northern Italy, abruptly following the Bronze Age Terramare culture and giving way in the 7th century BC to an increasingly orientalizing culture influenced by Greek traders, which was followed without a severe break by the Etruscan civilization. The Villanovan culture and people branched from the Urnfield culture of Central Europe.[1] The Villanovans introduced iron-working to the Italian Peninsula, and they practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in pottery urns of distinctive double-cone shape. Villanovan culture is regarded as the oldest phase of Etruscan civilization. - Cremated remains were placed in cinerary urns, specifically in biconical urns[7] and then buried. The urns were a form of Villanovan pottery known as impasto. A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of "Hut urns", cinerary urns fashioned like small huts, and other advanced urn designs.

Impluvium:

The impluvium is the sunken part of the atrium located at the center of a Greek or Roman house (domus). The impluvium caught rain water that fell through the opening in the roof called the compluvium which was directly over the impluvium. The shallow pool called the impluvium directed the water that it caught down through a drainage pipe to a nearby cistern for storage and use for household needs.

Sicily

The island of Sicily is approx. 3 miles from the "toe" of Italy, and the island is approx. 90 miles to the north of Africa and the area of Carthage.

Tarquinius Superbus

The legendary seventh and final king of Rome. He reigned from 535 BC until the popular uprising in 509 that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic. He is commonly known as Tarquin the Proud,:

Villanovan metal work

The metalwork quality found in bronze and pottery show commitment by Villanovan artisans. Some grave goods from burial sites display a higher quality, suggesting the development of societal elites within Villanovan culture. Tools and items were placed in graves suggesting a belief in an afterlife, men's graves contained weapons, armor, weaving tools for the women with a few graves containing vice versa goods. Indicating exceptions with the possibility that women played a more active role in Villanovan culture and that men too had made clothing. [8] Villanovans traded with other states from the Mediterranean such as Greeks, Balkans, and Sardinia. Trade brought about advancement in metallurgy, and Greek presence influenced Villanovan pottery

Villanovan origin

The origins of the Villanovans are still unknown. Some archaeologists assume that they were descendants of the Terramara because of similar burial practices.Others believe that the Villanovans came from over the Alps through the Po River valley without leaving a trace of their passage and that they finally settled around Bologna.What stands against both of these opinions is that the oldest Villanovan sites have NOT been found near Bologna in northern Italybut in southern Etruria and in northern Latium. Indeed, they have even been found at the site of Rome.One historian (Scullard) says that the "Villanovan culture was the Italian soil in which the Etruscan civilization grew up and flourished."

Etruscan antefixes (know image)

The roof tiles running along the eaves of ancient Greek and Etruscan buildings often ended in upright members called antefixes. These mold-made terracottas often took the form of heads, either of humans or mythological creatures. As well as being decorative, architectural terracottas served to cover and protect exposed wooden parts of the architecture from the elements.

VILLANOVAN CINERARY HUT URN

The shape imitates the apparent shape of a Villanovan hut

dromos

The short corridor into the tomb is an entrance way called a dromos, common to many Greek tombs, and adopted by the Etruscans.

Temple of Portus (know image)

The temple of Portus (harbor god) in Rome is an Etruscan style temple

Decumanus

The term for an east-west street in a city

servian wall (know image)

The wall was up to 33 ft in height in places, 12 ft wide at its base, 6.8 mile long,and is believed to have had 16 main gates. The wall was built from large blocks of tufa (a volcanic rock made from ash and rock fragments ejected during an eruption) quarried from the Grotta Oscura quarry near Rome's early rival Veii, presumably after its defeat by Rome in the 390s.[

Corbel vaulting

This refers to an arch-like construction method that uses the architectural technique of corbeling to span a space or void: for their appearance see the power points. They were used to support the roof of a structure such as a burial tomb, tunnel, or a building's roof.

Important Rivers of Italy

Tiber , Po, Rubicon (associated with Julius Caesar) Adidge, Arno, Liris, Volturnus

tini (know image)

Tini = the Etruscan Zeus

Etruscan gods

Tinia (=Tina or Tins): Etruscan god equal to Jupiter Menrva (=Minerva) Uni (= Juno)

Important local stones:

Travertine, tufa, peperino

The Liver of Piacenza (know image)

Used for divinations and interpretations of health,Business, and many other Topics.

The Liver of Piacenza (know image)

Used for divinations and interpretations of health,Business, and many other Topics.The purpose of the Liver of Piacenza was for Hepatoscopy

"posso" burial (know image)

Villanovan

Impasto amphora

Villanovan Impasto AmphoraAn ancient Villanovan dark brown impasto ware amphora; the vessel with a high foot, columnar neck, and applied ribs and 'nipples' on each side.

Villanovan bi-conical cinerary urn (know image)

Villanovan bi-conical cinerary urn:note the decorations

Villanovan ceremonial pouring vessel

Villanovan ceremonial pouring vessel: The horse, rider, and the vessel have impressed decorations. 3rd to 7th. c. BC: Bologna.

Vitruvius

Vitruvius was a famous Roman architect, who wrote De Architectura (Concerning Architecture) which included many references to Etruscan construction, especially about Etruscan temples.

Villanovan houses

We know that the Villanovans lived in huts, which can be reconstructed from the baked clay replicas that some groups used as cinerary urns in place of the more normal biconical type.These hut urns are found north of the Tiber at such places as Vulci and Caere but they are more common in Villanovan settlements south of the Tiber.The Foundations of three such Villanovan huts were found in 1948 on the Palatine hill at Rom where the foundation trenches for huts were cut into the Tufa rock revealing a roughly rectangular building 13 ½ feet by 11 ¾ feet in size.The trenches dug into the Tufa were actually drainage channels for water falling off of the hut roofs. The trenches and post holes also suggest that the huts on the Palatine Hill had porches.Post-holes cut into the Tufa especially enabled a guess at the original structure of Villanovan huts.A central wooden pillar held a ridge-pole from which a gabled roofdescended to and beyond the upright sides of the hut. In front of the hut was a small porch.The rood and walls were of wattle and daub (branches and thatch laid on a coating of dry clay). -Clusters of these hutsformed village settlements and recent work at Veii shows that groups of such "villages" might be built around a central strong point and thus ultimately fused into a "town" or into what became a town during the Etruscan phase.In fact, the Villanovans already established the pattern of Etruscan settlement in many cases as early as the 8th century BC. This suggests that the Villanovans should be given more credit for social organization than they have sometimes received.

Foundation cultures of Etruscans

We need to know both the Apennine and Terramara because of their influences on the Etruscan culture and then Villanovan culture and then its influence on the Roman culture.

Littus

a curved staff used by a Haruspex The priests of Rome believed that they could divine the future by considering the areas of the sky and earth about them as the stood facing towards the south. The priest referred to the area around them by referring to four regions, which are as follows:. Pars Postica (North) or "Part behind" Pars Hostilis (West) or the "hostile area" to their right as they faced to the south. Since most people are, or were, right-handed, the right hand held a sword that could protect an individual for the hostile western areas. Pars Familiaris (East) or the "Familiar part". The area from where arose the sun. Pars Antica (South) or the "Part in front" as the priest stood facing the south.

situla

a cylindrical ritual bucket made of wood with a silver cover of animals and palmettes. goes in tombs/personal belongings of the dead

Campania

a large plains area around the area of Naples. It was famous for its agricultural growing seasons, and for the location of a famous gladiatorial training center at the town of Capua.

Augur

a priest who studies the organs of animals by a process called augury and by which he reputedly told the future of an individual or the meaning of an event. He frequently would "read" the liver of a sacrificed animal.

Tholos

a round and domed tomb. Usually a stone "bee hive shaped" structure that is covered with earth.

Latium

a territory around Rome where there lived a tribe called the Latini. Rome adopted their language.

Capua:

a town just to the east of Neaopolis (Naples) in Campania. It later became a center for training gladiators.

Fossa

a trench grave: sometimes called a "cist grave" because of the interior of the trench being lined with flat thin stones.

Haruspex

a type of Etruscan priest who foretold the future by examining nature around him. He viewed the sky and listened for sounds.

Tumulus

a type of burial mound that covers a small structure for the burial

Cumae

ancient Greek town to north of Neapolis. Later in Etruscan history, by around 500 BC, the Etruscan confederation was sufficiently powerful to cause some concerns among peoples in southern Italy, especially the city of Cumaenear modern Naples. In 474 BC, the Etruscan organized a naval attack against Cumae and the leaders of Cumae asked the king of Syracuse in Sicily, King Hiero I, for his assistance. Together, they defeated the Etruscan threat. The result of their defeat was lost of territory that was taken over by the Romans and others.

Pygri

ancient harbor-town where the famous golden Prygi Tablets were found. The tablets have writing on them. One language is Phoenician (can be read) and the other language is Etruscan. the tablets record a dedication made around 500 BCE by Thefarie Velianas, king of Caere, to the Phoenician goddess ʻAshtaret. Two of the tablets are inscribed in the Etruscan language, the third in Phoenician. "These writings are important in providing both a bilingual text that allows researchers to use knowledge of Phoenician to interpret EtruscanOffsite Link, and evidence of PhoenicianOffsite Link or Punic influence in the Western Mediterranean.

colonnades

are the lines of column that are sometimes called a peristyle, which normally extends on 3 sides of the temple

Villanovan period

c. 900 BC - 700 BC ( earliest iron age) followed by the etruscans

Hills of Rome

hills of Rome: The Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Palatine, Capitoline, and Aventine hills

dolium (know image)

large pot use for storage and also for burials.

Servian Wall Rome

made of tufa

LOW ENTABLATURE

means the short height from the entablature to the floor of the temple. As temples develop, this distance increases as columns become taller.

Biconical:

mostly relates to burial urns and consists of a lower vessel for the ashes of the deceased and a cover vessel that is placed over the vessel as an attempt to prevent dirt getting into the vessel.

Podium (podia):

refers to the foundation of temples.

Colonnades

refers to the row of columns that encircle the walls of a temple which provide support for a type of covered porch going around a temple. Imbrices: this is the plural form of Imbrex, the term

Piacenza

relates to the town where was found a bronze model of a liver used by Etruscan religious officials for foretelling the future

OSTIA (know image)

rome- harbor city. 'main' street of Ostia is over 1 mile in length.The distance from Ostia to Rome is approx. 15 miles.

lituus (know image)

the curved staff carried by an augur

Voussoir

the term identifies the stones that align to create an arch.

Terracotta:

the term refers to pottery or other artifacts that were constructed of clay and then "fired" in a kiln to produce hardness.

Imbrices:

this is the plural form of Imbrex, the term for a type semicircular roof tile that covers the joints of the flat roof tiles called a tegula(ae).

Tiber Island

this island was once in early Etruscan history the only easy crossing point over the Tiber River. The island early on held a temple of the healing god named Asclepius.

Compluvium

this was a square opening in the roof of the ancient Roman atrium toward which the roof sloped and through which the rail fell into the impluvium below.

Bucchero:

type of black shiny pottery that consist of many different ceramic forms.

fibula

Gold fibula (= clasp or "safety pin")goes in tombs/personal belongings of the dead

Cloaca Maxima

The greatest sewer main sewer of Rome, created by Tarquinius Superbus.

servian wall

Boundary of Rome wall built by Servius Tullius The wall was up to 33 ft in height in places, 12 ft wide at its base, 6.8 mile long,and is believed to have had 16 main gates. The wall was built from large blocks of tufa (a volcanic rock made from ash and rock fragments ejected during an eruption) quarried from the Grotta Oscura quarry near Rome's early rival Veii, presumably after its defeat by Rome in the 390s.[

Characteristics of the Villanovan culture include:

Characteristics of the Villanovan culture include: 1.Curved-sided huts 2.Cremation of their dead (as used in bi-conical urns in the north and also in Hut Urns). At first the Urns were earthenware and later of bronze. The earthenware were hand-made, incised with geometrical patterns; meanders, chevrons, swastikas. 66 In the north, the Villanovans placed their urns in round POZZO holes or in rectangular stone-line tombs (a fossa or trench). In and around the tomb vessels were placed which held various tools and weapons and small ornaments such as brooches, bracelets and razors. These objects are the chief sources of info about the date and origin of the Villanovans. Unfortunately, the evidence remains largely inconclusive. 3.Outstanding bronze works, especially their crested helmets that were ornamented with rows of engraved bosses in REPOUSSÉ, which is a technique done by beating the design through the metal from the opposite side. The strict design was geometric. Only later did floral or animal designs appear. Sometimes these helmets, or clay models of them, were placed over cinerary urns.

Drawings of a cremation "hut urn" burial: Forum necropolis, period III (know image)

Drawings of a cremation "hut urn" burial: Forum necropolis, period III

Eastern origins

Eastern Origins(Asia Minor: or Anatolia: = modern, Turkey)

Pronaos:

Greek term that refers to the "front porch" of an Etruscan temple. The Etruscans copied Greek temples to a large extent.

Villanovan Housing

Housing was rectangular in shape. The people lived in small huts, made of wattle and daub with wooden poles for support. Within the huts, contained cooking stands, utensils and charred animal bones indicate the family life of early inhabitants in Italy.[9] Some huts contained large pottery jars for food storage sunk into their floors, there was also rock cut drainage to channel rainwater to communal reservoirs.

impasto urn

Impasto is a type of coarse Etruscan pottery. The defining characteristic is that the clay contains chips of mica or stone. The urns were a form of Villanovan pottery known as impasto. A custom believed to originate with the Villanovan culture is the usage of "Hut urns", cinerary urns fashioned like small huts, and other advanced urn designs.An ancient Villanovan black impasto ware vessel with a ribbed surface and twisted loop handles. Ca. 750-650 BC. Impastois a technique used in painting, where paint is laid on an area of the surface (or the entire canvas) very thickly, usually thickly enough that the brush or painting-knife strokes are visible. When dry, impasto provides texture

pozzo

It has been mentioned that the urns were placed in a hole or a pit. This is a POZZO. The pit was usually several feet deep.

Apennine Pottery

It is clear that there are two classes of Apennine pottery. Both are hand-made. One is a coarse, unburnished ware. Shapes include heavy jars of various sizes, from great pithoi that were used for water, oil or grain storage, to smaller mug- or cup-like vessels, often with single vertical strap handles. Smallest of all are miniature vessels, as little as an inch high, which may be votive or simply children's toys. The second type of Apennine pottery is more important. It is a ware that is a fine, medium, dark-faced and burnished. It is a ware with bold decoration of bands, dotted, hatched, excised or nothing. They appear to have been an indigenous people rather than immigrantsand we can see Terramara influence on them through their pottery.Both the shapes and decorative styles of their pottery illustrate influence from the following culture, which arose to replace the Terramara culture.

among southern villanovans, how is the second cultural phase distinguished

It is noted that among the southern Villanovans there were several cultural stages of development. One of these, the second phase from about 750-700 BC, is distinguished by the appearance of inhumation alongside of cremation. -In this "inhumation" practice the bodies were laid in a trench called a FOSSA. -By 625 BC,the future Forum Romanum (Roman Forum) was partially drained and huts and tombs were located in low lying areas.On one of the most important hills in ancient Rome, the Esquiline hill,almost all tombs were FOSSA INHUMATIONS. On the nearby Quirinal Hill, there were lots of POZZI followed by fossa inhumations.In the forum both cremation and inhumation burials were found. Next to the Palatine Hill was a spur hill called the VELIA.On it was a cemetery in which it is believed were both cremation burials and inhumation burials. (i.e., cremation from the Palatine and inhumation from the Esquiline) -The second phase is also distinguished by the appearance of a finer quality of bronze work and lively little figures made in what is called the WIRY GEOMETRIC STYLE. Also, imported objects became more common in the graves. These imports especially include painted Greek pottery.

Pozzo

Italian for "a hole." The term most often relates to the burial of a cinerary urn that is placed within the Pozzo.

Regolini - Galassi Tomb

etruscan tomb

Headers and Stretchers (know image)

Large stones placed in an alternating pattern of long rectangular sides and short square sides as in the Servian Walls in Rome

ala (ae):

Latin term for the walls of a structure, such as a temple.

Cuniculus

Latin word for rabbit. The term has reference to Etruscan drainage channels cut into the tufa bedrock beneath the ground surface. The channels are the height and width of a person and the channels reminded the Etruscans and later Romans of how a rabbit would dart this and that way as they would run from a hunter or other wild animals. The cuniculi were helpful in preventing erosions of farm lands.

Magna Graecia:

furthest southern end of Italy: "Greater Greece"

Etruscan cemetery at Banditaccia with Tumulus tombs (know image)

Many of the Etruscan tombs in Italy are housed in round burial mounds (tumuli) built in earth and stones with several rock-carved interiors reproducing the original house of the deceased's family. The tumuli are generally formed by a circular base called "tamburo" built in blocks of sandstone. A pseudo-dome sitting over is built in slabs of limestone arranged in concentric circles with decreasing diameter in order to form a shell dome. The dome is then covered with compacted earth in order to be insulated and is surrounded by a containment ring of small blocks of stone. A paved limestone sidewalk is built around the base to drain rainwater. The interior tombs include a corridor, called dromos, a central hall and several rooms on the two sides. The interiors are sometimes painted with frescos representing everyday life scenes. The central hall, usually squared or rectangular, hosted the dead bodies lying on stone beds, while the periferal rooms hosted the dead's belongings. The tumuli are usually family tombs where the deceased were buried near many goods of their property, mostly precious objects and everyday tools. These constructions can be found isolated or grouped, forming city-like ensambles called "Necropolis". This type of tombs belongs to the first period of the Etruscan civilization at the end of the VIII-VI sec. b.C

Podium for Etruscan temple at Tarquinia before 6th century (know image)

Podium for Etruscan temple at Tarquinia before 6th century

River Arno

River:The most important river of central Italy after the Tiber.(150 miles)

Situla

Roman bronze bucket often found in burials, such as in Etruscan tombs.

Cardo

Roman north-South street in a town: it comes from the Latin word for "hinge" and is related to the much later term for cardinal (a modern day word for a priest)

cella

Roman term for a room, especially the central room(s) of a temple.

Temple of Portunus (know image)

The Temple of Portunus (a harbor god): A typical Roman Republican temple. Rome, c. 75 BC

Terramare house/settlement

The Terramare, in spite of local differences, is of typical form; each settlement is trapezoidal, with streets arranged in a quadrangular pattern. Some houses are built upon piles even though the village is entirely on dry land and some are not. There is currently no commonly accepted explanation for the piles. The whole is protected by an earthwork strengthened on the inside by buttresses, and encircled by a wide moat supplied with running water.

Tiber

The Tiber is the third longest river in Italy, (252 miles)

Po

The Po river: the largest river in Italy (405 miles). Flows to the east.

"Sarcophagus of the spouses" (know image details)

The Sarcophagus of the Spouses is an anthropoid (human-shaped), painted terracotta sarcophagus found in the ancient Etruscan city of Caere (now Cerveteri, Italy). The sarcophagus, which would have originally contained cremated human remains, was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations in the Banditaccia necropolis of ancient Caere during the nineteenth century and is now in Rome. The sarcophagus is quite similar to another terracotta sarcophagus from Caere depicting a man and woman that is presently housed in the Louvre Museum in Paris; these two sarcophagi are contemporary to one another and are perhaps the products of the same artistic workshop.The Sarcophagus of the Spouses has been interpreted as belonging to a banqueting scene, with the couple reclining together on a single dining couch while eating and drinking. This situates the inspiration for the sarcophagus squarely in the convivial (social) sphere and, as we are often reminded, conviviality was central to Etruscan mortuary rituals. Etruscan funerary art—including painted tombs—often depicts scenes of revelry, perhaps as a reminder of the funeral banquet that would send the deceased off to the afterlife or perhaps to reflect the notion of perpetual conviviality in said afterlife. Whatever the case, banquets provide a great deal of iconographic fodder for Etruscan artists.

what is the third phase of the southern villanovans

The Second Phase is followed by a Third Phase, which dates to the seventh century.It is an important phase because inhumation became normal with the dead laid in chamber tombs cut into the bed rock.This period has been called the "Orientalizing Phase" because of the appearance of richer funeral equipment and the appearance of more Greek and oriental (i.e. eastern) objects (including works in gold and silver).Iron also now becomes general.These changes first took place in the settlements near the western Italian coast, which was more open to foreign influence. In distant inland areas, the time lag for burial practice influence was considerable. For example, at Clusium cremation persisted longer and inhumation is not found much before the 6th century.In fact, north of the Apennines Villanovan culture was not much affected by external influences before the middle of the sixth century.The Villanovans in Etruria, however, were much more exposed to the varied influences from the Aegean Sea area and from the Greeks.

Etruscans

The ancient people of Etruria are labeled Etruscans. Their complex culture was centered on numerous city-states that rose during the Villanovan period in the ninth century BC, and they were very powerful during the Orientalizing Archaic periods. The Etruscans were a dominant culture in Italy by 650 BC,[1] surpassing other ancient Italic peoples such as the Ligures, and their influence may be seen beyond Etruria's confines in the Po River Valley and Latium, as well as in Campania and through their contact with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy (including Sicily). Indeed, at some Etruscan tombs, such as those of the Tumulus di Montefortini at Comeana (see Carmignano) in Tuscany, physical evidence of trade has been found in the form of grave goods—fine faience ware cups are particularly notable examples. Such trade occurred either directly with Egypt or through intermediaries such as Greek or Phoenician sailors. Rome, buffered from Etruria by the Silva Ciminia, the Ciminian Forest, was influenced strongly by the Etruscans, with a series of Etruscan kings ruling at Rome until 509 BC when the last Etruscan king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was removed from power and the Roman Republic was established.[2] The Etruscans are credited with influencing Rome's architecture and ritual practice; it was under the Etruscan kings that important structures such as the Capitolium, Cloaca Maxima, and Via Sacra were realized. The Etruscan civilization was responsible for much of the Greek culture imported into early Republican Rome, including the twelve Olympian gods, the growing of olives and grapes, the Latin alphabet (adapted from the Greek alphabet), and architecture like the arch, sewerage and drainage systems.

Albano Laziale

The city of Albano Laziale (Città di Albano Laziale) a little south of Rome. A principle site for peperino

URNFIELD CULTURE

The collection here includes [left] a brooch (fibula shaped with spiral ends), a bronze pin, and a bronze necklace: [Right] Bronze blades of knives and a razor. Often a bone or wooden handle was attached to the 'tang' of a bronze knife with 'nitt'-nails and the handle was usually decorated, frequently with circular incision.

Antefix

decoration found at the edge or apex of a roof top. Often n the shape of human faces, or imaginary beings from antiquity. Along the eves of the room they served to cover the opening of the imbrices (imbrex) and to channel water away from the side of a building.

repoussé:

design "bumpy" style for decorating metal objects or pottery. The exterior design results from punching "dents" from the interior. It is often seen on bronze battle helmets.