Social Psyc Final

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Social norm approach of attraction

we like individuals who adhere to norms and dislike those who violate them. Communal norms: the idea that we responsible for another's well-being; reserve this norm for family members and close friends, repayment is not expected Exchange norms: the premise of reciprocity (if I do something for you, you do something for me); reserve this for acquaintances, repayment is expected

biological theory of aggression

(social psychologists try to stay away from this theory) Some evidence: neurological structure abnormalities/hormone levels - Evolutionary theory of aggression Instinct theory/catharsis theory

Allison and Bussey (2016) Cyberbullying

- Cyberbullying is a group phenomenon, and should consider all participant roles, rather than focusing on solely perpetrators and victims - Aims to integrate the bystander effect and the social cognitive theory to account for bystanders' diverse responses to online bullying - failure to consistently replicate the bystander effect online; probability of intervening among witnesses does not decline linearly as the number of bystanders increase (time issues, large number of witnesses, multitasking, redirecting, etc. - Social Cognitive Theory: how personal, behavioral, and environmental factors reciprocally influence each other & interact with social/cultural influences - Apply SCT to... moral standards, moral disengagement (justifying/downplaying) - idea of mediated morality of cyberbullying - requires less MD to justify aggression due to fundamental differences

Devine et al. (2002) Self-Determination Theory

- Examined the moderating role of motivations to respond without prejudice - Examined the amount of race bias revealed by easy-to-control self-report measures of prejudice and more difficult-to-control implicit measures of race bias when looking at peoples' motivation (internal v. external) - Results: those with internal motivations (and low external motivations) to respond without prejudice are less likely to exhibit race bias in all situations with differing levels of control

Brown et al. (2018) Honor Cultures

- Honor-oriented cultures arise in lawless and economically insecure environments, where people feel the need to solve social problems themselves, rather than rely on any outside authority; importance of gender roles; typical in the South - Study 1: coercive violence against women is more likely within a culture of honor, showing that White men in honor states committed rape and murdered their female intimate partners (or former partners) at higher rates than did White men in non-honor states. Study 2, which involved anonymous victim reports of experiences with violent coercion (specifically, rape and physical dating violence) among White female teenagers, generally corroborated the official crime statistics analyzed in Study 1.

Bushman & Anderson (2009) Exposure to media and helping

- Hypothesis: exposure to violent media will decrease helping - Procedure: play video game/watch movie (i.e., violent or nonviolent) followed by opportunity to help a victim - Results: groups exposed to violent media took longer to help than those exposed to non-violent media -Conclusion: people exposed to violent media become "comfortably numb" to the pain and suffering of others

Wang et al. (2022) Attitudes about immigrants on FB

- Measured participants' judgements of a specific attitude about immigrants along dimensions of prejudice, free speech, and truth. - In-group or Out-group member expresses particular intergroup attitude (as a facebook post) that was subsequently interpreted by another either in-group or out-group member as prejudice or free speech (in a comment under the post) - In-group/out-group was measured by either being a republican or a democrat - Results: participants perceived initial attitude (facebook post) as less prejudice, more truthful, and free speech when it was expressed by an in-group member than when it was expressed by an out-group member - subsequent interpretations (comments) had little impact on participant's judgement of the initial attitude (FB post); still had an impact, just in a more limited manner - if the FB post was posted by an in-group member, and the commenter was an in-group member, the in-group favoritism disappeared

O'Brien et al. (2010) Modern Paradox of Prejudice

- Modern paradox: White Americans harbor racial prejudice, but view themselves as unprejudiced - Study examined the impact of exposing participants to representations of prejudice available in US culture; hypothesized that these representations will provide downward targets for social comparison, leading White Americans to evaluate themselves as less prejudice - Results: these downward targets for social comparison made participants more likely to label themselves as less prejudiced than participants in the control condition; however, these downward targets had no impact on participants' estimates of the prejudice of the average American

Adams-Prive and Morse (2009) Dependency Stereotypes and Aging

- Older adults are often stereotyped as dependent - Social exchange theory predicts that personal relationships feel most satisfying when both participants contribute equally to the relationship - Older help recipients were rated as more dependent and less capable than younger help recipients, regardless of the age of the helper - Younger helpers were rated as more considerate, and people who helped older adults were seen as more considerate than those who helped younger adults - Women viewed help recipients more positively than men, consistent with the finding that women are less likely to believe that being helped is a sign of weakness

Hamilton (2009) online dating

- Online dating has grown exponentially over the years - People who use these sites typically have with higher rejection sensitivity and lower self-esteem OR have lower anxiety around dating - people use these sites bc it taking less effort and cost to the user than meeting people organically - In online dating people typically strive to create an attractive profile presentation. HOWEVER, daters must also balance the ultimate goal of meeting face-to-face offline with the wish to market themselves as desirable online - Dishonesty is common of dating sites (people lie about many things) - BUT people are more likely to stretch the truth on aspects about themselves that they are 'planning' to change - photographs carry the most weight in whether someone likes a person's profile (halo effect) - Being online allows for more effective self-presentation, - Broad array of options - results in daters using shopping-like strategies & filtering to choose a partner

Vesentini et al. (2022) Attraction in Psychotherapy

- Overall, high instances of intimate feelings and behaviors toward clients - More male than female therapists reported sexual feelings toward a client - older therapists reported acting less formal and started more friendships with clients/former clients than younger therapists - psychiatrists reported less sexual feelings than non-psychiatrists, and behavioral therapists reported less sexual feelings than person-centered and psychodynamic therapists

Adams and Plaut (2008) The Cultural Grounding of Personal Relationships & the importance of attractiveness

- Physically attractive people reported better outcomes in a culture with voluntaristic notions of relationships (United States - enter relationships by choice) but not in a culture with embedded notions of relationships (West Africa; fixed relationships, e.g., by family/limited mobility) - American and Ghanian participants in settings that promote voluntaristic relationships expected more positive outcomes for physically attractive people. - For Ghanaian participants, this 'halo effect' was weakened in settings that promote embedded conceptualizations of relationships. -Main point: the importance of physical attractiveness is not inevitable, it reflects particular constructions of relationships as the product of choice.

Trail et al. (2022) Interracial roommate relationships - negotiating daily interactions

- Same-race and mixed race college roommate pairs completed daily questionnaires - Mixed-race pairs reported less positive emotions towards roommate, intimacy, and intimacy-building behaviors, and more intimacy-distancing behaviors - Over time in mixed-race pairs, intimacy-building behaviors declined but intimacy-distancing behaviors remained constant. Declining behaviors was mainly from White roommate

Miyagawa et al. (2022) Sticking Pins in dolls

- Study 1: investigated whether compassionate and self-image goals related to aggressive inclinations (through self-compassion = how many pins did they stick in the doll) and whether the type of event (rejection versus acceptance) moderated these associations. - Study 1 Results: participants with higher compassionate goals practice self-compassion when recalling their personal events and, thus, be less inclined to aggressive, opposite with participants who exhibited higher self-image goals - Study 2: replicated study 1, and extended it to show that nonzero sum beliefs (what is good for the self is also good for others) played a mediating role in the associations between interpersonal goals and self-compassion - Results: compassionate goals were linked to higher self-compassionate reactions through higher nonzero-sum beliefs, whereas self-image goals were associated with lower self compassionate reactions through lower nonzero-sum beliefs. **self-compassion may be an effective emotio

Batson et al. (2007) Valuing the Welfare of the Person in Need

- Valuing the welfare of a person in need increases empathetic concern (i.e., more empathetic concern and helping behaviors for somebody you think is a good person/care about versus somebody you think is a bad person/don't care about) - In experiment one, perspective taking was manipulated and increased perspective taking lead to more empathetic concern. - In experiment two, perspective taking was not manipulated but higher valuing lead to increased perspective taking.

Feria et al. (2014) Depression may bring rejection in volunteer selection settings

- Volunteer coordinators (study 1) and a college sample (study 2) watched a video-taped interview of of someone exhibiting depression symptomatology or not; then participants decided if that person should be hired - The applicant acting depressed was hired less frequently, rated as less hirable, perceived as less appropriate for social tasks, held in a lower esteem, and held at a greater social distance than control - **concerning given volunteering can act as an treatment strategy for those with depression

Tesser and Smith (Attraction study related to the self-evaluation maintenance approach)

- gave participants the "I am" statement, then asked them to complete a task that was central or not to who they are, told all participants that they bombed it - Researchers told participants that their friend was coming to take the same test, they could either give them clue A (the pandoras box to passing the test) or clue B (confusing advice for the test) - High central task: more likely to give their friend clue B - Low central task: more likely to give their friend clue A

Hall et al. (2010) Paradox of religious racism

- investigated the paradox of religious racism - aka religious people tend to support racism and prejudice - Results: paradox was traced to the group-oriented motives that underlie religiosity; simply identifying with a religious group seemed to establish intergroup dynamics of favoring the in-group and derogating racial out-groups - Results cont... Greater religious identification, greater extrinsic religiosity (desire for social status), and greater religious fundamentalism (unwavering certainty) were positively related to racism; Greater intrinsic religiosity and greater quest were negatively related to racism

Self-evaluation maintenance approach of attraction

- self-esteem is determined by a social comparison process - want to surround yourself with people that are successful... but not too successful in things that are central to who we are

Thomaes et al. (2009) Self affirmation and NA

- tested whether self-affirmation intervention can reduce narcissistic aggression - Wrote about their most important values and why they're important to them - Narcissism and trait self esteem were measured before intervention Results: Narcissistic individuals (not low SE) behave aggressively when experiencing ego threat - Self-affirmation temporarily reduced the ego-protective motivations that normally drive narcissists aggression; reminding people 'who they are' can have strong behavioral benefits

Dutton and Aron (Attraction study related to the two-factor theory)

- took participants to a bridge (wobbly rope bridge or concrete bridge). - After, had someone of the opposite sex ask them to fill out a questionnaire and then gave them their number if they wanted to know more 50% of the men who crossed the wobbly bridge called back the female Participants falsely labeled their arousal as attraction and attached it to the person of the opposite sex that approached them

Prejudice

A negative prejudgement of a group and individual members

Schachter's two factor theory of arousal

Aggression is the result of (mis)interpreting physiological arousal situational factors impact whether we (mis)interpret our physiological arousal as a threat, attraction, or excitement

Gentile et al. (2009) Effect of Prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors

Correlational study: Singaporean middle-school students who played more prosocial games behaved more prosocially. Longitudinal study: In Japanese children and adolescents, prosocial games produced later increases in prosocial behavior Experimental study: In U.S., undergraduates randomly assigned to play prosocial games behaved more prosocially.

What is the driving component of altruism?

Empathy All my cognitive resources are focused on the other; trying to feel what the other person is feeling

Does altruism exist?

Empirical studies make it seem like it - BUT... there are limitations to these methodologies There are many confounds

Challenges of examining aggressive behavior

Ethics: often time have to measure 'aggressive intent' and not actual aggressive behaviors; issue of limited self-knowledge and the 'better than average' effect Mundane Realism: how do we recreate aggression? To what degree is this generalizable to the real word? Multiplicity of antecedents/theories: usually observational studies; issues of external confounding factors Complexity of the construct & range in manifestations - Bushman and Anderson (effects of violent video games)

Group processes of aggression

Group polarization: when there is a group, and they are deciding how to react, the group tends to move toward the polar ends of the continuum of the response Groupthink: we react how the group does bc we want them to like it (results in making questionable decisions) deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehensions, and responsiveness to group norms

What is the personal cost for not helping?

Guilt

Evolutionary approach to helping

Helping exists because it aids in a survival of an individual and the ability to carry on their offspring Kin selection: the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

Frustration-Aggression hypothesis

Inability to achieve a goal = frustration Frustration may produce negative affect (anger) Frustration stimulates anger when one experiences negative affect --> aggressive drive Aggressive drive increases the probability that one will aggress (1 in 10000 to 5 in 10000)

Instinct theory/catharsis theory

Inherited predisposition to act aggressively We build up aggressive energy, which needs to be released Catharsis: release of aggression through aggression - Aggression catharsis: actually behaving aggressively - Symbolic catharsis: watching an aggressive event Has been refuted in empirical research

Wong et al. (2022) IMIC

Looks at integrated mediated intergroup contact model (IMIC) that can be used as a potential intervention strategy to reduce prejudice - there should be unification of parasocial and vicarious contact research programs - given that they both impact prejudice in similar ways

Three factors that predict liking and attraction

Proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity

Maximum differential vs. maximum benefit (prejudice and discrimination)

Results from ingroup bias Ex. our ingroup (xavier students) have the ability to get a 5000 dollar scholarship and our outgroup (wright state) have the ability to get a 4000 dollar scholarship OR our ingroup (xavier students) have the ability to get a 3000 dollar scholarship and our outgroup (wright state) have the ability to get a 1000 dollar scholarship Tendency to pick the second option bc it creates that maximum differential

Laguna et al. (2020) Literature review of intervention strategies to stimulate prosocial behavior

The study brings the literature on prosocial interventions together by identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing the current studies Collected 63 prosocial interventions between all 49 articles - most were effective Analyzed them in terms of setting, treatment format, trainer, duration, strategy, and effectiveness Not enough longitudinal studies Lot of studies measured prosocial behavior were measured with self-reports, which may have resulted in inaccurate results since people want to make themselves seen more prosocial than they actually are - especially relevant with kids Researchers used many different strategies for interventions, including **behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and others, some used multiple strategies at the same time

Psychological Definition of attraction

Universal need to belong, to be liked

Stereotype

a belief (not an attitude) about the personal attributes of a group of people

Spontaneous categorization (cognitive sources of prejudice)

a beneficial ratio of information to effort expanded - reduces cognitive load We have schemas for things, which influence our responses We rely on this categorization when we are - pressed for time - preoccupied - tired - emotionally aroused - too young (inexperienced) to appreciate diversity

altruism

a motive's to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interest

realistic group conflict theory (motivations behind prejudice)

assumption that when resources are limited groups are competing to get as much of those resources as possible Our goal is for our ingroup to secure as many of those resources as possible When these resources are blocked, we blame the outgroup, and this increases the probability of aggression

Theory of passionate love of attraction (two-factor theory)

attraction/love is the result of labeling physiological arousal

Evolutionary perspective of attraction

based on natural selection; we are all trying to reach the goal of gene survival and to produce healthy offspring

Self-esteem regulation model of aggression

based on social identity theory - striving for our group to be perceived favorably to outgroups unfavorable comparisons result in threat (e.g., sports team losing) Aggression is a response to that threat (e.g., verbal/physical aggression to outgroup)

Lott and Lott (Attraction study for the reinforcement approach)

child was reinforced for doing a good thing or not. When asked who they would like to take to the moon, the children who were reinforced were more likely to want to take the observer

Structuralist approach of group differences (prejudice and discrimination)

groups differ because they have access to different resources challenges that biological essentialism approach

Social exchange theory of altruism (Egoism)

human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

Aggression definition

infliction of an aversive stimulus on an unwilling victim with the intent to do harm

Social learning theory of aggression

learn by observing and imitating others Grounded in principles of operant conditioning esp relevant to kids

Reinforcement approach to attraction

liking will occur when an individual experiences reward in the presence of that person (includes removal of a bad thing)

aggressive cues theory

objects, settings, or persons previously or presently associated with aggression increase the probability that one will aggress conflicting with catharsis theory

Normative approach to helping (and the two norms)

our culture share norms in regards to when people should help Reciprocity norm: people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them in the past - idea of gaining 'social capital' Social responsibility norm: the belief that people will help those dependent upon them - common in collectivist cultures - good samaritan laws

social identity theory of prejudice

out motivations behind prejudice is to benefit our ingroup, which often comes at the cost of putting the outgroup at a disadvantage

Hostile aggression

reactive aggression; not thinking and just doing; only goal is to aggress

Instrumental aggression

the intent of your aggression accomplishing another goal aggressing against the other opponent to have their favorite player win

Attachment theory approach to attraction

the responsiveness of your primary caregiver is going to impact how you approach all of your future relationships