Soc. Psych first two reviews ch. 1-8

"hot" vs. "cold" perspectives

"hot" perspective: focuses on EMOTION & MOTIVATION as determinants of our thoughts and actions -"cold" perspective: emphasizes the role of COGNITION, examining the ways that people's thoughts affect how they feel, what they want, and what they do

operational definitions

-An operational definition states specifically how the conceptual variable will be manipulated or measured. -the specific procedures for manipulating and measuring a conceptual variable -(conceptual variables are abstract or general variables) Transforms the variable from the abstract (conceptual) to the specific (operational).

self-verification

-Desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves. -Do we self-verify negative self-concepts? -Desire for self-verification will sometimes overwhelm the need for self-enhancement. -research shows that self-verification motives often trump the desire to be seen in a positive light.

Undestand the mindlessness traps we can fall into and how to override these traps

-COMPLIANCE: changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests -Langer finds that the mind is often on "auto-pilot"-we respond MINDLESSLY to words without fully processing the information they are supposed to convey. MINDLESSNESS AND COMPLIANCE • Talking fast and catching people off guard can improve compliance rates • People can be disarmed by the simple phrasing of the request -how you ask for something can be more important that what you ask for -Langer: we often respond mindlessly to words without fully processing the information they are supposed to convey • Mindlessness can make us more vulnerable to compliance, but can also have opposite effect **people are more likely to comply when they are taken by surprise and when the request sounds reasonable.

cognitive heuristics

-Cognitive heuristics are information-processing rules of thumb. --Enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy -Problem is that using cognitive heuristics can frequently lead to error. -AVAILABILTY HEURISTIC: The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind. -Problems with relying on the availability heuristic: -False-consensus effect: the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors. -Base-rate fallacy: the finding that people are relatively insensitive to concensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates -Counterfactual thinking: the tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.

common research methods

-Experiments: looking for CAUSE & EFFECT: -Used to examine cause-and-effect relationships;Two essential characteristics: -Researcher has control over the experimental procedures. -Participants are randomly assigned to different treatment conditions. -LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS: conducted in settings in which: the environment can be controlled; the participants can be carefully studied; -FIELD EXPERIMENTS: Conducted in real-world settings. -Advantage: People are more likely to act naturally. -Disadvantage: Experimenter has less control.

perception of facial characteristics

-First impressions are often subtly influenced by different aspects of a person's appearance. -We prejudge people based on facial features. -We read traits from faces, as well as read traits into faces, based on prior information. -We judge "baby-faced" adults differently than "mature-faced" adults. -why do we judge "baby-faced adults differently? Three possible explanations: -Humans are genetically programmed to respond gently to infantile features. -We learn to associate infantile features with helplessness and then generalize this expectation to baby-faced adults. -There is an actual link between physical appearance and behavior.

genetic, cultural, and technological advances and perspectives

-Genetic: biological perspectives, including perspectives based on neuroscience, genetics, and evolutionary principles, are being applied to the study of social psychological issues such as gender differences, relationships and aggression -Cultural perspectives: increasing numbers of social psychologists are evaluating the universal generality or cultural specificity of other theories and findings by examining similarities and differences across cultures as well as between racial and ethnic groups within cultures -Technological advances: advances in technology such as improves brain-imaging techniques, have given rise to ground breaking research in social psych; VIRTUAL REALITY technology enables researchers to test questions that otherwise would be impractical, impossible, or unethical; THE INTERNET has fostered communication and collaboration among researchers around the world, enabled researchers to study participants from diverse populations, and inspired researchers to investigate whether various social psychological phenomena are similar or different online vs. offline. -as rapidly advancing technologies change how individuals communicate and access information, the ways that they interact are also likely to change

Know the difference between hostile and benevolent sexism

-HOSTILE SEXISM: characterized by negative, resentful feelings about women's abiliities, value and ability to challenge men's power -BENEVOLENT SEXISM: characterized by affectionate chivalrous feelings founded on the potentially patronizing belief that women need and deserve protection. (according to KILIANSKI & RUDMAN: although hostile sexism is clearly more negative and many women feel favorable toward men who exhibit benevolent sexism; the two forms of sexism is positively correlated) --AMBIVELENT SEXISM: a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings.

Know the different types of influence (informational vs. normative) and the different types of conformity (private vs. public)

-INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE: influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgements -NORMATIVE INFLUENCE:influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant. -PRIVATE CONFORMITY: the change of beliefs that occurs when a persona privately accepts a position taken by others. (CHANGES IN BOTH OVERT BEHAVIORS AND BELIEFS) -PUBLIC CONFORMITY: a superficial change in overt behavior ONLY without a corresponding change of opinion that is produced by real or imagined group pressure.

independent vs. dependent variables

-Independent Variables: The factors experimenters manipulate to see if they affect the dependent variable -Dependent Variables: The factors experimenters measure to see if they are affected by the independent variable

intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

-Intrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors within a person (people are intrinsicly motivated when they engage in an activity for the sake of their own interest, the challenge or sheer enjoyment; eating a fine meal, listening to music, hobbies) -Extrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors outside the person (when they engage in an activity as a means to an end, for tangible benefits: money, grades, or recognition; to fulfill obligations; or to avoid punishment) -What happens to intrinsic motivation once a reward is no longer available? Overjustification effect -

Be familiar with the different types of racism

-MODERN RACISM: a form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize -IMPLICIT RACISM: racism that operated unconsciously and unintentionally **fig, 5.4: when measuring explicit, it declines with age, as we get older we dont show an explicit preference; and as we get older, implicit is more stable**

confirmation bias

-Once we make up our mind about something, how likely are we to change it, even when confronted with new evidence? -Confirmation Bias: Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.

priming effects

-Priming: The tendency for recently used words to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information. --Priming can influence person impressions. -Motivations, as well as social behaviors, can be influenced by priming

Be able to identify the ABC's of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination (which concepts relate to which of the Affective, Behavioural, or Cognitive components)

-STEREOTYPES: belief that associate a whole group of people with certain traits. -PREJUDICE: negative feelings about others because of their connection to a social group -DISCRIMINATION: (negative) behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group **while stereotypes concern associations or beliefs and prejudice concerns feelings; discrimination concerns behaviors

self-discrepancy theory

-Self-esteem is defined by the match — or mismatch — between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves. -One's self-esteem and emotional well-being can be predicted by examining the discrepancy between one's "actual self" and one's "self-guides." -Self-esteem depends on a number of factors: -Amount of discrepancy between actual self and self-guide. -The importance of the discrepancy to the self. -The extent to which one focuses on one's self-discrepancies. -What makes us more or less focused on our personal shortcomings?

self-regulation

-Self-regulation is the process by which we seek to control or alter our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and urges. -Is self-control a limited resource that can temporarily be depleted by usage? -1st: all self-control efforts draw from a single common reservoir -2nd: exercising self-control is like flexing a muscle: once used, it becomes fatigues and loses strength making it more difficult to reexert self-control- at least for a little while, until the resource is replenished.

how social psychology differs from other similar areas of study

-Social Psych & SOCIOLOGY: sociology tends to focus on the group level; social psych tends to focus on the individual level; -Soc. psych & CLINICAL PSYCH: Clinical psychologists seek to understand and treat people with psychological difficulties or disorders; Social psychologists do not focus on disorders; they focus on the more typical ways in which individuals think, feel, behave, and influence each other. -Soc. Psych & Personality Psych:Personality psychologists are interested in differences between individuals; Social psychologists are interested in how social factors affect most individuals. -COGNITIVE PSYCH: Cognitive psychologists study mentalprocesses overall; Social psychologists are interested in mental processes with respect to social information and how these processes influence social behavior.

Contact hypothesis

-THE THEORY THAT DIRECT CONTACT BETWEEN HOSTILE GROUPS WILL REDUCE PREJUDICE UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS. INTERGROUP CONTACT • Allport's contact hypothesis -under certain conditions, direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice 1. Equal status- the contact should occur in circumstances that give the two groups equal status 2. Personal interaction-the contact should involve one-to-one interactions among individual members of the two groups 3. Cooperative activities -members of the two groups should join together in an effort to achieve superordinate goals 4. Social norms -the social norms, defined in part by relevant authorities... • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) (racially separate schools were inherently unequal and violated the U.S. constitution) -what would be the effect of this large-scale social experiment (DESEGREGATION PROCEEDED SLOWLY; VERY LITTLE CHANGED; 13% OF THE STUDIES REPORTED A DECREASE IN PREJUDICE AMONG WHITES, 34% REPORTED NO CHANGE, AND 53% REPORTED AN INCREASE) Table 5.6- contact hypothesis conditions - four conditions are deemed very important for intergroup contact to serve as a treatment for racism. However, many desegregated schools have failed to create a setting that meets these conditions. ^

high vs. low self-monitoring

-Tendency to regulate one's own behavior to meet the demands of the situation. -High Self-Monitors: Sensitive to strategic self-presentation concerns.; they modify their behavior as appropriate from one situation to the next -Low Self-Monitors: More concerned with self-verification.; express themselves in a more consistent matter, exhibiting at all times what they see as their true self. -Is it better to be a high or low self-monitor?

self-fulfilling prophecy

-The process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations. -Rosenthal & Jacobson's (1968) "Pygmalion in the Classroom" study -as shown by the effects of teacher expectancies on student achievement, first impressions set in motion a self-fulfilling prophecy -this is the product of a three-step process: (1) a perceiver forms an expectation of a target person (2) the perceiver behaves accordingly (3) the target adjusts to the perceiver's actions.

observations and events that sparked interest in social psychology

-Who had the most dramatic impact on social psychology?Quite possibly Adolf Hitler! -Questions about violence, prejudice, genocide, conformity and obedience. -Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues formed in 1936. -Sherif's (1936) groundbreaking experimental research on social influence. Kurt Lewin, another important contributor to field -Interaction between person and environment, which later became known as interactionist perspective -Called for the application of social psychological theories to practical issues -WWII prompted social psychologists to examine the nature of prejudice, aggression, and conformity -In 1953, Gordon Allport published The Nature of Prejudice -Solomon Asch's research on conformity -Leon Festinger's research on social comparison -Milgram's famous obedience experiments -Period of expansion and enthusiasm -Also a time of crisis and heated debate Strong reactions against the laboratory experiment as the dominant research method (Unethical practices,Experimenter bias,Theories limited to a time and a culture)

personal vs. situational attributions

-attribution theory: a group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior -personal attribution: attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood or effort -situational: attributions to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people or luck.

non-verbal behavior

-behavior that reveals a person's feelings without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues. -Behavioral cues are used to identify a person's inner states, as well as his or her actions. -What kinds of nonverbal cues do people use? -Facial expressions of emotion;Body language; Eye contact or gaze; Physical touch; Cultural differences

hypotheses vs. theories

-hypotheses: a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur -theories: An organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena; they are usually evaluated in terms of three criteria: simplicity, comprehensiveness, and generativity -Preference for "mini-theories" rather than the all-encompassing grand theory --Limited and specific aspects

how are we all implicit personality theorists

-implicit personality theory: a network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors. -knowing that someone has one trait this leads us to infer that he or she has other traits as well. -you might assume that a person who is unpredictable is probably dangerous; or that someone who speaks slowly is also slow-witted -that a beloved sports hero like o.j. simpson for example, could not possibly stab two people to death

impact bias

-is when people overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions -2 possible reasons for the impact bias in affective forecasting: when it comes to negative life events- such as injury, illness, or big financial loss- people do not fully appreciate the extent to which our psychological coping mechanisms help us to cushion the blow. people are even more likely to overlook the coping mechanisms that others use; resulting in a self-other difference by which we tend to predict that others will suffer even longer than we will. -a second reason for these overestimates is that when we introspect about the emotional impact on us of a future event-say, the break up of a close relationship- we become so focused on that single event that we neglect to take into account the effects of other life experiences.

Stats for "invisiible war"

-over 20% of female veterans have been sexually assaulted while serving -in 1991,200,000 estimated women assaulted in the military -now about half a million -80% of sexual survivors do not report -15% of incoming recruits had attempted or committed rape before enilsting=2X the amount of civilians -1% of males have been a victim of sexual assault -in units where sexual harassment is tolerated, rape has tripled. -33% of women dont report because who they have to report to is a friend of the rapists. -5% or less get convicted.

interpreting correlational results

-positive correlations indicate that as scores on one variable increases, scores on the other variable increases, and that as scores on one variable decreases, scores on the other decrease. -negative correlations indicate that as scores on one variable increase, scores on the other decrease.

Characteristics of Prevention vs. Promotion oriented people

-regulatory fit: people are more likely to be influenced by messages that fit their frame of mind and "feel right" -in particular, in an effort to regulate their own emotional state, some individuals are: -PROMOTION-ORIENTED: drawn to the pursuit of success, achievement, and their ideals) while others are more -PREVENTION-ORIENTED: protective of what they have, fearful of failure, and vigilant about avoiding loss)

social comparison theory

-the theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. -Festinger (1954): When uncertain about our abilities or opinions, we evaluate self through comparisons with similar others. -Key Questions: -When do we turn to others for comparative information? -With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?

two-factor theory of emotion

-the theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal -Can others help determine our emotions? Schachter: Misery loves only miserable company. -For others to influence our emotions: -Our level of physiological arousal cannot betoo intense. -Other people must be present as a possible explanation for arousal before its onset.

CH. 6

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Ch. 7

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Ch. 8

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Determine the difference between examples of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

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Mechanisms that help perpetuate stereotypes

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Explanations of attitudes and behaviors according to Self-Perception Theory

ALTERNATIVE ROUTES TO SELF-PERSUASION **• SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY: self-persuasion through observation of own behavior -noting that we don't always have firsthand knowledge of our own attitudes, Bem proposed that we infer how we feel by observing ourselves and the circumstances of our own behavior. • Impression management theory: what matters is not a motive to be consistent but rather a motive to appear consistent. • Self-affirmation theory: dissonance situations create a threat to the self

The nature of attitudes-definitions and individual differences, implicit vs. explicit attitudes

ATTITUDE: a positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea. -IMPLICIT ATTITUDES: an attitude such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having.

Know the plus and minuses of brainstorming

BRAINSTORMING: a technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions. -groups could generate more and better ideas that could individuals working alone. FACTORS THAT REDUCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP BRAINSTORMING 1. production blocking: when people have to wait for their turn to speak, they may forget their ideas, may be so busy trying to remembers their ideas that they dont listen to others or generate additional ideas, or may simply lose interest. 2. free riding: as others contribute ideas, individuals may feel less motivated to work hard themselves. (social loafing) 3. evaluation apprehesion: in the presence of others, people may be hesitant to suggest wild, off-the-wall ideas for fear of looking foolish and being criticized. 4. perfomance matching: group members work only as hard as they see others work.

Characteristics of Central vs. Peripheral routes to persuasion

CENTRAL ROUTE: person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its argument PERIPHERAL ROUTE: person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues. THE CENTRAL ROUTE • Hovland et al.: persuaded when we attend to, comprehend, and retain in memory an argument • Mcguire: distinguished between the reception of a message and its later acceptance • Greenwald: elaboration is an important, intermediate step. • Assumption that the recipients are attentive, active, critical, and thoughtful. -assumption is correct only some of the time -when it is correct, the persuasiveness of the message depends on the strength of the message's content • The central route is a thoughtful process -but not necessarily an objective one THE PERIPHERAL ROUTE • People are persuades on the basis of superficial, peripheral cues. -the message is evaluated through the use of simple-minded heuristics. • People are also influenced by attitude-irrelevant factors

Understand components and be able to identify examples of Cognitive Dissonance

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY: the theory that holding consistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY: THE CLASSIC VERSION • We are motivated by desire for cognitive consistency. -can lead to irrational and sometimes maladaptive behavio JUSTIFYING ATTITUDE-DISCREPANT BEHAVIOR • Subjects experienced cognitive dissonance because they had insufficient justification for lying. • Contributions of Festinger's & Carlsmith's classic study: -showed the phenomenon of self-persuasion -contradicted the accepted belief that big rewards produce greater change. • Insufficient deterrence: mild punishment is insufficient deterrence for attitude-discrepant nonbehavior. -the less severe the threatened punishment, the greater the attitude change produced. JUSTIFYING EFFORT: COMING TO LIKE WHAT WE SUFFER FOR • We alter our attitudes to justify our suffering. • Aronson & Mill's (1959) "embarrassment test" study • The more we pay for something, the more we will come to like it. JUSTIFYING DIFFICULT DECISIONS: WHEN GOOD CHOICES GET EVEN BETTER • Whenever we make difficult decisions, we feel dissonance. • We rationalize the correctness of our decision by exaggerating: -the positive features of the chosen alternative -the negative features of the unchosen alternative COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY: A NEW LOOK • 4 STEPS ARE NECESSARY FOR BOTH THE AROUSAL AND REDUCTION OF DISSONANCE 1. Attitude-discrepant behavior must produce unwanted negative consequences 2. Must feel personal responsibility for unpleasant outcomes of behavior 3. Physiological arousal 4. Must make an attribution for physiological arousal to own behavior

correlational studies vs. true experiments

Correlational research examines the association between variables; a correlation coefficient is a measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables; -Goal is to learn about the relationship between variables. --How similar or distinct are two different variables? --How well does one variable predict another variable? -Role of the correlation coefficient --Concurrent vs. prospective Advantages -Can study the associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced. -Can examine phenomena difficult or unethical to create for research purposes. -Offers freedom in settings in which the variables are measured. -One very serious disadvantage: CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION; the fact that two variables are correlated does not necessarily mean that one cause the other. -correlations can be used for prediction and for generating hypotheses.

Different types of cues

ENVIRONMENT CUES • ACCOUNTABILITY cues affect the person's cost-reward calculations -when accountability is low, those who commit deviant behavior are less likely to be caught and punished, and people may deliberately choose to engage in gratifying but usually inhibited behaviors. (being in a large crowd or wearing a mask) • ATTENTIONAL cues focus a person's attention away from the self. -the individual attends less to internal standards of conduct, reacts ore to the immediate situation, and is less sensitive to long-term consequences of behavior. behavior slips out from the bond of cognitive control and people act on impulse. (when at a party with very loud music and flashing lights, you may be swept up with the pulsating crowd and feel your individual identity slipping away.)

Be able to identify examples of usage of different sequential request strategies

FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE • Person begins with a very small request; secures agreement; then makes a separate larger request • Why is it effective? -self-perception theory revisited. LOW-BALLING • Person secures agreement with a request and then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs • Why is it effective? -psychology of commitment DOOR-IN-THE-FACE-TECHNIQUE • Person begins with a very large request that will be rejected; then follows that up with a more moderate request. • Why is it effective? -perceptual contrast? -reciprocal concessions? THAT'S NOT ALL technique • Person begins with a somewhat inflated request; then immediately decrease the apparent size of the request by offering a discount or bonus.

Details of Milgram's obedience research (related to results)

FORCES OF DESTRUCTIVE OBEDIENCE: -in a series of experiments, participants were ordered by an experimenter to administer increasingly painful shocks to a confederate. -65% obeyed completely but felt tormented by the experience. -obedience levels are influenced by various situational factors, including a participant's physical proximity to both the authority figures and the victim -two other aspects of Milgram's procedure contributed to high levels of obedience: 1. participants did not feel personally responsible; and 2. the orders escalated gradually. MILGRAM'S RESEARCH: FORCES OF DESTRUCTIVE OBEDIENCE • Conducted his experiments during the time that Adolph Eichmann was being tried for Nazi war crimes. • His unorthodox methods have been the subject of much ethical debate. • Descriptions of Milgram's obedience experients. Table 7.4: the Learner's Protests in the Milgram experiment THE PRODS USED IN MILGRAM'S EXPERIMENT • "Please continue (or please go on)." • "The experiment requires you continue." • "It is absolutely essential that you continue." • "You have no other choice; you must go on." THE OBEDIENT PARTICIPANT • Milgram's participants were tormented by experience. • No gender differences observes in level of obedience. • Milgram's basic findings have been replicated in several different countries and among different age groups.

Be able to pick out examples of formal vs. informal roles (e.g. group norms)

FORMAL ROLES: are designated by titles: teachers or students in a class, vice president or account executive in a corporation. INFORMAL ROLES: are less obvious but still powerful. NORMS: rules of conduct for members. can be formal or informal. ex. fraternaties and sororities usually have written rules for the behavior expected from their members. informal norms are more subtle, what do i wear? how hard can i push for what i want? etc.

Understand the difference between group cohesion and group performance

GROUP COHESIVENESS: the extent to which forces push group members closer together, such as through feelings of intimacy, unity, and commitment to group goals. -group cohesiveness and GROUP PERFORMANCE are casually related. -but relationship is complex. -when a group is cohesive, group performance often improves; on the other handm when a group perfors well, it often becomes more cohesive. -Mullen and Copper found stronger evidence that performance affects cohesiveness than that cohesiveness effects performance. they also found that the positive relationship between cohesiveness and group performance may depend on the size of the group: the relationship tended to be stronger in small groups than in large ones.

groupthink

GROUPTHINK • Excessive tendency to seek concurrence among group members • Emerges when the need for agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make appropriate decisions ANTECENDENT OF GROUPTHINK (things that come before) • Highly cohesive groups • Group structure: -homogenous members -isolation -directive leadership -unsystematic procedures • Stressful situations SYMPTOMS OF GROUPTHINK • Overestimation of the group • Closed-mindedness • Increased pressures toward uniformity -mindguards and pressures towards uniformity -self-censorship -illusion of unanimity CONSEQUENCES OF GROUPTHINK • Defective decision making -incomplete survey of alternatives -incomplete survey of objectives -failure to reappraise initially rejected alternatives -poor information search -selective bias in processing information at hand -failure to work out contingency plans • High probability of a bad decision PREVENTING GROUPTHINK • Avoid isolation by consulting widely with outsiders • Leaders should reduce conformity pressures -Establish a strong norm of critical review.

Measuring attitudes-different techniques

HOW ATTITUDES ARE MEASURED: SELF-REPORT MEASURES • Self-report measures are direct and straightforward, but sometimes attitudes are too complex for a single question. • Attitude scale: a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object -e.g. Likert Scale • Bogus pipeline: a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions. HOW ATTITUDES ARE MEASURED: COVERT MEASURES • Observable behavior • Facial Electromyograph (EMG): an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes. • Neuroscience research ongoing -appears attitudes may be measureable by electrical brain activity HOW ATTITUDES ARE MEASURED: THE IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST (IAT) • Based on notion that we have implicit attitudes -attitudes that one is not aware of having • Implicit association test (IAT): measures the speed with which one responds to pairing of concepts Figure 6.3

Know the difference between an instrumental and an expressive role

INSTRUMENTAL ROLE: to help the group achieve its tasks EXPRESSIVE ROLE: to provide emotional support and maintain moral

Examples of Insufficient Justification and Insufficient Deterrence

INSUFFICIENT JUSTIFICATION: a condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.(according to Festinger, unless you can deny your actions (which is not usually possible), you'll feel pressured to change your attitude about the task. if you can convince yourself that the experience wasnt that bad, then saying it was interesting is all right) -INSUFFICIENT DETERRENCE: a condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity,even when only mild punishment is threatened. (e.g. in one study, children were prohibited from playing with an attractive toy by being threatened with a mild or severe punishment-an insufficient deterrent-later showed disdain for the forbidden toy. those who were confronted the threat of severe punishment did not.) ***(the less severe the threatened punishment, the greater the attitude change produced.)

Techniques of majority vs. minorirty influence

MAJOR INFLUENCE: GROUP SIZE • Conformity increases with group size--but only up to a point. • Why? -law of "diminishing returns"? -perception that others are either in "collusion" or "spineless sheep"? MAJORITY INFLUECE: AWARENESS OF NORMS • Conform only when know about and focus on social norms • Often misperceive what is normative -pluralistic ignorance MAJORITY INFLUENCE: HAVING AN ALLY IN DISSENT • When there was an ally in Asch's study, conformity dropped by almost 80% • Why does having an ally reduce majority influence on our behavior? -substantially more difficult to stand alone for one's convictions than when one is part of even a tiny minority -any dissent can reduce the normative pressures to conform MAJORITY INFLUENCE AND GENDER DIFFERENCES • Sex differences appear to depend on: -how comfortable people are with the experimental task -type of social pressure people face women conform more than men on "masculine" tasks and in face-to-face settings but not on "feminine" or gender-neutral tasks or in private settings. MINORITY INFLUENCE: THE POWER OF STYLE • Moscovici: nonconformists derive power from the style of their behavior -"consistent dissent" approach (minorities can exert influence by taking a consistent and unwavering position.) • Hollander: minorities influence by first accumulating idiosyncrasy credits -"first conform, then dissent" strategy HOW DOES MINORITY INFLUENCE WORK? • Does minority influence work just like the process of conformity? • Do majorities and minorities exert influence in different ways? -because of their power and control, majorities elicit public conformity through normative pressures -because seen as seriously committed to their views, minorities produce private conformity, or conversion MAJORITY VS MINORITY INFLUENCE • Relative impact of each depends on whether the judgment that is being made is objective or subjective • The relative effects of majority and minority viewpoints depend on how conformity is measured -direct, public measures vs. more indirect, private measures of conformity -majority influence is greater on direct and public measures of conformity, but minorities show their impact in indirect or private measures of conformity -by forcing others group members to think more openly about a problem, minorities enhance the quality of a group's decision making -people gain courage to resist conformity pressures after watching others do the same

Outgroup homogeneity effect and reasons for this effect

OUTGROUP HOMOGENEITY EFFECT: the tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. WHY ARE OUTGROUPS SEEN AS HOMOGENEOUS? • Often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because have little personal contact with them • Often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members -lack of familiarity and lack of diversity of experiences with outgroup members are two reasons why "they all look alike" • New neuroscience research examining this effect - figure 5.11 --research using brain imaging and cognitive methods has found that merely categorizing people as outgroup members can lead perceivers to process information about outgroup members less deeply.

3 different types of tasks

PROCESS LOSS: the reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation. • ADDITIVE tasks- group product is sum of member contributions (donating to charity; making noise at a pep rally) • CONJUNCTIVE Tasks- group product is determined by member with poorest performance (mountain climbing teams="weakest link" will determine their success or failure) • DISJUNCTIVE Tasks- group product is (or can be) determined by the individual with the BEST PERFORMANCE. (trying to solve a problem or develop a strategy: what the group needs is a single successful idea or answer, regardless of the number of failures. ***ALL GROUPS TYPICALLY OUTPERFORM INDIVIDUALS ON ALL TYPES OF TASKS EXCEPT FOR CONJUCTIVE

Explanations of behaviour based on Social Identity theory vs. Realistice Conflict theory

REALISTIC CONFLICT THEORY: the theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources. • Direct competition for valuable but limited resources breeds hostility between groups -e.g. land, jobs, power • But "realistic" competition can be imagined • Relative deprivation: feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY: the theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem. • Two basic predictions: -threats to one's self esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism -expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance one's self-esteem

Social Compensation vs. Sucker Effect

SOCIAL COMPENSATION: if the outcome is important to individual members of the group and if they believe they can help achieve the desired outcomes, then they are likely to engage in SOCIAL COMPENSATION by increasing their efforts on collective tasks to try to compensate for the anticipated social loafing or poor performance of other group members. -SUCKER EFFECT: if the outcome is not personally important to individual members, if they believe their contributions won't affect the outcome very much, or if they feel they are unable to compensate for the anticipated social loafing or other members, then THEY ARE LIKELY TO EXERT LESS EFFORT. nobody wants to be the "sucker" who does all the work while everyone else goofs off, so everyone withholds effort and the result is very poor group performance.

Consequences of Social Dominance Orientation and System Justification

SOCIAL DOMINANCE ORIENTATION: a desire to see one's ingroip as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups. (people w/ a social dominance orientation exhibit a desire to see their ingroups as dominant over other groups, and they tend to identify more strongly with their ingroup and to be more likely to disparage members of outgroups.) -SYSTEM JUSTIFICATION: processes that endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements. SYSTEM-JUSTIFYING BELIEFS PROTECT THE STATUS QUO. (people who tend to endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements can show signs of outgroup favoritism even when their group holds a relatively disadvantaged position in society.)

Define Social Loafing; pick out examples -understand ways to encounter social loafing

SOCIAL LOAFING: a group produced reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled. SOCIAL LOAFING: WHEN OTHERS RELAX US • Ringlemann (1880's): individual output declines on pooled tasks. • Social Loafing: a group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled. FIGURE 8.4: SOCIAL LOAFING: WHEN MANY PRODUCE LESS WHEN IS SOCIAL LOAFING LESS LIKELY TO OCCUR? • People believe that their own performances can be identified and this evaluated, by themselves or by others. • The task is important or meaningful to those performing it. • People believe that their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome. • The group expects to be punished for poor performance. • The group is small. • The group is cohesive. WHY DOES SOCIAL LOAFING OCCUR? • COLLECTIVE EFFORT MODEL: individuals try hard on a collective task when they think their efforts will help them achieve outcomes they personally value.

Understand the dimensions of the Stereotype Content Model (competence vs. warmth)

STEREOTYPE CONTENT MODEL: a model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth. **groups may be considered high on both dimensions, low on both, or high on one dimension but low on the other. (e.g. the elderly may be stereptyped as high on warmth but low on competence) ---COMPETENCE INFLUENCE RELATIVE STATUS & WARMTH INFLUENCED BY PERCEIVED COMPETITION. (stereotypes about the competence of a group are influenced by the relative STATUS of that group in society-higher relative status is associated w/ higher competence. Stereotypes about the warmth of a group are influenced by perceived competitiong within a group-greater perceived competition is associated with lower warmth. (e.g. groups that are of low status but remain complaint and do not try to upset the status quo are likely to be stereotypes as low in competence but high in warmth.)

Causes and consequences of Stereotype Threat

STEREOTYPE THREAT: the experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one's group. STEREOTYPE THREAT • Stereotype threat is the fear that one will be reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of others. • How can stereotype threat hamper academic achievement? -the reactions to the threat can directly interfere with performance -the threat can cause individuals to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity PREVELANCE AND DIVERSITY OF STEREOTYPE THREATS • Can affect any group for which strong, well-known negative stereotypes are relevant in particular settings. • Whether one feels threatened or emboldened by a stereotype depends on which social identity has been activated. • One does not need to believe in a negative stereotype for it to have an affect. STEREOTYPE THREAT EFFECTS: CAUSES • Triggers psychological arousal • Causes individual to suppress thoughts about stereotype, which can drain cognitive resources • Impairs working memory • Can cause negative thoughts, worry STEREOTYPE THREAT EFFECTS: SOLUTIONS • Being reminded of positive traits • Blurring boundaries between groups • Using humor to cope with threat • Attribute arousal triggered by threat to something nonthreatening • Thinking of positive, successful examples • Being reminded of other categories to which one belongs that are considered favorable in same domain

cultural differences in self-concept

Self-concept is also influenced by cultural factors. -Contrasting cultural orientations: -Individualism: One's culture values the virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance. -Collectivism: One's culture values the virtues of interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony.

Understand the different points on the "CONTINUUM OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE"

Social influences vary in the degree of pressure they bring to bear on an individual. People may 1. conform to group norms and maintain their independence 2. comply with requests or be assertive and 3. obey or defy the commands of authority. FIG. 7.1 YIELDING TO INFLUENCE<---OBEDIENCE--COMPLIANCE--CONFORMITY-||-INDEPENCE--ASSERTIVENESS--DEIFANCE--> RESISTING INFLUENCE (conformity, compliance, and obedience are not distinct, qualitatively different "types" of influence. in all three cases, the influence may emanate from a person, a group, or an institution. and in all instances, the behavior in question maybe constructive (helping oneself or others) or destructive (hurting oneself or others) or neutral. social influence varies as points along a continuum according to the degree of pressure exerted on the individual. we do not always succumb under pressure. people may conform or maintain their independence from others, they may comply with direct requests or react with assertiveness, or they may obey the commands of authority or oppose powerful others in an act of defiance.

theories and models of social perception

Social perception: The process by which people come to understand one another. -We'll look at: -The "raw data" of social perception -How we explain and analyze behavior -How we integrate our observations into coherent impressions of other persons -How our impressions can subtly create a distorted picture of reality -We're both perceiver and target -JONE'S CORRESPONDENT INFERENCE THEORY: People try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor. -People make inferences on the basis of three factors: -Person's degree of choice -Expectedness of the behavior -Intended effects or consequences of someone's behavior -KELLEY'S COVARIATION THEORY: People make attributions using the covariation principle. -Three kinds of covariation are useful: -Consensus: How are other people reacting to the same stimulus? -Distinctiveness: Is the person's behavior consistent over time? -Consistency: Does the person react the same or differently to different stimuli?

Components of the Theory of Planned Behavior

THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR: attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions 1. behavior is influenced less by general attitudes than by ATTITUDES TOWARD A SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR 2. behavior is influence not only by attitude but by SUBJECTIVE NORMS (our beliefs about what others think we should do) social pressures to conform often lead us to behave in ways that are at odds with our inner convictions 3. PERCEIVED BEHAVIOR CONTROL: attitudes give rise to behavior only when we perceive the behavior to be within our control. to the extent that people lack confidence in their ability to engage in some behavior, they ar unlikely to form an intention to do so. 4. although attitudes (along with subjective norms and perceived control) contribute to INTENTION to behave in a particular manner, people often do not or cannot follow through on their intentions. ***1;2;3-->intention-->behavior

difference between common sense intuitions and social psychology research:

The "knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. -Common sense seems to explain many social psychological findings after the fact. -But how does one distinguish common sense facts from common sense myths? Unlike common sense, social psychology uses the scientific method to put theories to the test.

Different theories explaining SOCIAL FACILITATION

WHY DOES SOCIALFACILITATION OCCUR? • Zajonc's Mere Presence Theory: the proposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects. THE ZAJONC SOLUTION-Presence of another person or member of the same species---> Increased arousal---> Strengthened dominant response---> (easy task):correct response; performance enhancement OR (difficult talk):Incorrect response; performance impairment • EVALUATION APPREHENSION THEORY:a theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators. -someone must be in position to evaluate performance. -stereotype threat revisited • DISTRACTION-CONFLICT THEORY: a theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when thos others distract from the task and create attentional conflict. -Attentional conflict between focusing on task and inspecting the distracting stimulus creates arousal. -Maintains there is nothing uniquely social about "social facilitation".

Definition of Social psychology

is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context

Factors involved in Social Impact Theory

the theory of social influence depends on three factors: 1. the strength of the source- is determined by his or her status, ability, or relationship to a target. the stronger the source, the greater the influence. 2. the immediacy of the source to the target in time and space- the closer the source, the greater the impact. 3. the number of sources- as the number of sources increase, so does the influence-at least up to a point.

self-perception theory

the theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior. -but only in the absence of compelling situational pressures

importance of applied social psychology

to make use of social psychology's theories or methods to enlarge our understanding of naturally occurring events and to contribute to the solution of social problems

Cyber Loafing

which involves personal use of e-mail and the Internet at work; cyberloafing can be a huge drain on worker's productivity. one result is that worker's actions on the job are coming under increasing surveillanve as the number of computer strokes they maker per hour or the content of their calls, e-mails, or internet browsing can be recorded electronically.

Escalation effects and an example of when it occurs

• Occurs when commitment to a failing course of action is increased to justify previous investments • Groups more likely to escalate commitment. -also likely to do it in more extreme ways --laboratory experiments show that groups are more likely to escalate commitment to a failing project and are likely to do so in more extreme ways than are individuals. -groups, businesses and governments jhave incurred huge costs because they continued to throw more money, time, and other resources into a project that should have been terminated long before (Boston construction project known as "the big dig" was designed to convert a congested stretch of highway into a high-speed underground tunnel; construction took longer than a decade, etc.){

Compare and contrast Sherif's (1936) study and Asch's (1951) study

• Sherif's study (1936) (of how norms develop in small groups)**presented groups of participants with an ambiguous task and found that their judgements gradually converged. -figure 7.3: classic case of suggestibility: the graph shows how 3 participants estimates of the apparent movement of light gradually converged. before they came together, their perceptions varied considerably. once in groups, however, participants conformed to the norm that had developed. • Asch's study (1951) (constructed a very diff. task for testing how people's beliefs affect the belief of others) **using a simpler line-judgement task, he has confederates make incorrect responses and found that participants went along about a third of the time -figure 7.4: line judgement task (which comparison line- A,B, OR C is the same in length as the standard line? what would you say if you found yourself in the presence of a unanimous majority that answered A or C? WHAT DID ASCH'S PARTICIPANTS DO? • Participants went along with the clearly incorrect majority 37% of the time • However, 25% of the participants NEVER conformed • Still, 50% conformed for at least half of the critical presentations -the rest conformed on an occasional basis SHERIF'S VS. ASCH'S STUDIES • Sherif: because of ambiguity, participants turned to each other for guidance • Asch: found self in awkward position -obvious that group was wrong

Understrand the conclusions of Sherif's Robbers Cave study (overall findings)

• Sheriff and colleagues (1961): GROUPS OF 11 YR OLD BOYS; THEY GO OUTSIDE AND PLAY TOGETHER, FORM GROUPS, ETC. THEN THE RESEARCHERS POINT OUT ANOTHER GROUP OF BOYS; NOW YOU HAVE ONE GROUP VS. ANOTHER, CAUSING CONFLICT, COMPETITION CAUSES CONFLICT BETWEEN THESE YOUNG, ADJUSTED, AVERAGE 11 YR OLD BOYS; THEY TURNED INTO RIVALS; THEN THE REASEARCHERS WANTED TO SEE WHAT THEY COULD DO TO BRING THE TWO GROUPS TOGETHER BY GETTING THEM TOGETHER, SO THEY CAME UP WITH A CONFLICT THAT WOULD REQUIRE COOPERATION OF THE TWO GROUPS TO SOLVE IT; I.E. BROKEN DOWN BUS • Examines intergroup conflict • Superordinate goals: mutual goals that could be achieved only through cooperation

Know the factors that lead up to deindividuation

• The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints again deviant behavior. -a collective phenomenon that only occurs in the presence of others. What can lead to deindividuation? 3 FACTORS: 1. AROUSAL 2. ANONYMITY 3. REDUCED FEELINGS (DECREASE IN) OF INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILTY

Understand the Norm of Reciprocity

• The powerful norm of reciprocity dictates that we treat others as they have treated us. -this norm leads us to feel obligated to repay for acts of kindness, even when unsolicited. • Norm of reciprocity is relatively short-lived. **we often comply when we feel indebted to a requester who has done us a favor. -people differ in the extent to which they use reciprocity for personal gain and are wary of falling prey to this strategy.