SEHS- Unit 5

More on single-detection theory

* Background noise: not all information that one receives is part of the stimulus. This is non-essential information. * Intensity of the stimulus: the probability of detecting a signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of background noise. * Efficiency of sense organs: the likelihood of detecting a signal depends on the interaction between d' and the criterion. D' represents the individual's sensitivity to a signal, which can depend on the efficiency of sense organs. * Early signal detection: C represents the effect of a person's bias on detection. Effective detection of a signal depends on bias on detection greater than sensitivity to the signal. * Improving signal detection: signal detection can be improved by making sure that an individual is optimally aroused but is also helped by good selective attention.

Simple model of information processing

* Exposed to/ perceives stimuli (input) * Goes to central nervous system (decision making takes place) * Response to stimuli (input) * One receives feedback

Describe a motor program

- A whole plan (executive program/ motor program and subroutines): In order to successfully perform a motor skill, the performer is required to have a whole plan that specifies the timing and sequence of the movement. This plan is known as an executive programme or motor programme. This motor programme can be broken down into smaller actions that are called subroutines. - Coordination of subroutines: In order for a motor programme to be completed successfully, all subroutines must be coordinated, both temporally and spatially. This is why skills are initially taught in a closed environment as performers are less exposed to unpredictable situations. - Relegating executive programs to subroutines: A learned skill may initially form a new motor programme, but over time, this skill may be relegated to a subroutine, i.e. learning to drive a car, but then becoming a race car driver, you do not have to focus on the skill of actually driving a car

Major components of fitness

- Agility: being able to move quickly and easily (performance-related component) - Balance: being able to stay upright and steady (performance-related component) - Body composition: a measure of one's fat mass and fat free mass (health-related fitness component) - Cardiorespiratory fitness: capacity of one's circulatory and ventilatory systems to transport oxygen throughout the body during different stages of physical activity (health-related fitness component) - Coordination: being able to move different parts of the body smoothly and efficiently at the same time (health-related fitness component) - Flexibility: refers to one being able to move their joints in a variety of ways without pain or injury Flexibility varies between people, but there is a minimum amount needed to maintain health (health-related fitness component) - Muscular endurance: refers to muscles being able to sustain contraction for long periods of time (health-related fitness) - Power: the maximum strength someone has at the fastest speed they can perform (performance-related fitness component) - Reaction time: a measure of how quickly one can respond to a stimulus (This varies between individuals (performance- related fitness component) - Speed: how fast one can move (performance-related fitness component) - Strength: being able to physically withstand varying levels of force (health-related fitness component)

Factors that contribute to learning rates

- Physical maturation: If one isn't developed physically, then they won't be able to complete a skill. Ex: babies can't crawl until they are developed enough - Physical fitness: sometimes a skill has physical demands that an individual can't complete yet because they aren't fit enough. Ex: you're motivated to run a marathon, but your body isn't fit enough to run it. - Age: Age is often linked with physical maturation. Ex: kids may not be able to complete the same skills as teens or adults because they haven't developed their motor skills yet. - Difficulty of task: having a difficult task may contribute to a slower rate of learning because there are more components that must be remembered and more focus that is required. - Teaching environment: often, skills are taught in a closed environment so that the person has fewer distractions or unexpected things that happen. This may accelerate learning, but it might also prevent a person from performing well in an open environment. - Motivation: this is the most important factor affecting learning because the learner has to want to learn. This is linked to physical maturation. - Individual differences of coaches: coaches have different methods of teaching. Some methods may work better than others, depending on the personality of the performer

Cool down and stretching

A cool down is important because it reduces the intensity of exercise and helps prevent muscle soreness because of lactic acid buildup. Stretching activities are important as well, as they help maintain flexibility and keep muscles loose. Static stretching is better after working out to prevent injury and to slow breathing and heart rate. Stretching (and rolling out) also helps get rid of lactic acid to prevent DOMS.

Discrete skill

A skill that has a clear beginning and end

Periodization (element of training program design)

A structured and organized approach to training.

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: accuracy

Accuracy: quality or state of being correct or precise Skilled: would be accurate because they know their craft well (ex: a skilled basketball player would be able to throw the ball at the basket and hit the basket) Novice: would be inaccurate because they are still learning (ex: a novice basketball player might not be able to even hit the basket)

Fitness tests to know

Aerobic capacity: multistage fitness test, Cooper's 12 min run, Harvard step test Flexibility: sit and reach Muscle endurance: max # of sit ups, push ups, flexed arm hang Agility: Illinois agility test Strength: hand grip dynamometer Speed: 40 m sprint Body composition: BMI, anthropometry, underwater weighing Balance: stork stand Coordination: hand ball toss Reaction time: drop test, computer simulation Power: vertical jump, standing broad jump

Outline ability

An ability is something that one is born with that is beneficial to perform a skill. Abilities are perceptual or motor attributes that help one to perform a skill. Abilities can be classified as perceptual-motor (helping someone interpret the environment and make decisions to move) or physical (physical attributes such as flexibility that make a skill easier to perform). There are a variety of abilities that make it easier to perform certain skills or tasks. For example, if one has the ability of good hand-eye coordination, they may be able to perform the skill of catching a ball well. Abilities fall under perceptual-motor abilities and physical proficiency abilities. Perceptual-motor abilities help someone perceive their environment and make decisions based on that (ex: reaction time and control precision). This would be beneficial for skills learned in sports like tennis. Physical proficiency abilities are physical attributes that improve performance, such as flexibility or strength (these abilities would be beneficial for skills learned in gymnastics). TOK: Abilities have been thought of as stable traits but a more modern perspective understands that people have a genetic potential for each ability and that their level of performance in a particular ability can be influenced by a number of factors such as life experience or coaching.

Skill

An action that has been learned and that has an intended goal or outcome.

Compare skill profiles for archery vs swimming

Archery: - discrete skill - perceptual motor skill - closed skill - fine motor skill - individual skill Swimming: - continuous skill - motor skill - closed skill - gross motor skill - coactive skill

Signal-detection process (aka detection-comparison-recognition process)

Brain identifies that a stimulus is present. It often detects more stimuli than we are aware of. If we attend to that information even briefly, then it is passed further through the process Perception is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the information it is receiving from the sensory organs. - Detection: identification of the stimulus - Comparison: gathered stimuli compared to memory stores - Recognition: the stimuli is matched to one stored in the memory

Stages of learning

Cognitive/ verbal (early phase): The individual tries to understand instructions, and the individual uses verbalization to help memory. Often, there are mistakes made. The motor aspect is characterized by uncoordinated movement. Associative/ motor (intermediate phase): The individual develops the knowledge of what to do, with practice. At this stage, practice is needed to perfect the skill and to develop consistent, coordinative movement. Autonomous (final phase): The individual can perform consistently and with little overt cognitive activity.

concurrent vs terminal feedback

Concurrent: feedback one receives while doing the task Terminal: feedback about how one moved after the task (feedback to be applied for next time?)

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: consistency

Consistency: acting or doing something in the same way each time Skilled: would be consistent because they are skilled in their performance (ex: a skilled basketball player making shots 90% of the time) Novice: would be quite inconsistent because they are still learning (ex: a novice basketball player might make a shot out of luck, but their percentage of shots made would be much lower).

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: control

Control: power to influence one's own behavior and actions Skilled: would have control over their movements because they have muscle memory from having practiced so much Novice: would have little control over their movements because they haven't practiced much. Their movements would be awkward, they would lack coordination, and they would be inefficient.

Types of practice

Distributed: Practice is interspersed either with rest or another activity. It's having intervals between trials that are greater than the time it takes to do a trial. It can lead to better performances because it reduces levels of fatigue and boredom. Example: a shooting practice in basketball is interspersed with scrimmages Massed: there are little or no gaps in the practice. Intervals between trials are shorter than the time it takes to complete one trial. Example: hockey team practices shooting techniques non-stop for 40 minutes Fixed: One movement is repeated over and over again in a drill-like way. It's useful for a closed, discrete skill (ex: free throw in basketball). This can lead to quick improvements in performance, but those improvements don't necessarily correlate with learning. Variable: Useful for open skills (like shooting a goal in soccer). It allows the skill to be repeated, but it's repeated from different positions and situations. The fundamental movement remains the same, but variety is created with the task.Ex: throwing a ball at targets of different heights Mental:When a performer thinks about the movement without actually performing it (visualization). Ex: a gymnast would visualize the floor routine

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: efficiency

Efficiency: Peak level of performance that allows someone to accomplish something with the least level of effort Skilled: would be efficient because they are well-trained and they have practiced a lot. They can complete skills with the least amount of energy required. Novice: would be inefficient because they are not well-trained. They do not have muscle memory, and they will expend more energy.

Endurance Training

Endurance training helps improve one's performance in sports because they can go longer distances without fatiguing. Example: to train for a 5k, one should build up endurance before the race (by running 4-5 miles) so that the 5k doesn't feel like it's a long distance to go.

Components associated with sensory input

Exteroceptors: Provide information about the external environment, outside of the body. The main ones involved regarding sports are vision and audition. Interoceptors (visceral): Provide information from within the body, including oxygen level and blood pressure. Proprioceptors (skeletomuscular): Provide information about the position and posture of our body in space. They detect stimuli from the muscles, tendons, and joints. They include golgi tendon organs and joint receptors.

Issues with extrapolation of data

Extrapolation of data: taking data points and estimating a value out of the range of the points. This would be useful to estimate how well other people would do, but it wouldn't be accurate. You wouldn't know what values out of the range of the points would be, so you would have to guess.

Fleishman's Physical Proficiency Abilities (Physical Factors) and Perceptual Motor Abilities (Psychomotor Factors)

Fleishman's physical proficiency abilities are abilities that involve physical factors that strengthen one's skill. These include flexibility (static and dynamic), strength (static, dynamic, trunk, and explosive), gross body coordination and gross body equilibrium, and stamina. Fleishman's perceptual motor abilities also help one's skill, but they are abilities that help one make sense of the environment and act within that environment. These include control precision, coordination, response orientation, reaction time, speed of arm movement, rate control, manual dexterity, arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed, aiming, postural discrimination, and response integration.

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: fluency

Fluency: ability to complete something in a way that makes it look smooth and effortless Skilled: will know how to complete their sport/ performance in a way that appears smooth and effortless to a spectator Novice: will not be fluent. They will lack coordination and will not look fluid. They cannot control their movements.

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: goal-directed

Goal-directed: Having an end purpose Skilled: will know what the end purpose is and how to do it Novice: will know what their goal is but will not know how to accomplish it

Progression (element of training program design)

Gradually increasing the amount of exercise

Distinguish Between Concepts of Health-Related Fitness and Performance-Related Fitness

Health-related fitness is used in everyday life in order to survive. Components of health-related fitness include body composition, flexibility, muscular endurance, strength, and cardio-respiratory fitness. Performance-related fitness is composed of specialized components that are important for sport but aren't needed for survival in daily life. Components of performance-related fitness include power, agility, balance, coordination, reaction time, and speed. Note: Some components of performance-related fitness could become health-related for certain groups such as the elderly and those suffering from hypokinetic diseases.

Reversibility (element of training program design)

If an athlete doesn't use their fitness, they will lose it. Any adaptation that takes place as a result of training will be reversed when you stop training.

Factors that determine response time

Individual and group variance: response time is an ability that differs between individuals. The elderly have slower response times, and females have slower ones than males. Reaction time components: stimulus transmission, detection of stimulus, recognition of stimulus, decision to respond, nerve transmission time, initiation of action Hick's law: says reaction/ response time increases as the number of stimulus-response couplings increases Reaction time isn't as easy to improve. The main component that affects speed of reaction is the number of choices that a person must make. If there are no choices, people can react much faster. However, as choices increase, reaction times increase. This is Hick's law. of components involved in reaction time (reception time, decision time, efferent organization, motor time), decision time is influenced most by Hick's law.

intrinsic vs extrinsic feedback

Intrinsic: feedback available to the performer without outside help. The "feel" of a movement is intrinsic. Extrinsic: feedback provided for us by someone or something else.

Knowledge of results vs knowledge of performance

KR: post-response information about the outcome of the action KP: post-response information about the nature of the movement

Difference between a skilled and novice performer: learning

Learning (information vs. knowledge): acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience Skilled: would have extensive knowledge of their sport/ practice. Could learn quickly. Novice: would have little knowledge of their sport/ practice because they haven't learned about their sport/practice much.

Learning vs Performance

Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance that results from practice or experience. Performance is a temporary occurrence that changes over time.

Learning curve: plateau

Learning is positive and fairly quick at first, but then there's a plateau in which there is no improvement that is shown. If one keeps practicing, there's a breakthrough and more learning is demonstrated. During the plateau phase, one is likely still learning, but this learning isn't being demonstrated in regards to performance.

Learning curve: positive acceleration

Many skills are hard to learn at first, so progress is slow until one reaches a point where performance improves quickly

Cultural Variations in the Establishment of Standardized Norms

One should take cultural variation into account because people from different cultural backgrounds might have different levels of health. This could be based off of the diet that they eat at home, illnesses that are more prevalent in certain populations, or the environment in which they are raised (ex: are they exposed to lots of pollution, or do they live in a more clean environment?).

Compare motor programs from open and closed loop perspectives

Open-looped: performing a skill without recourse to feedback. This is how people carry out very fast movements. When someone pitches a baseball at over 100 km/hr, it is too fast for them to use feedback to alter the movement once it has started. Close-looped: many movements can be changed during their execution. We can alter our movements. Jack Adams was the first to describe closed loop control. He said that, as we learn a skill, we develop the perceptual trace (memory for the "feel" of successful past movements). We can then compare the feel of what we're doing to the feel of the perceptual trace. While the perceptual trace controls an already ongoing movement, the selection and initiation of the movement is under the control of the memory trace.

Components of Welford's model of information processing

Parts: * sense organs: relay information from the environment to the brain * perception: recognizing stimuli * short-term memory: 90% of information entering STM is lost within 10 seconds. First, information enters the sensory information store then goes to short term memory. * long-term memory: retention and passage of information to the LTM are dependent on rehearsal. Furthermore, all information enters the STM, but we only pay attention to certain stimuli. The unneeded stimuli are filtered out, so selected stimuli can then be compared to information held in the LTM. * decision making: process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options * effector control: effector is the cell, tissue, or organ that responds to signals from the control center, thus providing a response to the stimulus * feedback: information that we receive that results from an action or response. It can be intrinsic (available without outside help) or extrinsic (feedback provided by someone or something else).

positive vs negative feedback

Positive: telling someone what they have done well or prescriptive feedback ("do it this way") Negative: concentrating on errors. This can be demotivating.

Types of transfer

Positive: when the practice of one task has a facilitating effect on the learning or performance of another Negative transfer: when the practice of one task has an inhibiting effect on the learning or performance of another Zero transfer: no effect

Specificity (element of training program design)

Process of replicating characteristics of physical activity in training to ensure its benefit performance. Sports training should be relevant and appropriate to the sport for which the individual is training in order to produce the desired effect

Variety (element of training program design)

Providing different activities, formats and drills in training while still addressing the aims of the training program. Helps to decrease boredom

Incorporation of recreational activities and sports into the schedule

Recreational activities keep the performer enjoying sport, and they also include cardiovascular and resistance training exercises. They keep the performer relaxed and healthy. Doing these activities contributes to a better physical and mental well-being

Methods of memory improvement

Rehearsal: initial preparation before competition to get the activity correct Coding: giving names/ labels to movements so learning can be quicker and less confusing Brevity: it's easier to remember short and specific information rather than long and vague information Clarity: if the information is clear and understood, it will be easier to remember Chunking: chunking several pieces of information into one, which takes up less space in the STM Organization: if the information is in a clear and logical order, it is easier to remember Association: linking new information with what an individual already knows Practice: needed to get information into the LTM and to increase chances of being able to recall it. It's a constant act to improve skills.

Role of feedback in the learning process

Reinforcement of Learning: reinforcing correct technique to encourage a repeat of it Motivation: the internal state of a performer that drives them to perform in a certain way (it can be affected by all sorts of feedback) Adaptation of performance: the greater the variety of feedback, the greater the chance of performance improvement Punishment: an unpleasant response supposed to prevent repetition of unwanted behavior

Resistance training in a training program

Resistance training is useful to improve muscular strength and endurance. There are a range of types of resistance loads, such as specific body mass exercises, weight and load bearing exercise, and the use of resistance equipment.

Response time

Response time= reaction time + movement time It's the time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to respond to it. Reaction time is the time that passes from the onset of a stimulus to the beginning of a response, and movement time is the time it takes to carry out motor aspects of the performance.

Distinguish between Characteristics of Short Term Sensory Store vs Short Term Memory vs Long Term Memory

Short-term sensory store (STSS) holds information for a very brief time, and most is lost within ½ of a second. It has a large capacity, but it can only be held for a very short time. If one's perceptual mechanism decides it isn't worth holding on to, the information is lost. It can't retrieve previous information. If information from the STSS is passed onto Short-term memory (STM), it has to be rehearsed (meaning attended to or processed mentally/ physically). Most information (90%) entering the STM is lost within 10 seconds, and STM has space limitation. Miller claimed individuals could only remember 5-9 pieces of information. The information is only retained if attended to. Long-term memory has no capacity limitations, and one can retrieve information from it. Memories can be stored for a very long time.

Perceptual-motor

Skill that involves interpreting one's environment and a movement response to this interpretation. One has the ability to perceive their environment, and they have to make decisions to perform their best in the environment they perceive.

Motor skill

Skill that involves movement and not much thought (ex: weight lifting)

Perceptual skill

Skill that involves perceiving the environment through perceptual senses (vision, vestibular, haptic, and auditory).

Cognitive skill

Skill that requires thinking and knowledge (ex: knowledge of the sport, the rules, and tactics)

Applications of transfer

Skill to skill: throwing a ball to throwing a javelin. Can be positive if the technique is the same, but can be negative if the technique is very different Practice to performance: dribbling practice to playing in a soccer game. Can be positive if the skills learned in practice are important to performance, but if the practice doesn't line up with the performance, then it will be negative Abilities to skills: improving endurance to do better in marathons. Positive if the improvement of an ability directly enhances performance Bilateral: a basketball player learning to dribble with their weaker hand. Positive: will improve performance by making the performer more versatile and adaptable.Negative if learning one side is very different from learning the other. Stage to stage: moving from three on three basketball to a full game. Positive: practicing with smaller groups would start to prepare one to play with more people. Principles to skills: from learning that long levers help with throwing to throwing a javelin. Positive: one has the knowledge to improve performance

Flexibility training

Stretching is a way to train flexibility. It improves flexibility and lowers one's risk of joint or muscle injury.

Part presentation

Subroutines are demonstrated and practiced in isolation. It's useful if skills are dangerous or complex. An example would be a coach breaking down a tennis serve. The advantages are that it's useful for complex skills (when the performer can only process small parts at once), the teacher can focus on specific elements, and motivation is maintained because success is ongoing. The disadvantages are that it might be hard to transfer from the part to the whole, it's not useful for organized skills, and it involves a lack of continuity.

Technique

Technique describes how one moves. It is a component of skill because, to perform skillfully, a person has to have the necessary technique. It is "a way of doing."

whole presentation

The action is demonstrated by a coach and then practiced as a whole by an individual. Movements like a golf swing are best taught this way because one can't get the "feel" of the movement as well from breaking it into parts. The advantages are that the learner can see the end product, gets a feel for the timing, and understands the relationship between the subroutines that make up the motor program. The disadvantages are that it requires high attention demands (which is difficult for beginners), it's unsuitable for complex skills, and it isn't good for dangerous skills.

Problem solving

The coach or teacher creates a problem or task and lets the learner work out their own solution. Students learn from trial and error.

command teaching style

The command style is outlined heavily by a teacher. It's particularly useful when working with a large group or when the activity involves some danger (like coaching the javelin). It's useful when teaching technical or closed skills. However, the learners have to be at the same level. Some learners may also get bored from this style. There is little room for individual influence.

Progressive part presentation

The skill is broken into subroutines that are practiced in isolation. It's advantageous for sports like gymnastics (learn the roundoff first, then learn the backhandspring, then combine the roundoff and backhandspring, then learn the flip, then combine the flip with the other two elements). The advantages are that weaknesses are focused on, and the performer understands the relationship between subroutines. The disadvantage is that it takes more time to get the full skill.

Psychological Refractory Period

The task related to the first stimulus must be carried out before the second response can be made. The overlap is called the psychological refractory period. The single channel mechanism says that the central decision mechanism can only deal with data from one signal (or group of signals) at a time. Therefore, the first task has to be carried out before one can respond to a second stimulus. The effect of the psychological refractory period is seen in many sports. Ex: a feint or a dodge. If the timing is correct, the defender will be slow in reacting to the real movement because they must finish reacting to the feint first.

reciprocal

The teacher or coach still sets the agenda, but they then encourage learners to work in pairs to provide one another with feedback. Pupils can come to their own decisions

Relationship between Selective Attention and Memory

The way to overcome the limited capacity of short term memory is through the use of selective attention, which refers to the individual focusing on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information. Of information that enters the STM, only selected stimuli are attended to. The unselected stimuli are filtered out, and selected stimuli are compared to information in the LTM, allowing us to make decisions on what action we should take.

whole-part-whole presentation

The whole action is practiced, then individual parts are worked on, then the whole is practiced again. An example would be a swimmer doing the front crawl. Their coach would identify what part of the stroke should be worked on in isolation (like practicing the kick with a kickboard), and then the front crawl would be tried again. The advantages are that the performer can still get a feel for the entire skill and then practice elements, that success is ongoing if the weaknesses are practiced, and that practices can be focused. The disadvantage is that moving from part back to whole can be difficult.

Generalizations across populations

This would be useful for predicting the fitness of healthy people (based on age and gender), but it maybe wouldn't apply if your population was too varied (ex: if there were people from all different countries on one team). You couldn't make assumptions about their health because of how different they are (ex: some might have lower VO2 maxes than others based on the environment in which they grew up, though they should have the same VO2 max from generalizations).

Transfer

Transfer of training is the effect that practice on one task has on the performance/ learning of another task.

Warm-up and stretching routines in a training program

Warm-up and stretching activities are required to increase body temperature, heart rate, and breathing rate. It prepares the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to work more efficiently during more intense physical activities that may follow. Dynamic stretching is better prior to exercise because it increases blood flow, along with range of motion.

Overload (element of training program design)

You have to increase the intensity, duration, time, and type of exercise to see any adaptations (improvements in endurance, strength, or muscle size).

Issues with using direct and indirect measures of fitness

You would use direct measures of fitness for high accuracy (ex: using the direct assessment of VO2 max). However, this wouldn't be useful for a coach estimating the VO2 max of his/her 20+ athletes. Therefore, an indirect measure of fitness (like the MSFT, the 12 minute run, or the Harvard Step test), though not as accurate, would be more efficient.

Learning curve: linear

if one is learning an easy to perform skill, the learning curve is linear

Continuos Skill

involves repetitive and rhythmic movement that take place for a prolonged period of time (ex: running and swimming). The end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of another.

Serial skill

linking together discrete skills in a series (ex: a gymnast combining a back handspring with a roundoff and backflip)

Gross motor skill

movements that utilize larger muscle groups (such as running or walking).

Learning curve: negative acceleration

one learns quickly at first but then slows down.

Coactive skill

performed at the same time as others but without direct confrontation

Interactive skill

performers directly interact with one another (ex: rugby). There is active opposition that impacts the skill.

Fine motor skill

precise and intricate movements that use smaller muscle groups (such as playing piano or playing darts).

* study ways in which to monitor exercise intensity

rates of perceived exertion, relationship between VO2 max and HR, Karvonen method, Borg method, OMNI method, CERT method

External-paced skill

skill is based off of the environment (ex: obstacles, teammates/ opponents, weather). The performer cannot control them.

Internal-paced skill

skill is unaffected by the environment because the performer acts in a stable environment.

Relationship between skill, ability, and technique

skill= ability + technique

Open skill

skills that are impacted by the environment that one is in (ex: weather, obstacles, teammates/ opponents). The performer has to be able to make decisions that allow them to control movement in this environment.

Closed skill

skills that are performed in a stable environment. These skills follow movement patterns and are performed consistently and in the same way (ex: archery)

Individual skill

the performer does the skill alone without anyone else involved.