Second Temple Period

In Ezra 1:1-4, what does Cyrus, king of Persia, who conquered Babylon in 538 B.C., proclaim?

1 Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the LORD by the mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished, the LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying: 2 'Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia: All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God of heaven, given me; and He hath charged me to build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. 3 Whosoever there is among you of all His people--his God be with him--let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house of the LORD, the God of Israel, He is the God who is in Jerusalem. 4 And whosoever is left, in any place where he sojourneth, let the men of his place help him with silver, and with gold, and with goods, and with beasts, beside the freewill-offering for the house of God which is in Jerusalem.'

Who was Gedaliahu?

1) Babylonian governor of the Jews after 586 BCE 2) was murdered as he was not a member of the royal family 3) Fast of Gedaliah commemorates him

What 3 monuments using opus reticulatum were built during the visit of Agripa?

1) Banias 2) Herodian palace near Jericho 3) North of Damascus Gate --> possibly tombs of Herod's family

Hasmonean structures

1) Baris, a fortress north of the temple (inside the present day temple mount) 2) Acra, another fortress south of the temple 3) Palace of the Hasmoneans (location unclear, some say in today's Jewish quarter) 4) Mausoleum, Heizir sons tomb from the end of the 2nd century BCE, in Kidron valley

Where is Alexander the Great's arrival to the land of Israel documented?

1) In the Talmud, Masechet Yoma 2) In Josephus Flavius' "Antiquities of the Jews"

During the intermediate period (70 years without a temple) where were Jews living?

1) Israel 2) Babylon 3) Egypt

How was Caesarea's harbor a source of revenue for Herod?

1) Maintenance and storage of ships during the winter months when there was no sailing in the Mediterranean. Caesarea was the easiest port from which to get to Alexandria and this enabled ships stored there over the winter to get to Alexandria first and get wheat to Rome fastest. 2) Local products for export (salt from the Dead Sea, balsam, and asphalt from the Dead Sea for mummification and medicines 3) Incense/spice trade with Nabateans

What were the 3 groups of Jews living during the time of the Second Temple?

1) Pharisees, meaning either separate or interpreters of the Torah, the bulk of the Jews, responsible for the Mishnah and the Talmud 2) Sadducees, a name of a family of priests 3) Essenes, oridinary people with a special communal society living in Damscus and Judean desert (mainstream archeologists believe that the Qumran people were the Essenes)

Who were the leaders of the Jews in 538 BCE?

1) Sheshbazzar --> Nasi 2) Zerubavel --> governor of Judah according to the bible, grandson of Jehoiachin 3) Jeshua --> high priest

What were some growing tensions that led to the Great Revolt in 66 CE?

1) Tensions between Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, and Sicarii 2) Governors, beginning with Pontius Pilatus in 26 CE, were ignorant, low-rank, inexperienced, and corrupt 3) Tensions between Jews and pagans in mixed towns like Ashkelon, Bet Shean, and Caesarea

What are/were some speculations of the location of Modiin?

1) Um al Omdan (Mother of Columns) --> there is a Jewish synagogue from the 2nd temple period 2) Tomb of Maccabees --> dated to the Roman period, nothing to do with the Maccabees 3) Hurvat haGardi (Khirbet Gharbawi in Arabic) --> tomb from the Ottoman Empire, was converted to the Tomb of Matityahu. Scholars of the 19th century found ancient remains and speculated it may be Modiin but later studies revealed it to be Byzantine 4) Village of Midia (similar to Modiin) --> hasn't yet been excavated

What archeological evidence exists from the Persian Era?

1) coastal plain (trade-related) 2) Akko, Shikmona, and all the coastal cities 3) City of David Area G (Persian Era wall) 4) Lachish (huge palace built by the Persians) 5) Ramat Rachel (massive Persian era fortress) 6) Bet Shemesh

What reforms did Ezra and Nehemiah introduce?

1) forced 10% of the population to move to Jerusalem in order to restore its strength 2) freed the Jewish slaves 3) re-dividing the remaining priestly families into 24 new watches 4) began by collecting a tax of 1/3 of a shekel (instead of half a shekel how they did in the Torah) and by the end of the Second Temple period the tax was a half a shekel 4) renewed the bringing of the first fruits (bikkurim) to the temple 5) renewed the bringing of the tithe (maaser) to the temple 6) began to read the Torah in public in front of people

In what year does John Hyrcanus die and who succeeds him?

104 BCE; his son, Judah Aristobulus --> takes title of the the king in addition to the High Priest, rules only 1 year

In what year does Antiochus VII die and what was the result of his death?

129 BCE; John Hyrcanus stops paying taxes and nothing happens. The significance of this is that the Seleucids are officially out of power.

In what year does Yonatan die and how?

143 BCE; he was executed in Akko by Tryphon, a Seleucid general

Measurement of the Temple Mount today vs. Measurement of the Temple Mount during the Hasmonean period

144,000 sq meters (today); 70,000 sq meters (Hasmonean period)

In what year does Judah the Maccabee die? And how?

161 BCE; in battle

In what year does Antiochus IV die?

164 BCE, leaving the Seleucid empire in a crisis/internal strife

Key dates to remember:

167: Revolt begins 129: Gain official independence 104: King and High Priest title become one

In the beginning relations between the Jews and Seleucids were quite good. When did it change?

168 BCE; Antiochus IV replaces Antiochus III and the Seleucids face threat of the Roman army

In what year did Antiochus IV campaign against the Ptolemies in Egypt? And what ended up happening?

168 BCE; since the Romans didn't want the Seleucids to win, they sent a message to Antiochus to stop his attack or else they would attack him so Antiochus IV retreated

In what year did Alexander the Great die?

323 BCE

What year marks the end of the Persian period? And who conquers the land of Israel?

332 BCE; Macedonians led by Alexander the Great capture Israel (Alexander's empire includes Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syra, Jordan, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, parts of India)

When did Herod die?

4 BCE based on Josephus Flavius and astronomical calculations.

In what year did Agrippa die and where was he buried?

44 CE; location of his burial is not known (but we know he was buried in Jerusalem). Gabi Barkai suggests he was buried in Yad Avshalom since there is a 1st century tomb there and is similar in shape and size to the tomb of King Herod found in Herodium.

Herod's Temple

488 meters long from north to south, 285 meters from east to west, 50 meters in height, and walls 4 meters thick. One stone weighed 600 tons. This was the largest holy compound in the Roman world. They created a flat space by quarrying the northern side and filling in the southern side. They built vaults in the south on the bedrock and built the platform on the arches and built the southern wall to support the temple mount as well as the western wall. The eastern wall is pre-Herodian. Herodian stone is unique to Jerusalem and Hebron; they are found in the western, southern, and northern wall. Herod did not expand to the east and it's a question whether some of the western wall is Herodian (coins were found from 20 years after Herod under the south part of the Western Wall).

What years does the Second Temple Period refer to?

516 BCE to 70 CE (from the time the second temple was consecrated until its destruction by the Romans)

During what years was the second temple built?

520-516 BCE

In what year did Cyrus issue a decree which allowed the Jews to return to the land of Israel? How many people came back according to the Bible?

538 BCE; 42,360 people came back

What years was the intermediate period between the two temples?

586-516 BCE

In what year does Shlomtizyon die? Who succeeds her?

65 BCE; John Hyrcanus II but Aristobulus begins civil war to become king. They turn to the Romans to decide who would be king.

In what year does Vespasian become emperor? And what does he send Titus to do?

69 CE; in 70 CE he send Titus to finish off the Jewish problem and in the summer, Jerusalem falls. The Romans broke in through the 3rd wall from the north, then through the 2nd wall, and then through Temple Mount. They burned the Temple on the 9th of Av and then reorganized and attacked the Western Hill. 1 month later they took the upper city. The Jews escaped via drainage channels but the Romans found them. The leader of the rebellion was taken to Rome, imprisoned and/or executed.

How many Roman governors were there from 44-66 CE?

7

How many Roman governors of Judea were there from the years 6-41 CE?

7! Pontius Pilatus was one of them from 26-36 CE and one of the worst ever. He undermined Roman interests and was fired in 36 CE.

What are the two Hebrew dates that the Bible documents as the date of the destruction of the First temple?

7th of Av and 10th of Av (the reason is that the fire was set on the 7th of Av and was extinguished on the 10th of Av)

What are the Al-Yahudu Tablets?

A collection of about 200 clay tablets from the 6th and 5th centuries BCE on the exiled Judean community in Babylonia following the destruction of the First Temple. They contain information on the physical condition of the exiles from Israel and their financial condition in Babylon. The tablets are named after the central settlement menioned in the documents, al-Yahudu ("the city of Judah" in Akkadian)

Who were the Nabataeans?

A group of Arab tribes living in a huge territory (Arabian Peninsula, Negev, Arava, Transjordan, southern part of Syria), not one nation or political entity. They are first mentioned in 4th century BCE. They delivered spices (incense for temples, food, drugs) and indigo from Asia and Africa. They lived in the cities Mecca, Yathrib (Al-Medina), Petra, Shivta, Mamshit (Memsis), Ovdat, Halutza, Rehovot, and Nitzana. Their trade routes went to Syria and Iraq and to Gaza and later Egypt. They spoke Aramaic and Arabic. They served gods such as Dushara (top god), Alat, Nanat, and Al'Uzza. During the 1st century BCE the Romans learned to navigate the seas and therefore the Nabateans began to lose influence and power and their territory was occupied by the Romans. Water systems including large dams, cisterns, and open pools were originally attributed to the Nabateans but recent research indicates that these water systems were built by the Byzantine state at a later time.

How did the Maccabean Revolt begin?

A messenger from King Antiochus IV comes to Modiin and tries to convince the Jews to pray to idols. One Jew accepted and Matityahu kills him, the messenger, and the soldiers. The Seleucids send armies to defeat the Hasmonaeans and crush the revolt. Judah and his brothers build an army. The Seleucids then march to southern Samaria led by Apollonius but they are ambushed by Judah's forces and are defeated at Maale Levona.

What is the Varus Rebellion?

A rebellion that began after Herod's death. It was crushed by the Romans lead by General Varus who slaughtered the Jews.

When was Jesus born?

According to the New Testament, he was born during the time of Herod the Great (meaning before 4 BCE). Science also says that Jesus was born before 4 BCE. Tradition says that Jesus was born in the year 1 BCE though.

Who became King of Judea, Galilee, and Golan in 41 CE?

Agrippa I, Herod's grandson. He grew up in Rome and was a friend of Caligula and Claudius who were both future emperors which is how he was made king.

The 3rd wall in Jerusalem

Agrippa began to build the 3rd wall but the Romans stopped him and therefore the wall remained incomplete until the great revolt in 66 CE. The route is known: it started near present-day Jaffa Gate (Herod's Palace) and ended in the northeast corner of the temple mount.

Who was Ezra?

Aka Ezra the Scribe and Ezra the Priest, descendent of Sraya (last High Priest to serve in the First Temple) and a close relative of Joshua (first High Priest of the Second Temple). He returned from the Babylonian exile and reintroduced Torah in Jerusalem (Ezra 7-10 and Neh 8). The Book of Ezra describes how he led a group of Judean exiles living in Babylon to their home city of Jerusalem where he is said to have enforced Torah observance. He was described as exhorting the Israelite people to be sure to follow the Torah Law so as not to intermarry with people of particular different religions.

Who was Herod?

An Edomite whose ancestors were converted to Judaism. His mother Cypros was a Nabatean and his father was Antipater, a high official in John Hyrcanus II's court. Herod was nominated governor in the Galilee by his father. In 40 BCE he went to Rome to meet 2 Roman leaders, Octavian and Mark Anthony. He asks them to make him king and they do. Herod then buys mercenaries, builds an army, and campaigns against Antigonus. Armies clash and Herod prevails. In 37 BCE Herod becomes King of the Jews although he wasn't accepted by the Jews. He began executing Hasmoneans including John Hyrcanus II, Miriam his wife, and even his own sons

Which Seleucid ruler reigned in Israel in 200 BCE? And what were his policies towards the Jews?

Antiochus III; his policies were tolerant, free supplies of animals for sacrifices in the temple, tax exemption for Jews in Jerusalem for 2 years, complete tax exemption for the temple and Jewish assembly, Jews were allowed to renovate the temple, recognized the leadership of the Jews, people enslaved during the wars between the Ptolemies and Seleucids will be freed

What did Antiochus IV's religious persecution against the Jews consist of?

Antiochus IV identified the religion as the problem. Therefore, he prohibited any practice or learning of Torah. Delegates were also sent to every village to force people to worship idols. His goal was total eradication of the Jewish religion.

What happened to Judea in 6 CE?

Archelaus (one of Herod's 3 sons) was exiled by the Romans who then nominated a Roman governor and Judea became a province of Rome. (There was no change in the Galilee and Golan until 30 CE)

What happens in 40 BCE?

Aristobulus' son Antigonus escapes from Rome and comes to Jerusalem. He declares himself King of the Jews, mints coins with a menorah, the Jews follow him, and becomes king.

Why did the Jews cry when they saw the new temple, according to the Book of Ezra?

Because the older Jews remembered the glory of the First Temple and the new one was not as great

Who are the Samaritans according to the Bible vs. who are the Samaritans according to themselves

Biblical version: they were a pagan people brought in by the Assyrians to replace the Israelites; Samaritan version: they are the remains of the Israelite nation that was exiled (the "true Jews" and "guardians" of the true Jewish identity hence their name)

Theater in Herodium

Built in 14 BCE by Herod for the visit of Agrippa. It was later filled in and the site turned into a mausoleum.

What areas does John Hyrcanus conquer?

Edomia (including Hebron), Samaria, Bet Shean Valley, and possibly parts of the lower Galilee and Jezreel Valley.

When was the trial of Jesus?

Either in 30 or 33 CE

Who were the Hasmoneans?

Family of priests from Modiin, also known as the Maccabees after Judah's nickname. The father was Matityahu and his 5 sons were Yehuda, Yonatan, Shimon, Elazar, and Yohanan

How did the Great Revolt in 66 CE begin?

Florus was the governor at the time and was the most corrupt. Jews claimed to deserve full citizenship in Caesarea since it was built by a Jew. The pagans claimed it was a pagan city though. In 66 CE, a pagan went into the synagogue and sacrificed a bird and a big fight ensued between the Jews and Pagans. The Jews were beaten and went to see Florus and complain and offered him a great sum of money. Florus took the money and blamed the Jews. He ordered to beat the Jews and punish them. He sends troops to the temple in Jerusalem and takes money. Jews were furious and and make fun of Florus. Florus sends troops to slaughter the Jews and...the GREAT REVOLT BEGINS!

What happens when Florus called for help from Syria?

Gallus the governor of Syria goes along the Beit Horon road and the Jews ambush him, block the regiments that had supplies including food, weapons, battering rams, siege engines, etc. so Gallus goes back to Syria.

Who was Alexander Jannaeus?

Hasmonean king during the years 103-76 BCE. He minted coins with the inscription "Alexander the King and Council of the Jews". The Pharisees did not like his consolidation of power. They wanted him to give up one of his titles (king or high priest) and they asked the Seleucids to help them against the king. Alexander sent soldiers to slaughter the Pharisees and turns to the Sadducees and puts them at the top of the hierarchy.

Alexander the Great's arrival to Israel

He entered from the north on his way to Egypt along the Via Maris. Jews sent a delegation to welcome him at Afek (Antipatris) which was headed by Simon the High Priest. Legend said that Alexander got off his horse and bowed to Simon because Simon appeared in his dreams before every battle promising victory. Simon asked Alexander to destroy the Samaritan temple on Mt. Grizim which he did.

What was Josephus Flavius' role during the Great Revolt?

He initially fought against the Romans during the First Jewish-Roman War as head of Jewish forces in Galilee, until surrendering in 67 CE to Roman forces led by Vespasian after the six-week siege of Jotapata. Josephus claimed the Jewish Messianic prophecies that initiated the First Roman-Jewish War made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome. In response Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and presumably interpreter. After Vespasian became Emperor in 69 CE, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the emperor's family name of Flavius

How did Yohanan ben Zakkai manage to to move the center of Torah to Yavne?

He predicted that Vespasian would be emperor and then Vespasian granted him permission to move to Yavne

Who was Nehemiah?

He was the governor of Persian Judea under Artaxerxes I of Persian in the 5th century BCE. The Book of Nehemiah concerns the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah. He builds the walls despite the opposition of Israel's enemies (Geshem/Gashmu and Sanballat, leader of the Samaritans) and reforms the community in conformity with Torah law. After 12 years in Jerusalem, Nehemiah returns to Susa but then revisits Jerusalem again and finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives and so he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.

Who succeeded Yonatan and what were his accomplishments?

In 142 BCE, Shimon becomes the ruler. He took advantage of the internal Seleucid strife and conquers Gezer, besieges the Acra and takes if over in 141 BCE (took 3 years to dismantle), takes the title of Nasi (implying that he is a descendent of the house of David even though he was really a Levite and David was from Judah), and renews the pact with Rome. He is killed by the father of his wife (Talmi) in 134 BCE.

Which of Jesus' disciples did Agrippa arrest and behead?

James/Yaakov. His body was buried in Spain and his head is in the Armenian quarter.

Who were Shlomtziyon's two sons?

John Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus

What historical sources do we have on the Seleucid period?

Josephus Flavius (he lives about 200 years later but used earlier sources), Book of Maccabees (composed in the 2nd half of the 2nd century BCE)

What sources do we have on the Ptolemaic period?

Josephus Flavius and the Books of Maccabees

What happened at the Battle in Bet Zur (south of Jerusalem near Hebron) in 164 BCE?

Judah attacks and wins. He enters Jerusalem as the triumphant leader, besieges the Acra (but doesn't conquer it), purifies the temple which was desecrated and turned into a temple for the Greek gods, smashes Zeus sculpture, and the miracle of the oil lasting for 8 days in the menorah happens at this moment.

What happened during the second campaign in 166 BCE?

Judah's army was in Mitzpa (Maybe Nebe Samuel or Tel Nasbe, north of Jerusalem) and the Seleucid army gathered in Emaus (Latrun is the most agreed upon location). Judah found out that the Seleucids plan to attack Mitzpa from the east (by going around) so he abandons Mitzpa (leaving campfires burning) and marches to Emaus. The Seleucid army was split with the strongest part going to Mitzpa and the rest in Emaus. Judah attacks the camp at Emaus in the early morning and demolishes their camp. He then waiting for the expeditionary force who rushed back and routed them when they returned.

How did the Persians divide their territories?

Kingdom was divided into 20 provinces (satrapy) ruled by a local governor --> each satrapy was divided into several pahwas. In Israel, the land was divided into several pahwas by population type (Samarians, Phoenicians, Edomties, Yehud). These pahwas were part of a large satrapy called "Beyond the River"

Who replaces Jason as High Priest?

Menelaus in 171 BCE; Menelaus was sent to Antiochus by Jason to deliver money and instead he took the opportunity to "outbid" Jason for priesthood which resulted in Antiochus conforming Menelaus as the High Priest

Who does Herod marry?

Miriam, a Hasmonean princess, daughter of John Hyrcanus II. Herod executes her after being accused of infidelity and preserves her in honey.

What happened at the Battle of Beit Horon in 161 BCE?

Nicanor, the leader of the Seleucid army, is defeated (after bragging that he would take Jerusalem and purge the Jews) and dies in battle. Judah takes Nicanor's arm and head to Jerusalem and shows it to the people. He tore his tongue out and fed it to the birds. (Happens on the 13th of Adar)

Who said the words: "It is better to be Herod's pig than his son"

Octavian

Who was the High Priest in 174 BCE? And who replaced him?

Onias III; his brother Jason asks King Antiochus to become the high priest and in return he'd collect more taxes for him and so Antiochus does so

What did Onias IV, son of former High Priest Onias III, do as a result of not having succeeded his father's position of High Priest?

Onias IV went to Egypt which at the time had a thriving Jewish community and built a temple in Cairo (which was destroyed by Vespasian around 70 CE)

What rulers were in the land of Israel during the Second Temple Period?

Persians, Macedonians/Seleucids, Hasmoneans, Romans

Which empire defeated the Babylonians (led by King Cyrus the Great) in 539-538 BCE and what regions did they conquer?

Persians; Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and the Persian Gulf

What happens in 63 BCE?

Pompeii comes to the Hasmonean kingdom and chooses John Hyrcanus II to rule. Aristobulus campaigns against Rome, is defeated, and is taken to Rome with his family.

In the year 300 BCE, what two empires existed in the region?

Ptolemies in Egypt and Israel (from 300 to around 200 BCE in Israel) and Seleucid in Syria

Where did Herod build?

Samaria (called it Sebastia, "The Divine" in Greek" after Augustus), Masada (built a palace on the side of a cliff), Caesarea (built a palace with a pool and protective wall on the sea), Jericho (3 palaces, one of which was built across Wadi Qelt)

What fortresses did Herod build?

Sartaba (Alexandrium), Machaerus (in Jordan), Hyrcanea (near Nebi Samuel), Cypros (near Jericho), Dok/Karantal, Herodium (he thought his mother had died there when they were escaping from a battle he lost), Masada (Josephus says it was built by the Hasmonaeans)

Who succeeds Shimon in 134 BCE?

Shimon's son, Yohanan Hyrcanus I. Rules until 104 BCE.

Who succeeded Alexander Jannaeus in 76 BCE?

Shlomtziyon (Salome), his wife

The Walls of Nehemia

Some scholars say that it was almost the same as Ir David while others say that it included the Armenian and Jewish quarters and Zion/Western hill. The vast majority of the potsherds dating to the Persian period were found in the City of David, supporting the theory that Jerusalem just included Ir David during this time.

What happened to the land of Israel after Herod's death?

The Romans divided the kingdom into 3 parts for Herod's 3 sons. The Galilee went to Herod Antipas. The Golan went to Herod Philipos. Judea went to Herod Archelaus.

Who takes over after the Ptolemies are gone?

The Seleucids

What happens from 134 to 132 BCE?

The Seleucids are back for 2 years. Antiochus VII besieges Jerusalem and destroys the walls of Jerusalem.

The City of David wall

The first wall went around the western hill. It was built before 134 BCE since Antiochus VII attacked this wall based on archeological evidence. The second wall was probably built before Herod, although it may have been Herod's. This wall was never found and we don't know its path. It was, however, documented by Josephus Flavius that it began near Ginnat/Genneth Gate and ends at Antonia fortress north of temple mount. The path is important with regard to the location of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher as the burial place of Jesus.

What happens between Octavian and Mark Anthony in 31 BCE? How is Herod involved?

They fight in the Battle of Actium and Octavian defeats Mark Anthony. Octavian declares himself dictator/emperor and adopts the name Augustus and claims to be a god. Herod is summoned to the court of Augustus (until now Herod was a servant of Mark Anthony) and promises that he would serve Augustus and Augustus agrees to keep Herod on as king.

Who were the Phoenicians and what was their role during the Persian period?

They occupied the seashore of Palestine (Ashkelon, Jaffa, Caesarea, Dor, Arsuf, Akko); since they had a navy they were hired by the Persians to protect the Persians from their enemies (Greeks)

Who are the "tzarei Yehuda"?

They were a group who wanted to help the Jews rebuild the temple but the Jews rejected them and they then became enemies of the Jews

Who did Rome send to Judea in 67 CE?

Vespasian with his legions (and his son Titus). They began in the north and crushed everything down to the south and went around Jerusalem until it was left standing alone.

Who discovered the remains of Onias IV's temple in Cairo?

Wanders Petrie; the remains are now in the Petrie museum in London

Who succeeds Judah? And what years does he rule?

Yonatan; from 161 BCE to 143 BCE (18 years)

What archeology do we have from the Ptolemaic period?

Zenon Papyri --> Egyptian reports written around 250 BCE on papyrus written by Zeno the tax collector (an Egyptian official). Legend: A messenger was sent by the Ptolemaic king to get the Jewish bible for his library and translate it into Greek. The messenger went back with the bible and 72 elders (6 from each tribe) to translate it. All 72 translated exactly the same. This is known as the translation of the 70 or Septuagint.

What is opus reticulatum?

a form of brickwork used in ancient Roman architecture. It consists of diamond-shaped bricks of tuff, referred to as cubilia, placed around a core of opus caementicium. The diamond-shaped tufa blocks were placed with the pointed ends into the cement core at an angle of roughly 45 degrees, so the square bases formed a diagonal pattern, and the pattern of mortar lines resembled a net. Reticulatum is the Latin term for net-like, and opus, the term for a work of art, so the term translates to "net work".

What is the Acra?

a fortified compound in Jerusalem built by Antiochus IV, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, following his sack of the city in 168 BCE. The fortress played a significant role in the event surrounding the Maccabean Revolt and the formation of the Hasmonean kingdom. It was destroyed by Simon Maccabeus during this struggle in 141 BCE. The actual location of the Acra is ariddle. Josephus Flavius and the Books of the Maccabees say its south of the templ. A wall and glacis were found in the Givati Parking Lot, dated to the 2nd century BCE with Antiochus IV coins. This could be Acra but is probably not.

Who were the Sicarii?

a splinter group of the Jewish Zealots who, in the decades preceding Jerusalem's destruction in 70 CE, heavily opposed the Roman occupation of Judea and attempted to expel them and their sympathizers from the area. The Sicarii carried sicae, or small daggers, concealed in their cloaks. At public gatherings, they pulled out these daggers to attack Romans and Hebrew Roman sympathizers alike, blending into the crowd after the deed to escape detection.

What is the Cyrus Cylinder?

an ancient clay cylinder on which is written a declaration in Akkadian cuneiform script in the name of Persia's Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great. It dates from the 6th century BCE and was discovered in the ruins of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) in 1879. It is currently in the possession of the British Museum. The victorious Cyrus is portrayed as having been chosen by the chief Babylonian god Marduk to restore peace and order to the Babylonians. The text states that Cyrus was welcomed by the people of Babylon as their new ruler and entered the city in peace. It appeals to Marduk to protect and help Cyrus and his son Cambyses. It extols Cyrus as a benefactor of the citizens of Babylonia who improved their lives, repatriated displaced people and restored temples and cult sanctuaries across Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the region. The Cylinder's text has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of Cyrus' policy of the repatriation of the Jewish people following their Babylonian captivity.