Social Psych Final

What is the difference between correlation and causation? Which type of research is necessary to make inferences about a causal relationship between two or more variables?

Correlation refers to a statistical relationship between two variables. When two variables are correlated, it means that they tend to vary together in a predictable way. For example, there might be a positive correlation between people's level of physical activity and their overall health. This means that people who are more physically active tend to be healthier, and people who are less physically active tend to be less healthy. Causation, on the other hand, refers to a relationship between two variables in which one variable causes the other. For example, smoking causes lung cancer. In a causal relationship, changes in one variable directly cause changes in the other variable. Just because two variables are correlated does not necessarily mean that one causes the other. Correlation does not imply causation. There may be other variables that are causing both variables to change, or the relationship between the variables may be purely coincidental. Experimental research is necessary to make inferences about a causal relationship between two or more variables.

In which ways can attitudes form?

Direct experience: Attitudes can be formed through personal experience with an object, person, or situation. For example, if you have a positive experience with a certain brand of soda, you may develop a positive attitude towards that brand. Socialization: Attitudes can be learned through the influence of family, peers, and other social agents. For example, if you grew up in a family that values environmentalism, you may develop a positive attitude towards conservation. Classical conditioning: Attitudes can be formed through the association of an object or situation with a positive or negative stimulus. For example, if you have a positive experience at a particular restaurant, the sight or smell of that restaurant may evoke positive feelings and influence your attitude towards it. Operant conditioning: Attitudes can be formed through rewards and punishments. For example, if you are rewarded for expressing a certain attitude, you may be more likely to continue to hold that attitude. Observational learning: Attitudes can be formed through the observation of others' behavior and attitudes. For example, if you see people around you expressing positive attitudes towards a certain political candidate, you may be more likely to adopt a similar attitude. Cognitive dissonance: Attitudes can be formed as a way to reduce cognitive dissonance, or the discomfort that arises when a person holds conflicting beliefs or values. For example, if you engage in a behavior that conflicts with your existing attitude, you may change your attitude to reduce the discomfort.

Why do people help, and why do they not help?

Empathy, perceived responsibility, diffusion of responsibility, Time constraints and perceived costs, Situational factors and ambiguity: The nature of the situation can influence helping behavior. When the situation is ambiguous or uncertain, individuals may be unsure about whether help is needed or how to provide it, leading to a lower likelihood of helping. Personal characteristics: Individual differences, such as personality traits, mood states, and demographic factors, can also affect helping behavior. For instance, individuals high in empathy or those with a strong sense of self-efficacy may be more inclined to help. People may be more inclined to help

What is the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes?

Explicit attitudes are conscious and deliberate evaluations that people can report using self-report measures. They reflect people's conscious beliefs and attitudes toward an attitude object. For example, if a person explicitly expresses a favorable attitude toward environmental conservation, this means they are consciously aware of their positive feelings toward the environment and its protection. Implicit attitudes, on the other hand, are unconscious and automatic evaluations that influence our thoughts and behavior without our awareness. They can be measured through indirect measures, such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) or evaluative priming tasks, which assess the strength of the association between concepts and evaluations. For example, an individual may have an implicit negative attitude toward people from a particular race or ethnicity, even though they explicitly report positive attitudes toward them.Explicit and implicit attitudes can sometimes be inconsistent, where individuals may consciously express one attitude but implicitly hold a different attitude toward the same object. This inconsistency can reflect social desirability bias, or it can reveal that people may not always have conscious access to their implicit attitudes.

What are potential affective consequences in case of actual-ought and actual-ideal discrepancies?

If there is a discrepancy between our actual self and ideal self we can experience sadness, depression, disapointment, and frustration. If there is a discrepancy between our actual self and our ought self, we can experience worry, anxiety, guilt, agitation.

"The good Samaritan" (Darley & Batson, 1973)

In the study, participants were seminary students who were asked to deliver a talk on the parable of the Good Samaritan. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: low hurry, intermediate hurry, and high hurry. In each condition, the participants were told that they had to give their talk at a location across campus. Along the way, they encountered a person slumped in a doorway, who appeared to be in distress. The researchers found that the level of hurry had a significant effect on helping behavior. Participants in the low hurry condition were much more likely to stop and offer assistance to the person in need than those in the high hurry condition. However, another factor played a role as well: personal responsibility. The researchers also varied the condition by telling some participants that they were late for their talk and that the person in the doorway was waiting for them, thus increasing their sense of personal responsibility. They found that participants in the high hurry condition who believed they were responsible for the person in the doorway were just as likely to stop and help as those in the low hurry condition. Overall, the study suggests that time pressure can significantly affect helping behavior, but personal responsibility can mitigate its effects. In situations where individuals feel responsible for helping, they are more likely to do so, even when under time pressure.

How are independent cultures different from interdependent ones? How does culture affect our self-view?

Independent cultures and interdependent cultures differ in their emphasis on the self and the individual versus the group and the collective. Independent cultures, which are prevalent in Western societies such as the United States, tend to value individualism, independence, and autonomy. In contrast, interdependent cultures, which are more common in Eastern societies such as Japan and China, tend to emphasize collectivism, interdependence, and social harmony. The culture we grow up in can influence how we view ourselves and our relationships with others. In independent cultures, people may view themselves as separate from others and strive to express their uniqueness and independence. In contrast, interdependent cultures may view themselves as connected to others and prioritize the needs of the group over their individual desires.

How can persuasion be prevented?

Inoculation theory: Inoculation theory suggests that exposing individuals to weak or refutable versions of persuasive arguments can strengthen their resistance to future persuasive attempts. By pre-exposing yourself to counter-arguments or weak versions of persuasive messages, you can build up resistance and immunity to persuasion techniques.

What are sources of our self-knowledge and how are our self-perceptions influenced by others?

Introspection: the process of looking inward and examining our own thoughts, feelings, and motives. Through introspection, we can gain insight into our own behaviors and the reasons behind them. Feedback from others: Other people can provide us with feedback about our behavior, attitudes, and personality, which can help us develop a better understanding of ourselves. Social comparison: This is the process of evaluating ourselves by comparing ourselves to others. By comparing ourselves to others, we can gain insight into our own strengths and weaknesses. Cultural influences: Our culture can shape our self-concept and influence how we view ourselves. For example, individualistic cultures tend to focus on the individual and their personal achievements, while collectivistic cultures tend to focus on the group and the individual's role within the group.

Why do we need methods in social psychology and in science in general?

Methods are essential in social psychology and science in general because they provide a systematic way to answer research questions and test hypotheses. Using scientific methods helps to ensure that researchers' personal biases and beliefs do not influence their findings. Replicability: The ability to replicate research findings is a hallmark of scientific research. Methods help to ensure that studies can be replicated, thereby strengthening the confidence in the findings.Precision: The use of methods enables researchers to collect precise and accurate data. This allows for more detailed analyses and more reliable conclusions. Generalizability: Social psychology seeks to understand human behavior and mental processes that are universal across individuals and cultures. The use of rigorous methods helps to ensure that findings can be generalized beyond the specific study population.Ethical considerations: Methods in social psychology help to ensure that research is conducted ethically.

What is the difference between proximal and distal influences? What are examples of both influences and how do they influence social situations?

Proximal influences refer to factors that are in close proximity to an individual, such as the people around them, while distal influences are more remote, such as societal norms and cultural values. Examples of proximal influences include the behavior of others and immediate environmental cues, while distal influences might include broader cultural values and historical events that shape societal norms. Both proximal and distal influences can significantly impact social situations, shaping individual behavior and attitudes.

Study by Tajfel, Billig, Bundy & Flament (1971)

"Minimal Group Paradigm" study. It aimed to investigate the minimal conditions required for intergroup discrimination to occur and how social identity plays a role in shaping such discrimination.The researchers randomly assigned participants (schoolboys) to two groups using a minimal and arbitrary categorization process. The participants were not acquainted with each other and had no preexisting relationships or reasons to favor one group over the other. The group assignments were made based on the participants' preferences for abstract art, labeled as Group A and Group B. In the study, the participants engaged in a series of tasks and activities that involved distributing rewards to members of their own group and the other group. Importantly, the distribution of rewards did not have any real consequences or benefits for the participants or the groups. The findings of the study were remarkable. Despite the arbitrary group assignments and absence of any meaningful differences between the groups, participants consistently exhibited in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. They allocated more rewards to members of their own group, even when it meant maximizing the overall differences between the groups. This study demonstrated that individuals readily form social identities and show a strong preference for their in-group, even when the group distinctions are trivial and have no basis in reality. It highlighted the psychological importance of social categorization and the role of social identity in shaping intergroup behavior, discrimination, and bias.

What is the difference between the ideal, ought, and actual self?

Actual Self: a person's representation of the attributes that someone (self or other) believes the they actually possess. Ideal self: a person's representation of the attributes that someone (self or other) would like the person ideally to possess - someone's aspirations, hopes, or goals for the person. Ought self: a person's representation of the attributes that someone (self or other) believes the person should or ought to possess - someone's rules, injunctions, or prescribed duties and obligations for the person.

How can attitudes be changed?

Attitudes can be changed through various persuasive communication techniques. Some of these techniques include: Source credibility: Attitudes are more likely to be changed if the source of the communication is perceived as credible or trustworthy. Message content: The content of the message itself can influence attitude change. Messages that are vivid, emotional, and contain strong arguments are more persuasive. Message recipient: The characteristics of the person receiving the message can also affect attitude change. For example, people who are highly involved with the issue at hand are more likely to be persuaded by strong arguments than those who are less involved. Social norms: People's attitudes are often influenced by the perceived social norms of their peers. Messages that emphasize the social norm can be effective in changing attitudes. Cognitive dissonance: People may change their attitudes to reduce cognitive dissonance, which occurs when they hold two conflicting beliefs or values. Fear appeals: Messages that evoke fear can be effective in changing attitudes, particularly when the recipient perceives a high level of personal vulnerability. Overall, attitude change is most likely to occur when multiple factors align, such as a credible source delivering a vivid and emotionally compelling message to a receptive audience.

What are the two ways in which we process information from our social environment and how do they differ?

Automatic processing and controlled processing. Automatic processing occurs without conscious awareness and is based on our past experiences and stereotypes. It is rapid and efficient but can also lead to errors in judgment and bias.Controlled processing, on the other hand, involves conscious effort and attention. It requires us to actively process and evaluate information, and can lead to more accurate judgments and less bias. Automatic is fast and unconscious and controlled is slow and conscious.

Self as a motivated agent timeline

By age 1: infants show a strong preference for observing and imitating the goal-directed, intentional behavior of others, rather than random behaviors (Woodward, 2009)By age 5-7: children become more planful, intentional, and systematic in their pursuit of valued goals (Sameroff & Haith, 1996). Schooling reinforces this shift: teachers and curricula place increasing demands on students to work hard and achieve success in particular, well-defined task domains

Study by Darley & Latané (1968)

Bystander Intervention Study or the Kitty Genovese Case:Kitty Genovese, a young woman who was murdered outside her apartment in New York City while several witnesses allegedly did not intervene or seek help. Darley and Latané sought to understand the psychological factors that contribute to the bystander effect. In their experiment, participants were placed in individual booths and connected to each other through an intercom system. They were led to believe that they were participating in a discussion about personal problems. Unknown to the participants, one of the confederates (a person working with the researchers) pretended to have a seizure and called for help. The findings of the study were consistent with the bystander effect. Participants were less likely to help when they believed there were other witnesses present. The presence of more bystanders reduced the likelihood of any one individual taking action. This effect was attributed to diffusion of responsibility, social influence, and the evaluation apprehension experienced by the participants.

What are dissonance reduction strategies?

Change the behavior: One way to reduce dissonance is to change the behavior so that it is consistent with the attitude. For example, if a person is trying to quit smoking but has a cigarette, they might quit smoking altogether to reduce the dissonance. Change the attitude: Another way to reduce dissonance is to change the attitude so that it is consistent with the behavior. For example, a person who has eaten a lot of junk food might convince themselves that junk food isn't really that bad for them. Add consonant cognitions: A person can also reduce dissonance by adding new beliefs or cognitions that are consistent with their behavior. For example, a person who cheats on a test might convince themselves that it was necessary in order to get into a good college. Minimize the importance: A person can reduce dissonance by minimizing the importance of the behavior or attitude. For example, a person who drives a gas-guzzling car might convince themselves that the environment isn't really that important. Seek social support: A person can also reduce dissonance by seeking social support from others who share their attitude or behavior. For example, a person who is trying to quit smoking might seek support from a group of former smokers. Overall, dissonance reduction strategies can help people to reduce the discomfort they feel when their attitudes and behaviors are in conflict. These strategies can be conscious or unconscious and can have a big impact on how people behave and what they believe.

What different attachment styles are there?

Secure Attachment: Individuals with a secure attachment style feel comfortable with intimacy and seek close, trusting relationships. They have confidence in themselves and others, and they believe they are worthy of love and support. Securely attached individuals tend to have positive self-esteem, effective emotion regulation, and good communication skills in relationships. Anxious-Preoccupied Attachment: Individuals with an anxious-preoccupied attachment style often have a heightened need for closeness and approval from their partners. They may worry about rejection or abandonment and may exhibit clingy or overly dependent behavior. Anxiously attached individuals often experience anxiety and self-doubt in relationships and may be overly sensitive to relationship cues. Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment: Individuals with an avoidant-dismissive attachment style tend to be emotionally distant and self-reliant. They prioritize independence and may avoid closeness or emotional intimacy. They may have difficulty expressing emotions and may prefer to keep relationships superficial. Avoidantly attached individuals often suppress or minimize their attachment needs and may appear emotionally detached. Fearful-Avoidant Attachment: Individuals with a fearful-avoidant attachment style exhibit a combination of anxious and avoidant tendencies. They desire close relationships but are also fearful of rejection and intimacy. They may experience conflicting emotions and struggle with trust. Fearfully attached individuals may display ambivalent behavior, alternating between seeking closeness and withdrawing from relationships.

How are we motivated to know ourselves? What different motives are there?

Self-assessment: our need to understand our strengths and weaknesses and evaluate our performance in various domains of life. Self-assessment allows us to set realistic goals, monitor our progress, and make necessary changes to achieve our desired outcomes. Self-verification: our need to confirm our existing self-concept. We seek out information that confirms our beliefs and attitudes about ourselves, and we tend to ignore or reject information that contradicts our self-concept. Self-verification motives may lead to biases in perception and interpretation of information. Self-enhancement: our desire to maintain or improve a positive view of ourselves. We seek out information that enhances our self-esteem, such as compliments or achievements, and avoid information that may damage our self-image. Self-enhancement motives may lead to self-serving biases, where we attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors. Self-improvement: our desire to improve our skills, knowledge, and abilities. We seek out feedback and information that can help us grow and develop, and we are open to changing our self-concept if it leads to personal growth.

How has social psychology defined self-awareness and the self-concept?

Self-awareness refers to the ability of an individual to introspect and become aware of their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In social psychology, the self-concept is defined as the collection of beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions that an individual has about themselves. The self-concept is a dynamic and multifaceted construct that includes both self-esteem and self-efficacy. We form our self concepts from the context we are born/raised in. Independent self-concept: Self as distinct, autonomous entity, separate from others, defined by distinct traits and preferences. Interdependent self concept: a person's identity is defined in part by their relationships with others and their social context, such as their family, community, or culture. This type of self-concept is more common in collectivistic cultures, where social harmony and cooperation are highly valued. People with an interdependent self-concept tend to prioritize the needs of their group or community over their own individual needs and goals. With the bridge photo: People with independent self concepts are more likely to see a photo of a bridge since this is a focal element. People with interdependent self concepts are more likely to focus on the forest since this is the scene/context

Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987)

Self-discrepancy theory, proposed by social psychologist E. Tory Higgins in 1987, explains how people experience negative emotions when they perceive a discrepancy between their actual self, ideal self, and ought self. However, when there is a discrepancy between the actual self and ideal self or ought self, the person experiences negative emotions like anxiety, guilt, and shame. This emotional discomfort motivates the individual to resolve the discrepancy, which can be done in various ways, such as changing behavior, adjusting goals, or altering beliefs about the self. Overall, self-discrepancy theory suggests that self-evaluation is not only based on actual achievements, but also on how individuals perceive themselves in relation to their own ideals and moral standards.

How can attitudes be measured?

Self-report measures: These are the most commonly used methods of measuring attitudes, where individuals are directly asked to report their attitudes towards a specific object, issue, or person. Self-report measures can be administered through questionnaires, surveys, interviews, or rating scales. Implicit measures: These measures assess attitudes that individuals may not be aware of or may not be willing to report. Examples of implicit measures include the Implicit Association Test (IAT) or the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP), which assess the automatic association between an object and a valenced attribute. Behavioral measures: These measures assess attitudes based on an individual's behavior in a specific situation. For example, if someone consistently attends events or engages in activities related to environmentalism, it can be inferred that they hold a positive attitude towards the environment. Physiological measures: These measures assess attitudes based on changes in physiological responses such as heart rate, skin conductance, or brain activity. Cognitive measures: These measures assess attitudes based on an individual's thought processes, such as their beliefs, values, or expectations related to an object or issue.

What are self-schemas?

Self-schemas are cognitive frameworks or structures that represent an individual's beliefs and experiences about themselves. They are mental representations of the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information. Self-schemas are shaped by an individual's past experiences, social interactions, and cultural norms. They are thought to be an important factor in shaping an individual's self-concept, as they influence the way an individual perceives, processes, and remembers information related to the self. For example, someone with a self-schema related to being athletic may be more likely to process information related to sports or physical activity in a way that confirms their self-schema. Similarly, someone with a self-schema related to being shy may be more likely to interpret social situations in a way that confirms their self-schema.

How do self-serving attributions work?

Self-serving attributions refer to the tendency of individuals to make attributions that serve their own self-interest or self-esteem. When people experience success, they tend to attribute it to their own abilities and efforts, whereas when they experience failure, they tend to attribute it to external factors beyond their control. Self-serving attributions can have positive effects on individuals' self-esteem and well-being. By attributing success to their own abilities, individuals can feel a sense of mastery and control over their lives. Conversely, by attributing failure to external factors, individuals can protect their self-esteem and avoid feelings of shame or guilt. if a person consistently blames external factors for their mistakes or failures, they may be perceived as lacking accountability or responsibility. Additionally, if a person takes credit for successes that were largely due to external factors (such as luck or help from others), they may be seen as arrogant or narcissistic.

Can attitudes predict behavior and if yes, what makes it more likely?

Some attitudes exert a powerful impact on our thinking and behavior, whereas others are largely inconsequential. Similarly, some attitudes are very firm, resistant to even the strongest challenges and persistent over long spans of time, but others are highly malleable. Strong attitudes are those that (a) persist over time, (b) resist change, (c) influence information processing, and (d) motivate and guide behavior

Survey Research

Survey research involves asking people about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through questionnaires or interviews. This type of research can provide large amounts of data and is relatively easy to administer, but it may be subject to response biases and difficulties in interpreting data.

What can we learn from the Robbers Cave experiment in terms of intergroup attitudes and relations?

The Robbers Cave experiment was a classic social psychology study conducted by Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues in the 1950s. The study aimed to investigate intergroup attitudes and relations by creating two groups of boys at a summer camp and then introducing competition between them. The results of the study demonstrated that competition between groups can lead to negative intergroup attitudes and behavior, including hostility and prejudice. The study also showed that positive intergroup attitudes and relations can be fostered through cooperation between groups towards common goals. Overall, the Robbers Cave experiment highlighted the importance of understanding the dynamics of intergroup attitudes and relations, and the potential impact of competition and cooperation on these dynamics. The study has been widely influential in social psychology and continues to inform research and theory on intergroup relations.

altruism-egoism debate

The altruism-egoism debate is a longstanding topic in psychology and philosophy that revolves around the question of whether human behavior is primarily motivated by selfless altruistic concerns or by self-interest and egoistic motives. Altruism suggests that individuals can act selflessly, putting the well-being of others before their own, without any expectation of personal gain or benefit. Altruistic behavior is seen as driven by genuine concern for others and a desire to promote their welfare, even at the expense of personal costs or sacrifices. Egoism, on the other hand, posits that all human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest. According to egoistic theories, individuals engage in prosocial behavior or help others because they expect to gain some form of personal benefit, whether it is social approval, reciprocal favors, a positive self-image, or an indirect benefit to oneself or one's genetic kin. Some argue that truly selfless acts of altruism do occur, pointing to examples of individuals risking their lives or well-being to help strangers without any apparent personal benefit. These acts are seen as evidence for genuine altruism. Others argue that even seemingly selfless acts can be explained by egoistic motives. They propose that acts of altruism may provide individuals with emotional rewards, social status, or a sense of moral satisfaction, all of which can be seen as indirect personal benefits.

What are the elements of persuasion?

The elements of persuasion, also known as the persuasive communication model, include the source, the message, the channel, and the audience. Source: The person or entity delivering the persuasive message. The source can influence the audience's perception of the message based on factors such as credibility, expertise, and attractiveness. Message: The content of the persuasive communication. The message should be clear, well-organized, and tailored to the audience's interests and needs. Channel: The medium through which the message is delivered. The channel can affect the message's impact based on factors such as the audience's preferences and the channel's reach and credibility. Audience: The people receiving the persuasive message. The audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values can influence their response to the message. The effectiveness of persuasion depends on how these elements are combined and presented to the audience. For example, a credible source delivering a well-crafted message through a preferred channel to an interested audience is more likely to be persuasive than a less credible source delivering a poorly constructed message through an unfamiliar channel to an uninterested audience.

Functionalist theory (Katz, 1960; Smith, 1956)

The functionalist theory of attitudes proposes that attitudes serve a specific purpose or function for the individual. There are four main functions of attitudes. According to functionalist theory, people will hold attitudes that serve these functions, and attitudes will change when they no longer serve their intended function.

What is the minimal group paradigm?

The minimal group paradigm is an experimental research approach used in social psychology to study intergroup behavior and attitudes. It investigates how individuals form preferences and make decisions based solely on minimal group categorizations, even when those categorizations are arbitrary or have no personal relevance. In the minimal group paradigm, participants are randomly assigned to different groups or conditions based on trivial criteria, such as a coin flip, a random number assignment, or the color of a shirt they are wearing. Once participants are assigned to different groups, researchers create situations to examine how these minimal group affiliations influence intergroup behavior, attitudes, and evaluations. Participants may engage in activities such as distributing rewards or resources, making judgments about ingroup and outgroup members, or engaging in competitive tasks.By using the minimal group paradigm, researchers have been able to demonstrate that even minimal group distinctions can lead to ingroup bias, outgroup derogation, and the formation of stereotypes and prejudices. This paradigm has been instrumental in understanding the psychological foundations of intergroup behavior and has contributed to our understanding of social identity, social categorization, and intergroup relations.

Stereotype content model (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002)

The model aims to explain the content and structure of stereotypes, specifically focusing on two fundamental dimensions: warmth (also referred to as communion) and competence. According to the SCM, stereotypes can be characterized along the dimensions of warmth and competence, which reflect different dimensions of social perception: Warmth/Communion: This dimension reflects the perception of a group's intentions and friendliness. It assesses whether a group is seen as warm, trustworthy, and having good intentions towards others. Competence: This dimension reflects the perception of a group's capabilities and effectiveness in achieving their goals. It assesses whether a group is seen as competent, intelligent, and capable of achieving success in relevant domains.The Stereotype Content Model proposes four quadrants based on the combination of high and low ratings on warmth and competence dimensions: High Warmth, High Competence: This quadrant represents groups that are perceived as both warm and competent. Examples of groups falling into this quadrant may include admired or high-status groups, such as professionals or in-group members. High Warmth, Low Competence: This quadrant represents groups that are perceived as warm but not competent. Such groups are often viewed with paternalistic stereotypes, where they are seen as well-intentioned but lacking in ability. Examples may include elderly individuals or people with disabilities. Low Warmth, High Competence: This quadrant represents groups that are perceived as competent but not warm. Such groups are often viewed with envious stereotypes, where they are seen as capable but untrustworthy or selfish. Examples may include wealthy individuals or successful professionals who are perceived as cold or aloof. Low Warmth, Low Competence: This quadrant represents groups that are

Why is the self a motivated agent?

The self can be viewed as a motivated agent because it is constantly seeking to maintain and enhance its sense of self-esteem, identity, and coherence. Self-esteem: the positive or negative evaluation of one's own worth, while identity refers to the sense of who we are as individuals, including our values, beliefs, and goals. Coherence: the need for our self-concept to be consistent and stable over time. These needs motivate individuals to engage in various behaviors and strategies to protect and enhance their self-concept. For example, people may seek out social comparison information, engage in self-affirmation, or engage in self-handicapping to protect their self-esteem and maintain a consistent sense of identity. Thus, the self can be seen as a motivated agent in that it is driven by underlying needs and goals that guide and shape our behavior and experiences.

Study by LaPiere (1934)

The study by LaPiere (1934) aimed to investigate the relationship between attitudes and behavior. LaPiere and a Chinese couple, traveled across America and visited different hotels and restaurants in 1930. At that time, Chinese people were subject to prejudice and discrimination in the US. However, the couple was able to secure lodging and food at every establishment they visited, even though many of these places had signs saying "No Chinese" on their doors. After their trip, LaPiere sent a questionnaire to each of the places they visited, asking whether they would accept Chinese customers. More than 90% of the respondents answered "no". This result was surprising, given that the couple had been welcomed in these establishments during their trip. The study showed that attitudes did not necessarily predict behavior, as the respondents' stated attitudes did not correspond with their actual behavior when they encountered a Chinese couple in person.

What is social psychology and how does it differ from other related fields like personality psychology and sociology?

The study of how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by social situations and the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others. It differs from other related fields like personality psychology and sociology in that it focuses specifically on how individuals behave and interact with others in social situations, rather than studying individual differences or large-scale social structures.

Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986)

The theory suggests that people derive part of their self-concept from the groups to which they belong, and that group membership creates in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. According to SIT, individuals categorize themselves and others into groups based on shared characteristics, such as race, gender, religion, or nationality. These groups then become a source of social identity and provide individuals with a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and social status. SIT suggests that people tend to view their own group (the in-group) more positively than other groups (out-groups), and this bias is known as in-group favoritism. The theory also suggests that people may engage in discriminatory behaviors towards out-groups in order to maintain a positive self-concept. This discrimination is known as out-group derogation. Overall, SIT emphasizes the importance of social context and group membership in shaping individual behavior and attitudes, and has been used to explain a wide range of social phenomena, including intergroup conflict, prejudice, discrimination, and social influence.

How do we arrive at different judgments and which biases underlie them?

These biases can lead to different judgments because they distort the way we perceive and interpret information. For example, if we have a confirmation bias, we may only seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them. This can lead us to make judgments that are not based on all the available information. Similarly, if we have a self-serving bias, we may attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors, which can distort our perceptions of ourselves and others. Overall, biases can cause us to arrive at different judgments because they affect the way we process and interpret information, and they can lead us to overlook or discount certain pieces of information, leading to incomplete or inaccurate judgments.

Self-promotion

This involves highlighting your positive qualities or accomplishments to make a good impression.

Ingratiation

This involves trying to get someone to like you by doing things that will make them feel good or by complimenting them

Intimidation

This involves using threats or aggression to control the way others perceive you.

Correlational Research

This type of research involves measuring the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. Correlational research can help identify patterns and relationships between variables, but it cannot establish causality.

Study by Levine, Prosser, Evans & Reicher (2005)

Waiting room with fire alarm going off. People are more likely to leave if there is someone else there.

How can shared social identities/group memberships influence helping behavior?

When individuals identify with a particular group or community, they may feel a sense of responsibility and obligation to help other members of that group. This sense of responsibility can arise due to a shared sense of identity, values, and norms within the group. Additionally, group members may feel a sense of solidarity and empathy towards one another, which can motivate helping behavior.In-group bias, the tendency to favor members of one's own group over members of other groups, can influence helping behavior. Individuals may be more likely to help those who belong to their in-group and may be less likely to help those who belong to out-groups.

Be able to describe two social psychological studies conducted in educational settings

Zander, Chen, & Hannover (2019): do students seek help in their in-group. Overall, students preferred mathematics helpers who belonged to their friendship clique, had the same gender, migration background status, and religious affiliation. Complementary analyses: When helpers were selected beyond boundaries of one's friendship clique these helpers were more competent than those nominated within the clique. "Big Fish Little Pond Effect" study conducted by Herbert W. Marsh and John W. Parker in 1984. In this study, researchers examined the impact of the social comparison context on students' academic self-perceptions and motivation. They investigated whether students' academic self-concept was influenced not only by their absolute level of achievement but also by the achievement levels of their peers (social comparison). The researchers gathered data from a large sample of high school students and analyzed their academic self-concepts in relation to their academic achievements and the average achievement level of their classmates. The findings showed that students who had higher academic achievement but were surrounded by peers with even higher achievement tended to have lower academic self-concepts compared to students with the same level of achievement but in a lower-achieving peer group. This study demonstrated that students' self-perceptions and motivation are influenced by social comparison processes, highlighting that individuals tend to compare themselves to peers who are at a similar level of achievement. The results of the study supported the idea that students' academic self-concepts are shaped not only by their own achievements but also by the context and the achievements of their peers.

Elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

a dual-process theory that describes how individuals process persuasive messages and make decisions about attitude change. The model suggests that there are two routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.Central Route: When individuals are motivated and have the ability to deeply process a persuasive message, they are more likely to engage in central route processing. This route involves careful evaluation of the message content, focusing on the logic, evidence, and arguments presented. In central route processing, people think critically and consider the message in depth, weighing the pros and cons to form their attitudes. Attitude change through the central route tends to be relatively stable and resistant to counterarguments. Peripheral Route: In contrast, when individuals lack motivation or the ability to engage in detailed message processing, they are more likely to rely on peripheral route processing. This route involves superficial cues or peripheral factors, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the source, the presence of catchy slogans or jingles, or the use of emotional appeals. Individuals may make judgments based on these peripheral cues without deeply considering the actual message content. Attitude change through the peripheral route tends to be less stable and more susceptible to counterarguments. the route of persuasion taken by an individual depends on their motivation and ability to process information. Factors such as personal relevance, involvement, knowledge, distractions, and time constraints influence whether people are more likely to use the central or peripheral route.

Attachment theory (Ainsworth, 1969; Bowlby, 1988)

a psychological framework that explains the nature and importance of early emotional bonds between infants and their caregivers. It explores how these attachment relationships shape an individual's social and emotional development throughout their lives.The theory also recognizes that attachment patterns can be influenced by various factors, including the responsiveness and sensitivity of caregivers, the child's temperament, and the overall social environment. Attachment theory has had a significant impact on developmental psychology and our understanding of the importance of early relationships in human development. It has practical implications for parenting, therapy, and interventions aimed at promoting healthy attachments and addressing attachment-related difficulties.

What are the relationships between helping and a) personality, b) social class, c) religion, and d) the cultural diversity in neighborhoods?

a) Personality and Helping: Personality traits can influence individuals' propensity to engage in helping behavior. Research suggests that certain personality traits, such as agreeableness, empathy, and altruism, are positively associated with helping behavior. Individuals who score high on these traits tend to be more compassionate, caring, and responsive to the needs of others, making them more likely to help. b) Social Class and Helping: Social class can influence helping behavior through various mechanisms. Studies have found that individuals from higher social classes tend to engage in more prosocial behaviors, including helping others. This may be due to factors such as greater resources, access to education and social networks, and exposure to social norms and values that promote altruism. However, it is essential to note that helping behavior can occur across all social classes, and individuals from lower social classes may also engage in significant acts of helping based on their own unique circumstances. c) Religion and Helping: Religion can play a significant role in shaping individuals' helping behavior. Many religious teachings and doctrines emphasize compassion, charity, and the importance of helping others. Research has shown that individuals who identify strongly with a religious faith or participate in religious activities are more likely to engage in helping behavior, such as volunteering or donating to charitable causes. Religious communities often provide social support networks and opportunities for organized acts of helping, reinforcing prosocial behavior. d) Cultural Diversity in Neighborhoods and Helping: The relationship between cultural diversity in neighborhoods and helping behavior is complex and can vary depending on various factors. Research suggests that individuals living in culturally d

Attitude inoculation (McGuire, 1964)

aimed at making individuals resistant to persuasive attempts by exposing them to weak or diluted versions of persuasive messages. The concept is based on the idea that individuals can develop immunity to persuasive influence by being exposed to weakened arguments or counterarguments, which helps strengthen their existing attitudes and defenses against future persuasion attempts. The process of attitude inoculation involves three main steps: Forewarning: Individuals are informed in advance about the upcoming persuasive communication or the specific arguments they may encounter. This forewarning raises awareness and prepares them for the upcoming persuasion attempt. Inoculation: Individuals are exposed to weak versions of the persuasive message. These weak versions typically present arguments that challenge their existing attitudes or beliefs but are not strong or convincing enough to induce significant attitude change. This exposure to weakened arguments allows individuals to develop counterarguments and rehearse their own responses. Refutational preemption: After exposure to the weakened persuasive message, individuals are then presented with strong counterarguments that directly refute the weak arguments they were initially exposed to. This refutation strengthens their existing attitudes and provides them with effective counterarguments to defend against future persuasive attempts.

value-expressive function of attitudes

attitudes can help us express our core values and beliefs. For example, if we have a strong belief in social justice, we may develop a positive attitude towards activism and social change.

Social-adjustive function of attitudes

attitudes can help us fit in and be accepted by our social groups. For example, if our friends have a negative attitude towards a particular activity, we may develop a similar negative attitude to avoid social rejection.

Utilitarian function of attitudes

attitudes can help us obtain rewards and avoid punishment. For example, if we have a positive attitude towards studying, we are more likely to engage in it and receive good grades, which can lead to rewards such as scholarships or better job opportunities.

knowledge function of attitudes

attitudes can help us organize and simplify our understanding of the world. For example, if we have a positive attitude towards environmentalism, we may use this attitude to help us filter and categorize information related to environmental issues.

ego-defensive function of attitudes

attitudes can help us protect our self-esteem and self-worth. For example, if we have failed at a task, we may develop a negative attitude towards that task to justify our failure and protect our self-esteem.

What is the difference between autonomy- and dependency-oriented help seeking and help-giving? What different kind of consequences can they have for the self and in intergroup status relations?

autonomy-oriented help seeking and help-giving prioritize self-reliance and independence, potentially leading to positive self-perception and higher status in intergroup relations. Conversely, dependency-oriented help seeking and help-giving involve a greater reliance on others, which can impact self-perception and may be associated with lower status in certain intergroup contexts.Autonomy-Oriented Help Seeking and Help-Giving: Autonomy-oriented help seeking and help-giving focus on maintaining self-reliance and independence. Individuals who adopt this approach prefer to handle problems on their own and seek help only when necessary. When they do seek help or offer assistance, they often do so with the aim of preserving their autonomy and competence.Consequences for the Self: Individuals who adopt an autonomy-oriented approach may experience a sense of self-competence and self-esteem. They view themselves as capable and independent problem solvers. Seeking help only when necessary can reinforce their belief in their own abilities and preserve a positive self-image. Consequences in Intergroup Status Relations: In intergroup settings, autonomy-oriented help seeking and help-giving may be associated with higher status and perceived competence. Individuals who are seen as self-reliant and competent may be considered more capable leaders or higher-status members within a group.Dependency-Oriented Help Seeking and Help-Giving: Dependency-oriented help seeking and help-giving involve a greater willingness to seek and provide assistance, even for minor challenges. Individuals who adopt this approach feel more comfortable relying on others and actively seek support and guidance. They are also more likely to offer help to others without expecting immediate reciprocity. Consequences for the Self: Individuals who adopt a dependenc

Study by Mita, Dermer & Knight (1977)

conducted a study to investigate the role of familiarity in attractiveness judgments. They had participants rate the attractiveness of three types of photographs: mirror-reversed images of themselves, their friends, and strangers. They found that participants rated their mirror-reversed images as less attractive than their actual photos, while they rated their friends and strangers as equally attractive regardless of the orientation of the photograph. This suggests that people prefer images of themselves that are familiar to them, and that familiarity can influence attractiveness judgments.

Empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson, 1991)

empathy plays a crucial role in motivating altruistic behavior. when individuals feel empathy towards someone in need, they are more likely to engage in selfless acts of helping, driven by genuine concern for the well-being of others. The empathy-altruism hypothesis challenges the egoistic perspective that suggests all helping behavior is ultimately motivated by self-interest. Instead, it proposes that empathy can elicit a genuine altruistic motivation to help others, even when no personal rewards or benefits are expected. Two Types of Motivation: Egoistic motivation: This motivation stems from a focus on self-interest and is driven by the desire to reduce one's own personal distress or discomfort. It involves helping others to alleviate one's own negative emotions rather than to genuinely promote the welfare of the person in need.Altruistic motivation: This motivation is characterized by genuine concern for the well-being of others, without any expectation of personal gain. It involves helping others because of a deep empathic response and a desire to improve the situation or alleviate suffering.

Negative-state-relief model (Cialdini, 1987)

explains how people's helping behavior can be motivated by their desire to alleviate their own negative emotional states. According to this model, individuals are more likely to engage in helping behavior when they experience negative emotions or distress. individuals have an innate drive to reduce their negative emotional states and seek relief from distress. When faced with negative emotions such as sadness, guilt, or empathy for someone in need, people are motivated to engage in prosocial behavior as a way to alleviate their own negative feelings.

Intergroup Helping as Status Relations Model (Nadler, 1997; 2002)

focuses on how intergroup dynamics and status relations influence helping behavior between different social groups. This model suggests that helping behavior can serve as a means for group members to establish and maintain their status within intergroup contexts.The Intergroup Helping as Status Relations Model suggests that helping behavior can be motivated by status-related factors. High-status groups may engage in intergroup helping to maintain and reinforce their elevated position, while lower-status groups may receive assistance as a way to reinforce the status hierarchy and gain acceptance. it emphasizes that helping behavior can also be influenced by status-related considerations and intergroup dynamics.

Realistic group conflict theory (Sherif & Wood Sherif, 1954)

highlights the role of competition for limited resources in fostering intergroup conflict, negative attitudes, and stereotypes. It suggests that intergroup conflict can be mitigated by creating conditions that promote cooperation, shared goals, and positive intergroup contact. The theory has been influential in understanding and addressing intergroup conflicts and has broader implications for understanding prejudice, discrimination, and social identity.

Self-verification

individuals selectively attend to and recall information that is consistent with (and therefore verifies) their self-views. e.g., people with negative self-views: spend more time studying negative rather than positive feedback about themselves, remember negative feedback better, and prefer to interact with others who are likely to provide negative rather than positive feedback

Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957)

individuals strive to maintain consistency and reduce the discomfort that arises when they hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. According to Festinger, when individuals encounter information or experiences that conflict with their existing beliefs or attitudes, they experience a state of cognitive dissonance. This dissonance creates psychological tension and discomfort, motivating individuals to reduce or eliminate the inconsistency. People need cognitive consistency. Three elements of Cognitive Dissonance theory: Inconsistency: Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a perceived inconsistency between two cognitions. Cognitions can include beliefs, attitudes, values, opinions, or behaviors. Discomfort: The experience of cognitive dissonance leads to psychological discomfort and tension. This discomfort arises from the discrepancy between the conflicting cognitions and the desire to maintain internal consistency. Dissonance reduction: To reduce the discomfort, individuals engage in cognitive processes aimed at restoring consistency. 3 strats: changing beliefs or attitude, acquire new information, minimize the importance.

Field Research

involves studying people in their natural environments. This type of research can provide valuable insights into how people behave in real-world situations, but it may be difficult to control for extraneous variables.

Why is replication important? What are the two types of replication and what do we understand under the "replication crisis" in social psychology? What are reasons for non-replication?

it allows researchers to test the reliability and generalizability of previous findings. There are two types of replication: direct replication and conceptual replication. Direct replication involves exactly replicating the procedures of a previous study to see if the same results are obtained. Conceptual replication, on the other hand, involves using different methods to test the same underlying hypothesis or research question.The "replication crisis" in social psychology refers to the phenomenon of many findings in social psychology failing to replicate when attempted to be replicated by other researchers. This crisis has been attributed to a variety of factors, including issues with research design and analysis, publication bias, and low statistical power. There are several reasons for non-replication. One possibility is that the original study's findings were simply a chance result, and the non-replication is due to random variation. Another possibility is that there were differences in the samples or experimental procedures between the original study and the replication attempt that affected the results. It is also possible that there were errors or biases in the original study's methods or data analysis, which were not detected or corrected in the replication attempt. Finally, there may be contextual factors or other unknown variables that affect the relationship between the variables being studied, making it difficult to replicate the original findings.

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

Observational Research

observing and recording people's behavior without interfering with it. This type of research can provide rich data on behavior, but it can also be subject to observer biases and difficulties in interpreting behavior. Too much information

What are attitudes and of which components are they comprised of?

overall evaluation of an object along a positive-negative dimension that is based on cognitive, affective, and behavioral information, classify objects in the environment for the purposes of action. Components: affect, cognition, and behavior. Affect: how much someones likes or dislikes an attitude object. Cognition: thoughts that typically reinforce a person's feelings, including knowledge and beliefs about the attitude object as well as associated memories and images. Behavior: the tendency to either approach or avoid an attitude object. Attitudes vary in Valence (positive, neutral, negative) and Strength (i.e attitude toward science (0 = not at all, 7= strongly))

Mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968)

people tend to like things that they have been exposed to repeatedly, even if they are not consciously aware of having seen or experienced those things before. This effect has been observed in a variety of contexts, including preferences for words, sounds, shapes, and even other people. The mere exposure effect is thought to be a result of the brain's tendency to prefer things that are easy to process and recognize, and to associate positive feelings with familiar things.Ex: Participants were told that the experiment dealt with the learning of foreign languages. 10 Chinese-like characters appeared on a screen for 2 sec. but varied in the total number they were presented. Participants were then told that the characters stood for adjectives, and that their task was to guess their meaning on a good-bad scale, i.e., whether they thought the symbol represented an adjective indicative of something positive or negative. Zajonc found a positive linear correlation between exposure frequency and liking: the more the symbol had been presented to the participants, the more positive were their feelings toward it. Highly replicated.

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954)

proposes that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves and their opinions, abilities, and beliefs by comparing themselves to others. According to this theory, we compare ourselves to others in order to evaluate our own abilities, to validate our beliefs, and to manage our self-esteem. Festinger suggested that there are two types of social comparisons: upward social comparison and downward social comparison. Upward social comparison involves comparing ourselves to someone who is better than us in a particular area. This can lead to feelings of envy or inadequacy. Downward social comparison involves comparing ourselves to someone who is worse than us in a particular area. This can lead to feelings of superiority or complacency. Overall, social comparison theory suggests that people engage in social comparison to gain information about themselves and their abilities, to manage their self-esteem, and to cope with stressful situations.

What is prosocial behavior, and how is it different from helping and altruism?

prosocial behavior is a broad term that encompasses actions aimed at benefiting others or society. Helping behavior is a subset of prosocial behavior that involves providing assistance or support to others. Altruism, on the other hand, is a specific form of prosocial behavior driven by selfless concern for the welfare of others, without any expectation of personal gain.

What is social identity theory about?

psychological framework that seeks to understand how individuals develop and maintain a sense of self in relation to the groups they belong to. The theory explores the cognitive and motivational processes that underlie the formation and significance of social identities. individuals strive for positive social identity and self-esteem by identifying with and positively differentiating their ingroups from outgroups. This can lead to intergroup bias, prejudice, and discrimination. The theory also emphasizes the role of social context in shaping social identities and intergroup dynamics.

Experimental Research

researchers manipulate one or more variables to observe their effects on other variables. This type of research allows researchers to establish causal relationships between variables, but it may be difficult to generalize findings to real-world situations.

What are stereotypes, and how are they different from prejudice and discrimination?

stereotypes involve generalized beliefs about a group, prejudice involves negative attitudes or emotions towards a group, and discrimination involves differential treatment or actions against a group. Stereotypes can contribute to prejudice, and prejudice can manifest in discriminatory behavior. However, it is important to note that not all individuals who hold stereotypes are necessarily prejudiced, and not all individuals who are prejudiced engage in discriminatory behavior. These concepts are complex and multifaceted, and their relationships can vary depending on the specific context and individuals involved.

Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)

suggests that individuals infer their attitudes, beliefs, and emotions based on their behavior and the context in which the behavior occurs. According to this theory, people do not have direct access to their own attitudes and instead use cues in their environment to determine their attitudes. For example, if someone volunteers to help a friend move to a new apartment, they may infer that they have a positive attitude toward their friend, even if they did not consciously hold that attitude before the act of helping. Similarly, if someone attends a political rally, they may infer that they have a strong political affiliation with the group, even if they did not hold such an affiliation before attending the rally. Self-perception theory suggests that people are motivated to understand their own attitudes and beliefs, and that they use the same processes of observation, interpretation, and inference that they use to understand others.

Self-evaluation maintenance model (Tesser, 1988)

suggests that our self-esteem is influenced by the performance and achievements of people we feel connected to. The model suggests that there are two factors that affect our self-esteem: reflection and social comparison. The reflection factor is based on the idea that our self-esteem is boosted when people we are connected to excel in areas that we value. For example, if our best friend wins an award for writing, we might feel proud of our friend's achievement and experience a boost in our own self-esteem, since we associate ourselves with our friend. The social comparison factor is based on the idea that our self-esteem is threatened when people we are connected to outperform us in areas that we value. For example, if a sibling receives a higher grade on a test we both took, we might feel jealous and experience a decrease in our own self-esteem, since we compare ourselves to our sibling. Overall, the SEM model suggests that our self-esteem is influenced by both our own performance and the performance of others we feel connected to, and that our self-esteem can be boosted or threatened depending on how we compare ourselves to those around us.

Distinctiveness hypothesis (McGuire & Padawer-Singer, 1987)

suggests that people are motivated to view themselves as unique and distinct from others in their social environment. According to this hypothesis, people strive to identify and highlight the ways in which they differ from others, in order to maintain a positive and distinct sense of self. The distinctiveness hypothesis is based on the idea that people have a fundamental need to feel unique and special. This need is thought to be related to our desire for self-esteem and our sense of personal identity. By emphasizing our unique qualities and characteristics, we can feel more confident in our own abilities and more secure in our sense of self. Research has shown that people do indeed tend to emphasize their unique qualities when describing themselves or comparing themselves to others. For example, people may highlight their special talents or accomplishments, or emphasize the ways in which they differ from others in terms of their interests or beliefs. This is especially pronounced in individualistic cultures.

Optimal margin theory (Baumeister, 1989)

suggests that people have a desire for self-esteem and that this desire is not only for high self-esteem but for optimal self-esteem. Optimal self-esteem is achieved when there is a small gap between one's actual and ideal self. This gap is known as the "optimal margin." According to Baumeister, people maintain their self-esteem by trying to stay within this optimal margin. If a person's performance exceeds their ideal self, they may experience a temporary increase in self-esteem. However, if their performance falls short of their ideal self, they may experience a decrease in self-esteem. Baumeister suggests that people may engage in various strategies to maintain their optimal margin, including setting realistic goals, seeking feedback from others, and comparing themselves to others who are similar but not better in a relevant domain. The theory also suggests that people may be more likely to engage in risky behaviors or engage in self-handicapping behaviors if they feel that their self-esteem is threatened.

Regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997)

suggests that people have two distinct self-regulatory orientations: promotion focus and prevention focus. Promotion focus involves pursuing positive outcomes and opportunities, with a focus on achieving gains and fulfilling hopes and aspirations. People with a promotion focus tend to be motivated by the possibility of success and achievement, and are more willing to take risks and explore new opportunities. Prevention focus, on the other hand, involves avoiding negative outcomes and potential losses. People with a prevention focus tend to be motivated by the possibility of failure or avoiding negative outcomes, and are more cautious and risk-averse.

what is the self-reference effect?

the phenomenon where people tend to remember information better when it is related to themselves compared to when it is not. This effect suggests that our memory is better for information that is processed in relation to our own self-concept.

fundemental attribution error

the tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal factors (their personality, character, etc.) rather than external factors (their situation, environment, etc.).

Self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (our own abilities, skills, etc.) and our failures to external factors (bad luck, other people's actions, etc.).

Availability heuristic

the tendency to rely on easily accessible information when making judgments, rather than seeking out more complete or accurate information

Confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them.

What are different tactics of self-presentation/impression management?

the ways in which people attempt to control how others perceive them. Self-monitoring: an individual's ability to regulate and adjust their behavior in social situations based on external cues and social norms. People high in self-monitoring are generally more attentive to situational cues and are skilled at adapting their behavior to fit the demands of different social contexts, while those low in self-monitoring tend to be less sensitive to social cues and display more consistent behavior across situations. Self-enhancement: Individuals engage in self-enhancement tactics to present themselves in a positive light. This can involve highlighting their strengths, achievements, and positive qualities while downplaying or minimizing their weaknesses or failures. Ingratiation: Ingratiation involves using flattery, compliments, or other forms of positive behavior to gain favor or acceptance from others. People may engage in ingratiation by offering compliments, expressing agreement, or engaging in behaviors aimed at pleasing others. Self-promotion: Self-promotion involves actively promoting one's own abilities, achievements, and expertise to establish credibility and status. This can include showcasing accomplishments, sharing relevant knowledge, or highlighting skills and qualifications.