Social Psych Textbook Chapters 1-5, Social psych exam 4, Social psych exam 3, Social psych Exam 2, Social Psych exam 1
According to the affect-as-information hypothesis, people judge something as good or bad by asking themselves which of the following questions?
"How do I feel about it?"
A correlation coefficient can range from
+1.0 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.0 (a perfect negative correlation).
What are the consequences of breaking scripts?
- confusion and searching happen making you susceptable to suggestion
The way we were reguarding race
- explicit - hostile - blatant - generalized
Social Proof Tactics
- fitting in vs standing out
Consistency Tactics
- foot in the door - lowballing - bait and switch - labeling technique
What factors increase or decrease the likelihood of post-decision dissonance? (Be sure to write down how and why they effect dissonance.)
- importance of decision - difficulty of decision - irreversibility of decision
I may be uncomfortable around you...
- sit further away - speak to you less - smile at you less - stumble over words more - Hesitate
What are different types of conspiracy theories?
-Government malfeasance -Malevolent global conspiracies -Control of Information -Extraterrestrial cover-up -Personal well-being
It just feels cold...
-Recent work by Zhong and Leonardelli (2008) found that excluded individuals perceive the room as cooler and that they desire warmer drinks. -Ijzerman and colleagues (2012) found literal changes in bodily temperature: Being excluded in an online ball tossing game led to lower finger temperatures (Study 1), while the negative affect typically experienced after such social exclusion is alleviated after holding a cup of warm tea (Study 2).
What are the five laws of attraction?
-Reciprocity -Familiarity -Proximity -Similarity -Attractiveness -Arousal
Cognitive coping identifies several kinds of beliefs that need to be bolstered or restored in the wake of trauma, including the following:
-Reevaluate the trauma using downward comparison, in which people compare themselves and their situations to other people who are worse off. -Restore self-esteem. -Restore belief in control. -Find positive changes resulting from the trauma.
What is the conspiracy effect?
-creates a distrust in government - creates distrust in science - less likely to help others
"Pulling" tactics
-less obvious and not direct - Cialdini's 6 rules of social influence
What are ways to reduce cognitive dissonance?
1) Change one or the other cognition 2) Make one cognition more important than the other 3) When cognition are discrepent with behavior, change behavior 4) When cognition is dissonant with behavior, change cognition
At what age do humans obtain an objective sense of self?
18 months
social psychology began to come into its own as a field in the ________ and _______
1950s and 1960s
At what age do humans first exhibit amygdala activation to the subconscious exposure to the faces of strangers of different racial outgroups?
3 months
The size of a dolphin's brain is approximately 1603 cc on average. The dolphin's neocortex is approximately 1279 cc. What is the dolphin's neocortex ratio?
3.94
The announcement of the results of paternity tests on television talk shows ("you ARE the baby's daddy") has become a cliché. However, DNA tests show that _____ of individuals are not biologically related to the man they believe is their father, because their mother presumably engaged in extramarital sex.
5% to 15%
Before you go any further with your plans for joining an online dating service, you want to find out how accurate online profiles are. A study checked online claims against actual measurements and found that _____ percent of the dating profiles contained lies about height, weight, or age.
81
A statement that suggests a specific relationship between an IV and DV is what?
A hypothesis
You are creating a video for a newlywed couple by asking the guests at their reception to give some relationship advice. Who, from a social psychological point of view, is the most accurate?
A person who says that relationships start out good and then stay the same or get worse
coercive power
A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply
Whataboutism" is....?
A propaganda technique A form of false equivalency An attempt to misdirect from actual issue
Authority
A reliable, respected source—someone with knowledge.
Accusations in a mirror
Accusation in a Mirror: "They are the real threat!"
ABC triad
Affect (how people feel inside), Behavior (what people do), Cognition (what people think about)
What are the components of the ABC triad?
Affect, Behavior, Cognition
What are the ABC's of psychology?
Affect- emotion Behavior- what you do Cognition- What you think
Distortion of Consequences
After people engage in deplorable acts, they can ease their conscience by ignoring or distorting the harm caused by their conduct.
Under high levels of arousal, what answer on a four-item multiple-choice test are students least likely to consider?
Answer D
Keeping with the last question, which theory supports why anger travels so well: A. Valence-Arousal-Dominance theory B. Emotional Contagion C. Positive-Negative Asymmetry effect D. All of the above, and that is why anger (over other emotions) travels well because it essentially "checks" multiple boxes
Answer is D
Which of the following emotions motivates people to plan ahead and avoid taking unnecessary risks?
Anxiety
Our Brain
Bastian & Haslam, 2010 -When people were ostracized they judged themselves and those who ostracized them as less human (Studies 1 and 2), and believed they were viewed as less human by the perpetrators (Study 2).
Aversive racists are most likely to:
Be low in bias awareness
Children are rejected by their peers for three main reasons:
Because they are aggressive or violent. Because they are withdrawn or socially isolated. Because they are different from other children in some way.
The equation B = f(P,E) means what?
Behavior is a function of the interaction of the person and the environment
Keeping with the last question, if not corrected (e.g., the students are not told the groups and their differences are fabricated) Dr. Sinclair would also expect that the students in the front seats would come to perform better and those in the back would do worse. This is consistent with:
Behavioral confirmation Self-fulfilling prophecies Stereotype threat
What does research on anger management conclude?
Both venting and exercising increase arousal and can therefore increase one's anger.
Our Feelings
But also higher progesterone (affiliation motive hormone) - Maner et al., 2010 Dekkers et al., 2015; Moor et al., 2010 For belonging For positive self-regard For control For trust For meaningful existence ... For survival
Colette and Mauro lost their home and everything in it in a flash flood. Because they did not have flood insurance, they are basically starting over from scratch. Based on what is known about affective regulation strategies, you would expect that _____.
Colette, as a woman, would be more likely to ruminate about the problems
After he had an accident at work last year, Lorenzo sued his employer for negligence. He claims his employer doesn't care about Mexican American employees and feels he is entitled to a large financial settlement. His friends have already helped by donating money, and members of his church regularly stop by to help him and his family. During conversations, Lorenzo only talks about the accident, its emotional and financial impact, and his pending court case. Which concept best applies to this scenario?
Competitive victimhood
Consummate Love:
Complete love has all 3 elements in balance.
Keeping with the last question, this type of tactic - bait and switch - is effective because it plays on our need for _________.
Consistency
Bias blind spot
DEFINITION: Despite awareness of cognitive biases, individuals do not believe that their judgments are affected by these "errors." EXAMPLE: People will judge their "above average" ratings as accurate despite knowing that people on average rate themselves above average (and yet it is a statistical impossibility for the majority to be above average -or else "above average" is the new average).
First instinct fallacy
DEFINITION: The belief that it is better not to change one's first answer even if one starts to have doubts about the accuracy of that answer (in part driven by the simulation heuristic where one can imagine feeling worse if they abandoned their first instinct and turned out wrong, than if they stuck with their "instincts" and it turned out wrong). EXAMPLE: On a multiple choice test, a student quickly chooses "B" as the correct answer but upon review thinks "D" might in fact be a better fit. Still he doesn't change it, trusting that his "gut" knows something he didn't.
illusion of control
DEFINITION: The false belief that one can somehow exert control over random or chance events. EXAMPLE: When rolling dice in craps, people tend to throw harder for high numbers and softer for low numbers.
What is DWB? (and racial profiling) Evidence? Consequences (more or less arrests)?
Driving while black because blacks are pulled over or searched more often. There was a study that showed how more likely they are to be frisked or searched. This leads to less arrests.
Where do racial disparities exist?
Drug sentencing, pulled over, heavier sentences, charged with small charges
Ellen just broke up with Portia, because Ellen was tired of Portia's insistence that they keep separate bank accounts and track expenditures in order to ensure that each member of the couple put in an equal amount. Ellen and Portia had a(n) _______________ relationship.
Exchange
Rejection Triggers...
Excluded Rejected
The following is an example of what cognitive error: "people who exercise regularly underestimate the number of other people who also exercise regularly".
False uniqueness effect
Keeping with the last question, the mere exposure effect on attraction is a prime example of the _____________ law of attraction.
Familiarity
Conspiracy theories
Fanciful or irrational theories about power, the existence of which marks places in the political system where segments of the population feel powerless.
Consider the following self-description: "It's important to me to make others happy. I work hard to cooperate with others, and seldom get into arguments. My friends are more important to me than my personal successes." A(n) ________ is most likely to have provided such a self-description.
Female doctor living in Beijing
At least three main types of goals guide how people think:
Find the right answer to some problem or question. Reach a particular, preferred conclusion. Reach a pretty good answer or decision quickly
When Milgram used a cover story, deliberately misleading the participant about the rationale for the experiment This is an example of ___________
First order deception
Next time, Mark needs Andrea to hide something for him, it's a little bigger than the small stash of stolen jewelry. This time it is a car. She resists, but he reminds her that last time she let him hide stuff at her place, why not this time? Mark is employing which persuasion tactic?
Foot-In-The-Door Technique
Which of the following statements about rejection is FALSE?
Having a lot of friends buffers excluded youth against the negative effects of peer social exclusion.
Some species have bigger brains (for their body weight) than other species. What do big-brained species primarily use their brains for?
Having larger and more complex social structures
According to self-determination theory, I will persist on an activity more if:
If I am intrinsically motivated
Ron looks at a television advertisement and admires the physique of the male model. As a result, he develops a negative body perception due to his discrepancies with the standard shown on TV. Under which circumstances is he likely to work hard to improve his body?
If he believes he can achieve the standard in a reasonable time
Keeping with the last question, given Jessie is prone to the "mania" love style, which type of love is she most likely to experience when first falling for someone
Infatuation
Liking:
Intimacy without (sexual) passion or commitment, friends.
What is conformity?
It's the concept that values tend to move towards surroundings.
According to the tenets of self-evaluation maintenance theory, which of the following people is most likely to distance themselves from a friend who outperforms them on their psych exam:
Jaden who is uncertain he is doing well in psych, and really wants to be a psychologist.
According to the Investment model (including the latest revision where social network norms are the fourth predictor), which couple is in the most danger of demise:
James & Juanita who have been together less than 3 years, have separate bank accounts, no kids, friends who disapprove of their relationship, but are really highly satisfied
What theory predicts that emotion is primarily determined by how an event in the environment is interpreted or evaluated?
James-Lange
Which theory of emotion predicts that we are angry because we hit someone?
James-Lange
Seven-year-old Albert tells his mother she is the most loving mother and best cook in the world before asking her to "please, make some chocolate chip cookies." Which technique is Albert using?
Labeling
Based on the principles of implicit egotism, Sally is more likely to:
Like salamanders and date a guy named Saul
What is the difference between love and lust?
Love is an act of will that consists of preferring, in a constant manner, the good of others to the good of oneself. Lust is sexual desire apart from God's love. A selfish desire that seeks one's own pleasure at the expense of another
What dimension of the "dark triad of personality" is related to emotional intelligence?
Machiavellianism Narcissism Psychopathy
Which of the following is the conclusion of research evidence regarding emotional expression in males and females?
Males and females don't differ much in how emotional they are.
Some stereotypes about how men and women cope with emotions are true, while others are myths. Which statement about affect regulation is the most accurate?
Men are more likely than women to rely on humor to cop
Men and women have similar emotional lives.
Men may be slightly more emotional than women, but women may feel more willing to report their emotions and claim to have stronger feelings.
Mimi just won the lottery in the state where she lives. What is her emotional response likely to be over time?
Mimi will be very happy at first, but she will later return to her level of happiness before she won the lottery.
In the context of emotional intelligence, which best describes elements of the "dark tetrad" of personality?
Narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism
Non-love:
No sense of intimacy, passion, or commitment(not one of the 7 forms as it is NOT love)
Most social psychological studies use participants from which continent?
North America
Which genetic mutation would be most likely to persist in a population?
One that increases survival of both genders and renders them more fertile but increases risk of disability in old age
Schachter and Singer proposed that emotion has two components.
One, the bodily state of arousal, is the same in all emotions. The other, the cognitive label, is different for each emotion.
What is inhibited when newly in love and why does it matter?
Orbitofrontal Cortex which inhibits our ability to be judgemental because it is i. charge of critical thinking
Brain scans of couples first falling in love has confirmed that couples who stay together show decreased activation of the _______________________, which is associated with ______________.
Orbitomedial prefrontal cortex...criticism & judgement
Meredith, Pablo, Vani, and Bill all auditioned for MSU Idol and did not make the cut. Which person commits the actor-observer bias?
Pablo: "The other losers have no talent. Me? I guess the judges don't appreciate a good baritone."
What term when translated means "love of wisdom"?
Philosophy
Passion:
Physical attraction, sexual desire, and the motivation to pursue a relationship.
What are rebound effects?
Polar opposite of effects of a psychoactive drug. Seen during withdrawal of many substances
Jabari is mortified when he spills hot coffee on his new boss during his first conference meeting. Social neuroscience would predict activation in which part of his brain?
Pregenual anterior cortex
When his much-loved, usually indulgent grandmother refuses to give seven-year-old Kristofer another cookie, he laughingly informs her that Santa Claus will not be visiting her this year because she has been naughty. His grandmother tells Kristofer that he should "lose the attitude." Does Kristofer have an attitude problem?
Probably not, since he has expressed a belief, not an attitude and has seemed to do so laughingly, as a joke.
Someone changes groups every few months. He forms close relationships within a group but leaves once he is bored. Is he likely to be satisfying his need to belong?
Probably not, since the need to belong refers to forming and maintaining close, lasting relationships
Unrequited love breaks which basic law of attraction?
Reciprocity
Although there are considerable cross-cultural similarities in judgments of facial attractiveness, preference for fuller figure vs. slimmer figure women in different cultures (including micro-cultures) has often been explained by:
Resource scarcity theory
The three factors of the investment model are
Satisfaction with the partner. Quality of alternative partners. Investment (sunk costs) in the relationship.
Which theory of emotion predicts that arousal from an event can be mislabeled?
Schachter-Singer
Terrence doesn't know how he is going to fare against a top ranked tennis opponent in tomorrow's match, so rather than practice, he decides to go to a party to relax - getting home at 3am when his match is at 8am.
Self-handicapping
The three main parts of the self are:
Self-knowledge or self-concept. The interpersonal self or public self. The agent or executive function.
How many "basic" facial emotions have been observed across dozens of different cultures?
Six
Which of the following refers to a concept or idea of how things could be?
Standards
Kim is a woman who enjoys math and normally makes very high grades in her math classes. On her way to take a math test one day, she runs into a friend who says, "Wow Kim, I'm surprised you take so many math classes. Girls are supposed to be bad at math." While taking the test, Kim focuses on proving her friend wrong and ends up doing worse on this test than she has ever done on a math test. Kim's performance is an example of:
Stereotype Threat
Jenna knows that her dad thinks women are terrible drivers, so when he takes her out to teach her how to drive she strives to prove him wrong. Backing out of the driveway, however, she ends up backing into a lamp pole. She doesn't know why. She's done it a hundred times with her mom. You could explain Jenna's outcome with your knowledge of:
Stereotype threat
A survey of parents in one suburban school district shows that most of the community is in favor of integration in the workplace & schools. However, they are against bussing, bilingual education, and affirmative action in teacher hiring. What might best explain this disconnect of beliefs?
Symbolic racism
In general, which of the following facial characteristics is considered most attractive?
Symmetrical features
Theory of mind refers to:
The capacity to recognize that every person has unique goals, beliefs, and perspectives.
What is the overjustification effect?
The tendency that intrinsic motivation diminishes when it becomes associated with rewards
action identification theory
The theory that explains how people conceive of action—their own or others'—in ways that range from very concrete to very abstract
How does mere possibility of contact connect to ingroup bias?
The tolerant social norm effect
Which is a main type of assumption regarding the concept called assumptive worlds?
The world is benevolent
Assumptive worlds is a term for the view that people form a complex understanding of their world and live according to that. Their assumptions typically include the following, any of which can be violated by misfortune or trauma:
The world is benevolent. The world is fair. I am a good person
Mammals have larger neocortices if...
They live in complex groups
The primary source of how people find their long-term partners is what?
Through friends and friends of friends
What is the general effect of high self-awareness?
Trying harder to behave in a positive manner
What is Berscheid & Walster's two-component model of love?
Two components: Arousal + Situation
Social rejection: What determines response? And its consequences?
Type of need threatened Type of rejection Chronicity of rejection Individual differences Interpretation of rejection For generalized violence: Target Blaming & "Groupness" (Gaertner et al., 2008)
Which of the following is true about histocompatibility?
We are more compatible with dissimilar others
What is the Lucifer Effect?
When good people are placed in a bad situation, which causes their behavior to change.
Women are found to be the most attractive to men when:
Women are ovulating
Research on positive illusions shows that:
You want to idealize your relationship generally, but be accurate about specifics.
Similarity is
a common and significant cause of attraction.
Pluralistic Ignorance
a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding
intimacy
a feeling of closeness, mutual understanding, and mutual concern for each other's welfare and happiness
mood
a feeling state that is not clearly linked to some event
stigma
a mark of shame or discredit
sociometer
a measure of how desirable one would be to other people
prejudice
a negative feeling toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group
conditioned stimulus
a neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to evoke a conditioned response
mutation
a new gene or combination of genes
implicit egotism
a nonconscious form of self-enhancement
correlational approach
a nonexperimental method in which the researcher merely observes whether variables are associated or related
transactive memory
a process by which members of a small group remember different kinds of information
desensitization
a psychological process that occurs when emotional reactions to a stimulus decrease following repeated exposure to it
meta-analysis
a quantitative literature review that combines the statistical results (e.g., correlation coefficients) from all studies conducted on a topic
self-knowledge
a set of beliefs about oneself
objective self-awareness
ability to be the object of one's own thoughts and attention-to be aware of one's state of mind and that one is thinking
subjective self-awareness
ability to differentiate the self from the social and physical environment
running amok
according to Malaysian culture, refers to behavior of a young man who becomes "uncontrollably" violent after receiving a blow to his ego
Some stereotypes are
accurate, others are wrong, and others are partly true but overgeneralized.
A habit is an
acquired behavior that, if followed regularly, will become almost automatic.
priming
activating an idea in someone's mind so that related ideas are more accessible
Ingratiation is
actively to try to make someone like you.
What is collective evil?
acts of evil committed by groups of people
People who lack emotions have great difficulty
adjusting to life and making decisions.
Living in culture has many
advantages, but it makes many demands.
Aurora knows her grandmother is very ill and likely to die soon, so when she gets a call in the middle of the night and sees it is from her mother, she is immediately overcome with dread. Aurora is experiencing a negative _____.
affect
A person concluding that she is a happy person because she has had more positive experiences than negative ones is best considered an example of _____.
affect balance
Keeping with the last question, individuals who are often willing to sacrifice their own interests for those of their partner's (or for the welfare of the relationship) are likely high on_______.
agape
The love style that exists when an individual would rather suffer than have a lover suffer is known as _____.
agape
With time, the contestants on the fashion design reality show seem to develop roles. Jeffery is the one who can be counted on to be harshly critical of others and bully them into submission. Wendy seems quite happy to sabotage others, while Andre seems prone to emotional displays that cause others to ignore their own work and try to rescue him. In short, each contestant seems to have a preferred way of manipulating and exerting control over his or her competitors, reflecting the _____ self.
agent
Emotional intelligence is negatively related to
alcohol-related problems
Positive affect encompasses
all good emotions, such as joy, bliss, love, and contentment; negative affect encompasses ; all bad emotions, such as anger, anxiety, fear, jealousy, and grief.
Behaviorism seeks to explain
all of psychology in terms of learning principles such as reward and punishment.
Strong conscious emotions can
also influence people to engage in risky behavior and ignore future consequences. Emotions call attention to good and bad outcomes but seem to make people disregard probabilities and odds
Habits
an acquired behavior that, if followed regularly, will become almost automatic
passion
an emotional state characterized by high bodily arousal, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure
life satisfaction
an evaluation of how one's life is generally and how it compares to some standard
cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
Instilling fear is
an unreliable mode of influence; moderate fear appeals are more persuasive than high or low fear appeals.
Masako asked two friends to estimate the number of people living in Tokyo. The correct answer, as of 2019, is about 14 million. She asked the first friend whether it was more or less than 8 million. She asked the second friend whether it was more or less than 20 million. The first friend guessed 10 million people, whereas the second friend guessed 18 million people. The difference in estimates can best be explained using the _______ heuristic.
anchoring and adjustment
Love Can be memorable
and even helps your neurons grow (forming connections) - Higher levels of nerve growth factor (a neurotrophin) in those newly in love.
Men fall in love faster than women,
and women fall out of love faster than men.
Six basic emotions have been observed in numerous cultures:
anger, surprise, disgust, happiness, fear, and sadness.
social animals
animals that seek connections to others and prefer to live, work, and play with other members of their species
why are anti-depressants problematic for falling in love?
antidepressants inhibit aspects of love
aggression
any behavior intended to harm another person who is motivated to avoid the harm
People think about other people more than
any other topic, and probably more than about all other topics combined.
attraction
anything that draws two or more people together, making them want to be together and possibly to form a lasting relationship
Humiliation (a state of disgrace or loss of respect)
appears to be a primary cause of violence and aggression in cultures of honor.
Research aimed at solving a specific problem is called _____ research.
applied
The simple desire to learn the truth about oneself is called the ______ motive.
appraisal
filter bubbles
are algorithms used on the internet to selectively guess what information a user would like to see based on information available about that use (e.g., previous web pages viewed, click behavior)
You are interested in examining the attitudes of college students regarding student loans and their ability to repay them. If you want to be able to generalize your results to the entire student population of your university, you would be best served by a random sample of students who _____.
are currently enrolled
People with low self-esteem do not want to fail,
are uncertain about their self-knowledge, focus on self-protection rather than self-enhancement, and are prone to emotional highs and lows.
Attraction between two people is enhanced when _____.
areas of similarity outweigh areas of dissimilarity
Meta-analytic support
argued that the effect does not have sizeable support. Helping can fail, and people leave more when overwhelmed by distress
What is the matching hypothesis?
argues that people are more likely to form and succeed in a committed relationship with someone who is equally socially desirable, typically in the form of physical attraction.
Max Ringelmann found out that
as group size increased, individual effort decreased
When a correlation is positive
as one variable goes up the other variable also goes up.
labeling technique
assigning a label to an individual and then requesting a favor that is consistent with the label
Fast talkers are
assumed to be more credible and intelligent than slow talkers (as long as the speech is not too fast to be comprehended).
Diamond's work suggests that
attachment/love and sex are two separate psychological systems in humans, so love and sex don't always match.
Positive emotions broaden and expand an individual's _______ and ______
attention and mind-set
Self-awareness
attention directed at the self
People may not be aware of all their own _____
attitudes.
Automatic attitudes are
automatic, nonconscious, evaluative responses; deliberate attitudes are controlled, conscious, evaluative responses.
People's greater fear of flying than of driving can probably best be explained by the _______ heuristic.
availability
The internal (belief that prejudice is morally wrong) and external (desire to avoid social disapproval) motivations for
avoiding prejudice are not mutually exclusive.
Humans, unlike most other creatures,
base their actions on meaning and ideas.
Normative social influence
based on our desire to be liked or accepted by others
Antisocial behavior refers to
behavior that either damages interpersonal relations or is culturally undesirable.
Due to an error in scoring his IQ test, Bobby was placed in the gifted class. He performed very well throughout the school year, so the principal was surprised to get the revised scores revealing that Bobby was only an average student. Bobby's performance is an example of:
behavioral confirmation
ostracism
being excluded, rejected, and ignored by others
propinquity
being near someone on a regular basis
salience
being obvious or standing out
learned helplessness
belief that one's actions will not bring about desired outcomes, leading one to give up and quit trying
Another huge development from the 1990s onward was a growing openness to _________.
biology
frustration
blockage of or interference with a personal goal
Most choices in life involve tradeoffs,
both benefits and costs.
Humans are best described as ___________.
both cultural and social animals
attitudes are
broad evaluations (liking or disliking) toward some object or issue.
The route that involves conscious processing is
called the central route or systematic processing.
A crucial advantage of the deliberate system is that it _____.
can combine information in complex ways
The automatic system which goes with your gut feeling _____.
can do many things at once effortlessly
The human brain evolved to
capitalize on culture.
Philosophy is about _____, whereas social psychology is about _____.
carefully thinking through problems; systematically collecting data
A defining aspect of love in general involves _____.
caring about the well-being of the other individual, regardless of whether it benefits one
stigmas
characteristics of individuals that are considered socially unacceptable (e.g., being overweight, mentally ill, sick, poor, or physically scarred)
A perfume brand displaying scenic visuals as a neutral stimulus while advertising its product to create consumer demand is considered an example of _____.
classical conditioning
An operational definition
classifies theoretical variables in terms of observable operations, procedures, and measurements.
"Abnormal" behavior is to "normal" behavior as ________ psychology is to ___________ psychology.
clinical; social
Upon learning that you are a psychology major, one of your friends immediately starts asking for study tips, noting that when he takes a test, he cannot seem to remember anything. This issue is best addressed by the subfield of _____ psychology.
cognitive
When people experience inconsistencies, they are inclined to rationalize their behavior to bring their attitudes in line with their actions. This is due to _____.
cognitive dissonance
post-decision dissonance
cognitive dissonance experienced after making a difficult choice, typically reduced by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decreasing the attractiveness of rejected alternatives
According to the National Health and Social Life Survey, _____.
cohabiting couples have the highest rate of sexual activity
What is the toxic triangle?
collective evil comes about through destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments
According to research, _____ made couples resilient over time when there are problems and conflicts in the relationship.
commitment
The marriage vows "for better or worse, for richer or poorer, in sickness or in health" fundamentally refer to _____.
commitment
When a person focuses excessively on evidence that supports his beliefs rather than the evidence that contradicts his beliefs, it is known as _____.
confirmation bias
An emotion is a
conscious reaction to something; a mood is a feeling state that is not clearly linked to some event; affect is the automatic response that something is good or bad (liking versus disliking).
You want to learn more about what it is like to conduct research and decide to participate in a research study. You arrive at a research facility where you are given paperwork that gives you information about the study's procedures. You recognize that you have been given a _____.
consent form
People generally prefer to
conserve effort by relying on automatic modes of thought when they can.
James and Elizabeth, a young college couple, are considering marriage. Using what you know about what is the strongest predictor of a long, satisfying, positive relationship, they should _____.
consider how similar and dissimilar they are in a number of important respects
American society has made
considerable progress in fighting against some important kinds of prejudice, especially those based on race and gender.
Monica and Jeremy have been married for 27 years. Their relationship includes intimacy, passion, and commitment at high levels. According to Sternberg's (1986) triangular model of love, Monica and Jeremy have _____.
consummate love
Clickbait
content whose main purpose is to attract attention and encourage visitors to click on a link to a particular web page
What is the perseverance effect?
continue to believe in stuff despite strong evidence
The increasingly grotesque violence of terrorist groups has stunned many who wonder why such groups continue to be able to recruit members. This is best explained by _____ influences.
cultural
Humans and some other animals are social. Humans are far more
cultural than any other animal
Although stereotypes often contain
culturally specific information, the tendency to form stereotypes and prejudices may be innate.
Much of social psychology can be understood by assuming that the human psyche evolved and was designed by nature for _____.
culture
lateral orbitomedial prefrontal cortex
deciding center on what is self-relevant
A violation of expectancies sparks
deliberate thinking.
lying
deliberately making a false statement, usually to mislead someone.
Humans are the only animals that
deliberately pass social ideas on to their young.
When dealing with a person who is aggressive and is having suicidal tendencies, it is important to rely on your _____ mind.
delibrate
The omission bias (sometimes called the default option)
denotes taking whatever course of action that does not require you to do anything.
What is the "spreading of alternatives?"
devalues alternatives which increases value of your choice
Ari understands that she has to study if she wants to pass her classes, but she also knows that there will be times when her motivation to study will be extremely low. She can best continue to study through periods of low motivation by _____.
developing the habit of studying according to a schedule for each class
Psychologists who study the changes in people from conception and birth to old age and death are known as _____ psychologists.
developmental
Among adults, the simplest and most general explanation for rejection is ___________
deviance.
In the counterregulation or "what the heck" effect,
dieters eat more if they believe they have broken their diets than if they are hungry.
dual attitudes
different evaluations of the same attitude object held by the same person (perhaps one deliberate, the other automatic)
Advertisers use classical conditioning to
direct attitudes by linking their products with famous or attractive people or with feeling good.
Emotion rarely causes behavior _____.
directly
According to cognitive dissonance theory,
discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors produce psychological discomfort (cognitive dissonance), which causes people to rationalize their behavior so as to bring their attitudes into line with their actions.
A small town police department in Kentucky refused to hire individuals who scored "too" high on a test of intelligence. Refusing applicants because they score too high is best described as a type of _____.
discrimination
The differential treatment towards members of a social group:
discrimination
Choice is necessary for
dissonance and attitude change.
In many important respects, non-depressed people see the world in a
distorted, biased fashion, whereas depressed people can see reality more accurately.
If the message is weak,
distraction makes the message more effective, but if the message is strong, then distraction makes the message less effective.
Eliza is an atheist who lives in an area of the country that is predominantly populated by Christian fundamentalists. She has found herself excluded from community activities and the subject of negative comments and gossip. Research suggests that prejudice against atheists is largely rooted in _____.
distrust
Guilt motivates people to
do good acts and make amends to repair damage to relationships.
High self-esteem feels good and fosters initiative but
does not confer many advantages in an objective sense.
negative attitude change (boomerang effect)
doing exactly the opposite of what one is being persuaded to do
People attempt to regulate their emotions by
doing things that feel good, distracting themselves from negative emotions, controlling their arousal, seeking social support, or dealing with the emotion-causing issue directly.
A person makes a highly inflated request to his friend. After being denied, he places a smaller request and gets approval. However, the smaller request was the desired request all along. In this case, the person is using the _____ technique.
door-in-the-face
The automatic system is fast and relatively ________, whereas the deliberate system is ______ and _____.
effortless; slow and effortful
Jealousy can focus on .
either a sexual or an emotional connection to an outsider. Men may focus more strongly on the sexual aspect than women.
Only humans develop
elaborate sets of beliefs to help them understand the world.
Conscious is to unconscious as __________ is to __________.
emotion; affect
Why does this type of content spread?
emotional content
Brainstorming involves
encouraging group members to share and generate as many ideas as possible without holding back or worrying about being wrong; it produces less creative output but is liked better than working separately.
The increased value we place on certain objects we own is referred to as the _____ effect.
endowment
When she visited San Francisco, Letitia bought several handcrafted necklaces for $10 each. When she got home, her sister offered to buy one for $10, but Letitia refused. She wanted $15 for it instead. This example illustrates the ________ effect.
endowment
Ursula wanted to know what the students who received an A in Social Psychology had in common, so she conducts a survey of all Fall and Spring 2005 Social Psychology students who received A and found that they all sat in the front in class. She concludes that sitting in the front row means one will get an A in Social Psychology. What error has she made?
equated correlation with causation
Mark and Alissa recently moved in together. Alissa has become increasingly dissatisfied with the state of their relationship because she feels that she does most of the "work" in the relationship (household duties like cooking, cleaning, and ensuring that the two of them spend time together). She feels that Mark's contribution to the relationship does not compare. Alissa's dissatisfaction with the relationship can best be explained by :
equity theory
The ____ love style is the most commonly endorsed.
eros
What are the six different love styles?
eros, ludus, storge, pragma, mania, and agape
dACC (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex)
error detection center; activates when you are off course from what your beliefs are
Social psychology features
experiments and the scientific method. It studies inner states and processes as well as behavior.
Suppose Greek philosopher Aristotle has been hired by a drug company to help develop materials to be distributed to physicians about a new drug. In his pitch to company executives, Aristotle emphasizes the importance of phronêsis, or _____.
expertise
Classical conditioning may help
explain the development of prejudiced attitudes against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media.
Legitimizing myths
explanations used to justify why people in power deserve to be in power
The influx of biology was boosted by evolutionary psychology, which sought to
extend and apply the basic ideas of evolution to understanding human social behavior.
Illusion of unamity?
false sense of agreement wihin group
Human self-awareness is
far more extensive and complex than what is found in any other species.
Marta stocks up on her beloved chocolate mint Girl Scout cookies every year. She mentions this when buying several boxes from a table set up outside the student recreation center. One of the girls smilingly reminds Marta that the cookies will only be available for a few more days, and that the sale will be over for another year. The scout uses the _____ technique.
fast-approaching-deadline
Prior to the 2015 Supreme Court decision on marriage equality, many social media users posted memes that proclaimed their support for equality. Often, however, those memes started off with "I am not gay, but ..." before asserting their support. This is most consistent with the idea that bias against gays and lesbians has its roots in _____.
fear of being perceived as a homosexual
A person considers her partners as untrustworthy and uncaring and views herself as unlovable. Her style can be best described as _____.
fearful avoidant
demand characteristics
features of an experiment that communicate to the participant the experimenter's hypothesis
According to the facial feedback hypothesis,
feedback from the face muscles evokes or magnifies emotions.
According to social philosopher George Herbert Mead, most self-knowledge comes from _____.
feedback provided by other people
Experiments conducted in a real-world rather than a laboratory setting are called
field experiments.
Alonso favors gun control, but in an effort to better understand other people's views he visits websites that advocate the elimination of various gun restrictions. He subsequently notices that he now sees ads for guns and even "prepper" supplies, as well as political ads that reflect a distinctly right-wing point of view. This is likely due to _____.
filter bubbles
Some internet sites use
filter bubbles to expose users to information that they think the user will like.
According to Norman Triplett, people work faster when they___________
find a couple of people to work side by side
risky shift
for groups to take greater risks than the same individuals (on average) would have decided to take individually.
Humans are programmed to
form and maintain social bonds; breaking them goes against the grain and makes the rejecter feel guilty.
Positive emotions are linked to
forming social bonds
Sexual jealousy is
found in all cultures and societies, although its forms, rules, and expressions may vary from one to another, suggesting that some degree of sexual possessiveness is deeply rooted in human nature.
What is interdependence within romantic relationships?
frequency of interactions, diversity of interactions, influence on the current and future plans
Larger brains evolved to enable animals to
function well in complex social structures.
The self is a vital and distinctively human tool for
gaining social acceptance and for participating in culture.
The main purposes of the self include
gaining social acceptance and playing social roles.
Positive moods
generally increase helping, but some bad moods, such as guilt, can also promote helping.
Public circumstances
generally promote prosocial behavior. That is, people behave better when others are watching and know who they are.
medial parietal cortex
gives you coherent sense of self
A company facing extreme low morale and performance issues among its employees can improve the situation by _____
giving staff some autonomy in making decisions regarding obligations and scheduling
However, in talking with other professors, his boss discovers that this isn't the first time Aaron has abandoned something. In fact he has abruptly quit other jobs and class projects, indicating that Aaron's quitting things may be __________.
global
attitudes
global evaluations toward some object or issue
Fatima seems obsessed with achieving the goal she is working toward. She can't seem to focus on anything else, even other goals. This is called ________
goal shielding
dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
goal-directed behavior, expressing emotions, error monitoring
Pursuing self-esteem as an end in itself can have ________ consequences.
harmful
Suppose you are studying two different species of monkeys and one species has a larger brain in relation to body weight than the other species. You might reasonably believe that the species with a larger brain in relation to body weight _____.
has a more complex social structure
With random assignment, each participant _________
has an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable
In social psychology, the "nature versus nurture" debate ________
has been reframed; the debate now concerns how nature and nurture interact with one another and influence one another
Compared to adults in the general population, college students __________
have less crystallized self-concepts
Reciprocal altruism
helping others with the expectation that they will probably return the favor in the future
For example, what is metabolic syndrome? Or what effects does it have on body temperature? Or hormone levels? Or cortisol?
hey often feel like they were left out in the cold(you actually have a bodily drop in temp when left out) so people will often take hot and longer showers to get some warmth
People who are _____ are more persuaded by strong arguments.
high in need for cognition
Suicidal people are _______
high in self-awareness
According to Implicit Theories of Relationships, someone with an "evaluation orientation" is _______ in destiny beliefs and _____ in growth beliefs.
high; low
Compared to European Americans, African Americans generally have ____ levels of self-esteem.
higher
Darwin's theory of evolution focuses on
how change occurs in nature.
accessibility
how easily something comes to mind
Self-esteem
how favorably someone evaluates himself or herself
Framing
how information is presented to others
expertise
how much a source knows
Coping is the general term for
how people attempt to deal with traumas and go back to functioning effectively in life.
Inner traits and processes play a much bigger role in
human influence than in influence in nonhuman animals.
The distinction between private acceptance and public compliance plays a much bigger role in
human influence than in influence in nonhuman animals.
Humor can be a factor in persuasion, but nonhuman animals probably do not have a sense of
humor.
Fred really wants to get his partner, Michael, to quit smoking. If he were to use cognitive dissonance techniques to persuade him, which type of cognitive dissonance would be most effective in changing behavior?
hypocrisy induction
Sarah posts on Facebook about police using fatal force against a 12 year-old carrying a toy gun with the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter. Her cousin, Randi, calls her out with "Don't you mean #AllLivesMatter?" A few months later when an officer is slain in the line of duty, Randi posts about it with #BlueLivesMatter. Sarah comments "Do you not see a problem when you tell me #AllLivesMatter when I post about #BlackLivesMatter but not when you post about #BlueLivesMatter?" Sarah is trying to trigger __________ dissonance:
hypocrisy induction
People use their stereotypes more as ______ to be tested than as ______ that can be applied in all cases.
hypotheses; rules
A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur is called a _______
hypothesis
eros
in Freudian theory, the constructive, life-giving instinct
thanatos
in Freudian theory, the destructive, death instinct
certainty effect
in decision making, the greater weight given to definite outcomes than to probabilities
Risk aversion
in decision making, the greater weight given to possible losses than possible gains
Temporal discounting
in decision making, the greater weight given to the present over the future
People think about other people
in order to be accepted by them, or to compete with or avoid them.
Stroop effect
in the Stroop test, the finding that people have difficulty overriding the automatic tendency to read the word rather than name the ink color
The presence of a mirror has been shown to ___________ self-awareness.
increase
In an experimental study of the effects of gum chewing on math exam performance, gum chewing would be the __________ variable.
independent
To an American, the statement "I am who I am, regardless of who my family is" highlights the perception that one's self-concept is _____.
independent
bait-and-switch
influence technique in which one draws people in with an attractive offer that is unavailable and then switches them to a less attractive offer that is available
low-ball technique
influence technique in which one first gets a person to comply with a seemingly low-cost request and only later reveals hidden additional costs
limited-number technique
influence technique in which one tells people that an item is in short supply
The current view of attributions assumes that people try to explain the behavior of others they start by focusing on _________ actions
intended versus unintended
The four elements that distinguish automatic from deliberate processes are
intention, effort, control, and efficiency.
According to self-determination theory, people need to feel that activities are motivated by ________
internal factors
Inner processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motivations serve __________ functions.
interpersonal
Internal, stable attributions
involve ability; internal, unstable attributions involve effort; external, stable attributions point to the difficulty of the task; and external, unstable attributions involve luck.
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
involved in controlling emotional responses from the amygdala and decision-making
The relationship-enhancing style of attribution
involves attributing good acts to the partner's inner qualities and attributing bad acts to external factors. The distress-maintaining style of attribution is just the opposite.
Nature
is the physical world around us, including its laws and processes.
What is dispositional empathy?
is the tendency for people to imagine and experience the feelings and experiences of others. Researchers typically discuss dispositional empathy in contrast to state or situational empathy, which is an immediate response to a specific eliciting situation.
hindsight bias or the "knew it all along" phenomenon
is the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen the outcome
Across different cultures,
it has sometimes been in women's best interests to put pressure on each other to restrain sexual behavior
Another crucial aspect of culture is that
it is based on meaningful information
In order to immunize people against persuasion,
it is good to expose them to some of the counterarguments and let them build up defenses against the counterarguments.
To be a good social psychology researcher,
it is helpful to be creative.
Automatic system example
it might sort through the stream of babbling sounds that your ears hear in order to pick out the score of the game involving your favorite team, and it links that score with relevant information in your memory, such as how your team is doing generally and whether today's outcome will help it qualify for the playoff
For a theory to be scientific,
it must be testable, so its theoretical constructs must be operationally defined.
moral intuitions
judgments (about whether an action is right or wrong) that occur automatically and rely on emotional feelings
Couples who have children are ____ happy than couples who do not have children.
less
People who are alone in the world are much ____ happy than people who have strong, rich social networks.
less
Familiarity breeds _______.
liking
People who suffer more to get into a group end up _____ the group more.
liking
The power of socialization to change people is real, but ______
limited.
Some societies have
little or no competition. These are typically peaceful, economically undeveloped groups.
survival
living longer
In humans, the road to social acceptance is _____________.
long
Most people are more concerned with
looking good to others than with private self-esteem.
Private self-awareness
looking inward on the private aspects of the self, including emotions, thoughts, desires, and traits
public self-awareness
looking outward on the public aspects of the self that others can see and evaluate
The _____ technique involves getting a person to agree with a low-cost request first and only later impose additional hidden costs.
low-ball
The curve between arousal and performance is ________ for complex tasks than for simple tasks.
lower
Irrational beliefs are often
maintained despite contradictory evidence.
What is Post-Decision dissonance?
make a decision we might regret; dissonance after making a decision
People overcome prejudice by
making conscious efforts to be fair and equal.
One of the reasons people may engage in behaviors that can cause them harm is _____, such as drinking alcohol to relax at parties even though doing so increases the risk of unsafe sexual activities.
making tradeoffs
When orphans and the elderly slowly die due to the absence of human contact and interaction, this is known as_____________.
marasmus
People with the trait of high self-monitoring seek to _______ each social situation, whereas those low in that trait pay more attention to permanent connections and feelings rather than fluctuating ones.
maximize
The drive for consistency
may be rooted in our biological nature and strengthened by learning and socialization, and it may involve both parts of the duplex mind.
Humans rely on _____________ to make their choices.
meaning
In humans, emotion is tied to
meaning
The human mind is a duplex mind,
meaning that it has both an automatic and a deliberate system.
Human behavior depends on _______
meaning.
A researcher can best identify the relationships between attitudes and behavior by _____.
measuring attitudes very specifically
Emotions have both ______ aspects (such as subjective feelings and interpretations) and _______ ones (such as a racing heartbeat or tears).
mental and physical
self-deception strategies
mental tricks people use to help them believe things that are false
Although cultures differ, differences are often
merely matters of degree rather than opposites.
Affective reactions to things that are "good" and "bad" generally occur in the first _________ of thought.
microseconds
The psyche is a broader term for
mind, encompassing emotions, desires, perceptions, and indeed all psychological processes.
Common sense can be _________.
mistaken
A person wakes up happy. He cannot think of anything that makes today special or different, he is just happy. In this context, happiness is best described as a(n) _____
mood
Average faces are ________ attractive than individual faces.
more
Imagining something makes it ______ likely to happen.
more
Audience members with moderate levels of self-esteem and intelligence are ______ affected by persuasive messages.
most
Although human beings evolved from other animals, humans have
much larger brains than other animals, especially in proportion to body size.
Long-term monogamous mating is
much more common among human beings than among other species.
What term refers to a new gene or combination of genes?
mutation
dark personality triad
narcism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism
Nigel approaches relationships in a game-playing spirit of having fun or as a pragmatic way of getting what he wants. He seeks out successful, beautiful, admired people to date because they are similar to him, and he believes their glamour or prestige makes him look good. Nigel's beliefs are similar to those of a(n) _____.
narcissist
According to Easterbrook, arousal influences performance by _______ attention.
narrowing
Most stereotypes are
negative, and most prejudices depict outgroups as inferior or as having bad traits.
Rejection comes in many forms. If someone isn't actively picked on but this is in part due to them feeling invisible at school, then they are considered:
neglected
Humans have far more elaborate norms and implicit rules than
nonhuman animals.
When a person agrees with the crowd just to be liked and accepted, it is due to _____.
normative influence
Normative vs. Informational social influence:
normative: influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval informational: influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
injunctive norms
norms that specify what most others approve or disapprove of
descriptive norms
norms that specify what most people do
In neuroscience studies of those married 20 years or more and still in love, in which area of the _____________ area of the brain there is decreased activity, but there is increased activity in the _________ when picturing their loved one.
nucleus accumbens... periaqueductal grey matter
What are some of the consequences of the automatic implicit associations people hold regarding African-Americans?
o Discomfort o Interviewing o Different costs o Hiring (and Pay) o Helping
operational definition
observable operations, procedures, and measurements that are based on the independent and dependent variables
goal shielding
occurs when the activation of a focal goal the person is working on inhibits the accessibility of alternative goals
confounded
occurs when two the effects of variables cannot be separated
People who deviate from a group are
often rejected by the group.
Self-awareness is
often unpleasant because people often compare themselves to high standards.
Peripheral cues such as source expertise have no effect
on people who are motivated to process a persuasive message, but they can have an effect on people who are not motivated to process the message.
Power
one person's control over another person, including what happens to that person
Knowledge structures
organized packets of information that are stored in memory
Knowledge structures are
organized packets of information that are stored in memory.
Humans get most of what they need from
other people.
Being rejected repeatedly can cause people to develop expectations that
others will reject them, resulting in a personality trait called rejection sensitivity.
Believing that one can exert control over stressful events makes them more tolerable, even if one has no control. This is called the _________
panic button effect
pregenual anterior cingulate cortex
panic center; we become highly self-concious
Make it pretty technique
people like cute things and pretty people
ingroup members
people who belong to the same group or category as we do
According to research, who is more likely to become aggressive toward others in response to ego-threats?
people with high self-esteem
The term cognitive miser refers to
people's reluctance to do much extra thinking.
Basking in reflected glory refers to
people's tendency to want to associate with winners.
Social scientists study _______ and the _______ in which they live.
people; societies
A person's individual belief about whether he or she can perform a particular behavior is referred to as _____.
perceived behavioral control
Research in bars indicate that people are perceived as more attractive by members of the opposite sex at later times of the evening than at earlier times. This is due to _____.
perceived decreases in the number of available potential partners
In a classic experiment with lines of different lengths, Solomon Asch found that __________.
perceptual judgments can be influenced by others
Extrinsic motivation
performing an activity because of something that results from it
An advocacy group using a celebrity in an advertisement to get people interested in an important issue is an example of the_____ route to persuasion.
peripheral
These broadened mindsets, in turn, build an individual's ______, ________, and _______
physical, intellectual, and social resources.
beliefs
pieces of information about something; facts or opinions
Beliefs are
pieces of information, facts, or opinions
Victim-blaming
placing the responsibility or blame for a bad outcome on the individual who experiences the bad outcome due to his or her behavior
Pursuing goals includes
planning and carrying out the behaviors to reach goals.
People are often overly optimistic about what they can accomplish. This is called the __________
planning fallacy
Social psychologists study _____ to understand what makes some people better leaders than others.
political science
expert power
power resulting from one's specialized information or expertise
referent power
power that comes from subordinates' and coworkers' respect, admiration, and loyalty
reward power
power that comes from the ability to provide rewards or favors
legitimate power
power that stems from being elected or appointed to a position of authority
Symmetry is a
powerful source of beauty.
Remember, the two-sided approach isn't just about presenting both sides, it is about
presenting both sides in order to debunk one (or "steal thunder") and bolster the other. Thus being bipartisan is not sufficient.
During their first year of medical school, many medical students begin to think that they and other people they know are suffering from serious illness. This phenomenon, known as the medical student syndrome, is probably due to ___________
priming
Reproduction means
producing babies—though the babies also have to survive long enough to reproduce.
frustration-aggression hypothesis
proposal that "the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration," and "the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression"
The theory of evolution,
proposed by the British biologist Charles Darwin in the 1800s, focuses on how change occurs in nature.
social facilitation theory
proposition that the presence of others increases the dominant response tendency
The boomerang effect (negative attitude change) results from
psychological reactance to the persuasive attempt; the result is an attitude opposite to the persuasive message.
Dusty's neighbors are avid churchgoers who believe strongly in the power of prayer and divine healing. When their toddler daughter is diagnosed with a brain tumor that surgeons are able to completely remove, they publicly credit prayer and divine intervention. Dusty, an agnostic, is invited to a party celebrating the child's return from the hospital. Although he thinks the child's recovery is most likely due to the skill of her surgeons, he agrees with the family that prayer and divine intervention were responsible. Dusty's behavior is best described by the concept of _____.
public compliance
Stereotypes can form from
purely cognitive processes, without any influence of emotion or motivation. Still, emotion or motivation can greatly increase the likelihood of prejudice.
self-handicapping
putting obstacles in the way of one's own performance so that anticipated or possible failure can be blamed on the obstacle instead of on lack of ability
You conduct a study with conditions of an independent variable but non-random assignment to conditions (assignment to conditions determined by a co-factor). What type of study are you most likely conducting?
quasi-experiment
You conduct a study with conditions of an independent variable but non-random assignment to conditions (assignment to conditions determined by an individual difference). What type of study are you most likely conducting?
quasi-experiment
You are working on a research project in which you manipulate the independent variable but random assignment of participants is not possible. Your research is best described as _____.
quasi-experimental
According to the scarcity principle,
rare opportunities are more valuable than plentiful opportunities.
Carol's mother resorts to offering rewards to get her to clean her room. However, Carol senses her mom is trying to bribe her and does not like to be told what to do. Instead of cleaning her room, she makes the room even messier than it was before. What unexpected reaction to persuasion does Carol demonstrate?
reactance
Forbidding someone from doing something makes it more attractive to them. This is consistent with the theory of _____.
reactance
Empathy
reacting to another person's emotional state by experiencing the same emotional state
Toxification
realistic and/or symbolic threat to us
A social psychologist states that prejudice and discrimination against outgroup members is a natural result of groups competing over scarce resources. This view is associated with _____ .
realistic conflict theory
Sandy has a candle party. Hoping to get new customers, she gives all the attendees free votives so they can sample the new tropical themed candles. What technique is she using?
reciprocity
Pain killers such as Tylenol can
reduce social pain as well as physical pain.
deliberate attitudes
reflective responses that people think more carefully about
self-acceptance
regarding yourself as being a reasonably good person as you are
stigma by association
rejection of those who associate with stigmatized others
Aggression can lead to _________
rejection.
Social scientists are interested in how people ________ to one another.
relate
Proximity is important to attraction because _____.
repeated exposure tends to produce favorable evaluations
Replication
repeating a study to see if the effect is reliable
repetition with variation
repeating the same information, but in a varied format
The strategy of judging the likelihood of things by how well they match particular prototypes constitutes the ___________ heuristic.
representativeness
Gradually, biologists have shifted their emphasis from survival to ___________ as the single most important factor in natural selection
reproduction
Women are more attracted to men who look _______ and ________
rich and successful.
Unlike other animals, only humans have been able to
rise above their natural antagonisms and create a society in which people from different, even formerly competing, groups can live together in peace, tolerance, and harmony.
It is not uncommon for politicians to blame crime on outsiders. For example, politicians from one state may blame local problems with drugs and street crime on drug dealers from another state. When subsequent local press coverage tends to become increasingly negative in its portrayals of the "others," it is consistent with _____.
scapegoat theory
Organized beliefs we have about stimuli in our social world are known as
schemas
Because research builds on older research,
science is self-correcting.
As a senior, Brandon has the "first day of school" thing down. He knows what to expect and what is expected of him. Clearly he has a ______ for the day.
script
You and a friend decide to go eat dinner at a restaurant. Before you even get there, you know to wait to be seated, that you will order your drink before you order your meal, and that you will pay at the end of the meal. Your knowledge of what will happen before you even get to the restaurant is a:
script
objective self-awareness
seeing yourself as an object of others' attention
A person with right-wing beliefs subscribes exclusively to right-wing media. This can be explained by a concept called ____.
selective exposure
Self-love and narcissism may not be beneficial to good relationships, but
self-acceptance may help one get along with others.
Nine-year-old Bruce, an only child, has trouble getting along with other children. His parents and teachers try to help him understand how others perceive him and urge him to pay more attention to how he is behaving. This reflects the idea that _____, an inner process, can improve behavior and thereby serve interpersonal functions.
self-awareness
What is special about the human self begins with
self-awareness and self-concept.
Self-knowledge is also known as __________
self-concept
Generally, in American society we find that the tendency to _______________ is stronger than the tendency to _____________.
self-enhance...self-verify
All known cultures have rules about
sex
All known cultures seek to regulate _____ in some ways.
sex
On average, men have a stronger ______ _____ than women.
sex drive
As culture progresses and forms large, complex, interacting groups, there may be more need for complementarity, but when people pick their friends and lovers, they still tend to look for those who are _________ to themselves.
similar
A person joining a few groups in hopes of finding a long-term romantic relationship should seek out groups with people who are _____.
similar in factors such as level of intelligence and attractiveness
When individuals sort people into groups based on common characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, and so forth, it is called _____.
social categorization
The study of simple cognitive (mental) processes, such as attribution theory (attributions are explanations people come up with to explain the behavior of others), evolved in the 1970s and 1980s into a large and sophisticated study of_____________________
social cognition (how people think about people and the social world in general).
social expressive
social communication, facial expression, vocal expression
According to _____ theory, vicarious learning occurs when people observe and imitate others.
social learning
The various social sciences focus on different aspects of ________
social life.
The processes we use to try and understand other people are known as _____.
social perception
Norms are
social standards that prescribe what people ought to do.
Social psychology can help you make sense of your own ______ ______
social world.
Stigmas include characteristics of individuals that are considered
socially unappealing, such as being overweight, mentally ill, sick, or poor, or having a physical blemish.
The finding that kids who watch violent TV programs become more aggressive as adults than do kids who watch nonviolent TV programs can best be explained in terms of ________________ influences.
societal
A researcher is interested in studying how the annual divorce rate changes as a function of the unemployment rate. This researcher is probably a(n) ___________.
sociologist
People have goal hierarchies;
some goals are long term, and some are short term.
Injunctive norms
specify what most others approve or disapprove.
Entity theorists are to incremental theorists as __________ are too ____________.
stable traits; unstable traits
Norms
standards established by society to tell its members what types of behavior are typical or expected
People influenced by the status quo bias are likely to _____.
stick with what they have
The term _____ refers to a trait that is perceived by others as highly undesirable and makes them want to avoid a person who has the trait.
stigma
Disgust is a
strong negative feeling of repugnance and revulsion. It motivates healthy behavior.
In everyday terms, self-defeating behavior is defined as ___________ behavior.
stupid
Mimicry is often _________ as a means of increasing liking.
successful
People will sometimes choose to
suffer as a consequence of expecting to suffer, if they have coped with their expectation by changing some of their relevant beliefs and attitudes.
Juanita's art class l student teaching project, in which her middle school students are randomly assigned to groups to create graphic novels, is a resounding success in terms of the novels the students produced. However, it has the unfortunate side effect of creating rather nasty rivalries among the various groups. She might consider inducing cooperation by assigning _____.
superordinate goals that everyone shares
Natural selection has two criteria:
survival and reproduction.
Being social helps humans and other animals _________ and ______
survive and reproduce.
The self-serving bias suggests that people want to
take credit for success but deny blame for failure.
Emotions comprise an important and powerful feedback system,
telling us whether something is good or bad.
Mohammed is 4 years old. His mother, a social psychologist, asks whether he would rather have one cookie today or three cookies tomorrow. Mohammed chooses the one cookie today. This illustrates _________.
temporal discounting
People high in narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism (called the "dark triad" of personality)
tend to be high in emotional intelligence, but they use it to manipulate others.
What are some limitations revealed by contact hypothesis research and meta-analyses?
tests of full model are rare, small effects in meta-analyses, unidirectional, targets attitudes, neglects intergroup dynamics, and overlooks impact on and goals of minority
"Survival of the fittest" means
that animals compete with each other to survive.
Culture exists as a network linking many different people. The idea of a network is useful because it captures the essential point
that culture connects many people together and exists in what they share. The problem with the idea of a network is that it doesn't sufficiently capture the dynamic (changing) aspect of culture. Culture never sits still.
Equity means
that each person receives benefits in proportion to what he or she did
Equality means
that everyone gets the same amount, regardless of performance.
The what is beautiful is good effect suggests
that people assume that physically attractive people will be superior to others on many other traits.
Scapegoat theory proposes
that people blame their problems and misfortunes on outgroups.
Self-determination theory emphasizes
that people need to feel that some of their behavior is caused by their own free will.
third-person effect
the belief that media messages have a stronger impact on others than on oneself
Group norms are
the beliefs or behaviors a group of people accepts as normal.
group norms
the beliefs or behaviors that a group of people accepts as normal
James and Lange proposed that
the bodily processes of emotion come first, and then the mind's perception of these bodily reactions creates the subjective feeling of emotion. Proponents of the James-Lange theory of emotion failed to find specific arousal patterns for different emotions.
need to belong
the desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships with other individuals
The need to belong, defined as
the desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships, is a powerful drive within the human psyche.
Temporal discounting refers to
the finding that the present is more important than the future in decision making. The further in the future something lies, the less influence it has on the decision.
effort justification
the finding that when people suffer or work hard or make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile
sleeper effect
the finding that, over time, people separate the message from the messenger
affect balance
the frequency of positive emotions minus the frequency of negative emotions
What is deindividuation?
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
testosterone
the male sex hormone, high levels of which have been linked to aggression and violence in both humans and animals
A person who initially did not watch basketball starts liking it after repeatedly watching it on television because of his roommate. This is best attributed to _____.
the mere exposure effect
The route that involves automatic processing is called
the peripheral route or heuristic processing.
Repetition polarizes initial responses to
the persuasive message, although advertising wear-out can occur when an ad is repeated too many times.
the mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Nature is
the physical world around us.
status quo bias
the preference to keep things the way they are rather than change
Social facilitation theory states that
the presence of others can make people perform better, especially on easy and familiar tasks.
During the Korean War, the Chinese found it easier to brainwash American prisoners when _________
the prisoners were kept separate
A-B problem
the problem of inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B)
The A-B problem is
the problem of inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B). The link between attitudes and behaviors is often weak.
Introspection
the process by which a person examines the contents of his or her mind and mental states
diffusion of responsibility
the reduction in feeling responsible that occurs when others are present
correlation
the relationship or association between two variables
Classical conditioning (also called Pavlovian conditioning) is
the repeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus, until the conditioned stimulus elicits a response similar to that elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
In the correlational approach,
the researcher does not try to control variables or randomly assign participants to groups, but merely observes whether things go together.
value-expressive function
the role played by prejudice in allowing people to view their own values, norms, and cultural practices as appropriate and correct
central route (systematic processing)
the route to persuasion that involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the content of the message (conscious processing)
peripheral route (heuristic processing)
the route to persuasion that involves some simple cue, such as attractiveness of the source (automatic processing)
Social psychology
the scientific study of how people affect and are affected by others
actor/observer bias
the tendency for actors to make external attributions and observers to make internal attributions
Need for cognition is
the tendency for an individual to engage in and enjoy effortful thinking.
What is the bystander effect?
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
public self-consciousness
the tendency to think about how others perceive you
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes
Self-determination theory
the theory that people need to feel at least some degree of autonomy and internal motivation
self-perception theory
the theory that people observe their own behavior to infer what they are thinking and how they are feeling
population
the total number of people under consideration
According to the standard view, people think in order to find
the truth
Social learning (also called observational learning, imitation, or vicarious learning) is
the type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and are less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them.
cognitive dissonance
the uncomfortable feeling people experience when they have two thoughts or cognitions conflict with one another
psychological reactance
the unpleasant emotional response people experience when someone is trying to restrict their freedom to engage in a desired behavior
Destruction of alternatives
there are no others options we were forced to take this route of violence.
Since newborns are predisposed to look toward attractive faces in preference to other stimuli, this offers evidence that _____.
there is a neurobiological basis for the preference for attractiveness
If people are forewarned that a persuasive message is coming,
they are less persuaded by it.
People engage in self-defeating behavior because
they are making tradeoffs or because they are using ineffective strategies, but not usually because they are directly seeking failure.
If people see an equal amount of confirming and disconfirming evidence,
they become even more convinced of their initial attitudes and adopt them more strongly.
When people resist persuasion,
they become more confident in their initial attitudes.
Because humans have conscious thought
they can question, doubt, and reject a belief as untrue. Other animals lack this ability.
Messages that arouse moderate levels of fear are effective at changing behavior if _____.
they include specific information about realistic steps we can take to avoid the danger
Attitudes are tremendously helpful in making choices.
they increases the ease, speed, and quality of decision making.
When people are accused of prejudice,
they often exert themselves to prove the opposite.
Deindividuation
to refer to loss of self-awareness and of individual accountability in a group
In the Stroop effect, the automatic response is
to say the word rather than the ink color.
Mundane realism refers
to whether the setting and research procedures physically resemble the real world.
discrimination
unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or categories to which they belong
Discrimination refers to
unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or categories to which they belong.
Dissonance is marked by
unpleasant arousal.
Over time, the size of the human brain has increased to enable
us to have rich, complex social lives.
moral reasoning
using logical deductions to make moral judgments based on abstract principles of right and wrong
Relational aggression
using your friends to help hurt another socially
Human relationships often require some __________ or _________ by the culture.
validation or recognition
Goals are the meaningful link between
values and actions
bad emotions are linked to
various events that end, damage, or threaten relationships.
automatic attitudes
very fast evaluative, "gut-level" responses that people don't think a great deal about
The social exchange theory
views sex as a resource that women have and that men want and are willing to exchange other resources for.
People who are repeatedly or continually ostracized by others over a long period of time report a broad variety of problems: pain, illness, depression, suicidal thoughts, eating disorders, helplessness, and promiscuity. Their self-esteem suffers, and they may feel worthless. This makes it clear that people naturally _____.
want to be in relationships
egoistic helping
when a helper seeks to increase his or her own welfare by helping another
HARKing (Hypothesizing After the Results are Known)
when a hypothesis is formulated after the data are collected and analyzed, but presented as if it was formulated before the data were collected
When children withdraw from contact with others, they tend to get rejected by others in turn. As these children become adolescents, the avoidance by others _____.
will likely escalate
A trait that reduces one's chances for survival or reproduction
will probably not become common
A trait that improves survival or reproduction
will tend to endure for many generations and become more common.
Olivia has decided to not take a certain job because she knows that it would be a strain on her husband and the marriage. Her decision would be an example of _____ relationship maintenance behavior.
willingness to sacrifice
When is dissonance most likely to lead to change in behavior?
with the hypocrisy induction dissonance; because it allows them to reflect on their actions
Cooperation
working together with someone for mutual or reciprocal benefit
People who like music and are sensitive to it are also more oriented toward _____.
working with group members
The stereotype that men separate love from sex more easily than women is ________.
wrong
As soon as you know what something is,
you start to know whether you like or dislike it (in the first microsecond of thought).
At least two basic arousal patterns
—pleasant and unpleasant—underlie emotions.
Applying what you know about the CORFing effect, what are fair-weather MSU fans most likely to say after a recent football game loss?
"They really sucked at that game"
Applying what you know about the BIRGing effect, what are fair weather MSU fans most likely to say after the recent football game loss?
"We did really great"
Exposure becomes the "norm"
"Women regularly exposed to men of heavier body weight reported a greater attraction toward overweight men..."
proactive aggression (also called instrumental aggression)(also called instrumental aggression)
"cold," or premeditated, calculated harmful behavior that is a means to some practical or material end
Culture operates as a _________ of information.
"general store"
Using brain scan technology, researchers found that babies, three months old, could _________ different emotions.
"hear"
reactive aggression (also called hostile aggression)(also called hostile, affective, emotional, angry, impulsive, or retaliatory aggression)
"hot," impulsive, angry behavior motivated by a desire to harm someone
An influential article has called the two systems ______________ and ____________ and these terms capture the gist of how they operate.
"impulsive" and "reflective,"
Philosophy
"love of wisdom"; the pursuit of knowledge about fundamental matters such as life, death, meaning, reality, and truth
Darwin's contemporary Herbert Spencer coined the phrase
"survival of the fittest" to describe natural selection.
Social psychologists like to use the phrase ________ to describe human nature.
"the social animal"
"You hurt my feelings" is usually tied to an implicit message that
"you don't care about our relationship."
Know roles of dACC, right ventral prefrontal cortex, ventral portion of the medial prefrontal cortex, the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex. Inferior frontal gyrus, somatosensory cortices, posterior insula, the executive control center (dorsal stratum, lateral PFC) - will see what we get to as we may not have time to get to all of the neurological evidence.
-PFC- emotion regulation; make sense of things/control -vmPFC- defense/ coping mechanism; what do we do -dorsal medial- me center; the judge -inferior frontal gyrus- allows us to pay attention to where our pain is in the body -somatosensory cortices- processes light and heavy touch things of pain level -posterior insula- processes the physical intensity of pain
Which of the following is a positive illusion that people hold?
-People overestimate their strengths and underestimate their faults. -People overestimate their perceived control over events. -People are unrealistically optimistic
The four kinds or styles of attachment are
-Secure attachment -Dismissing avoidant attachment -Fearful avoidant attachment -Preoccupied (or anxious/ambivalent) attachment
Differences between social and cultural animals include the following:
-Social animals work together; cultural animals also use extensive division of labor. -Social animals may learn things from one another; cultural animals deliberately share knowledge with the group. -Social animals may help kin; cultural animals have a broader sense of community and often help strangers. -Social animals mainly use aggression to resolve conflict; cultural animals have many alternatives, including moral principles, compromise, and the rule of law.
What are signs to look for that the material you are consuming may be less than reliable?
-Source (Trust*, Liking, Reliability, Bias, Authority) -Sources in the source -Message (Provoking, Emotion, Fact, Goal) -Medium/Context -Recipient
Treatment?
-Take two Tylenol and call me in the morning... -Pain killers can kill social pain (at least temporarily; DeWall et al., 2010) -Particularly for women, not men (Vangelisti et al., 2014) -But not for those depressed (Hsu et al., 2015) -So can marijuana (Deckman et al., 2014) -So can thinking you are drunk (Hales et al., 2015) -And anti-depressants can help alleviate physical pain (Williamson et al., 2014)
Newer Theory Proximity
-The males-compete/females-choose (MCFC) model applies to many species but is misleading when applied to human beings and limited by sexual orientation. -Males in our species commonly contribute to the rearing of the young, which reduces the sex difference in parental investment and increases offspring survival. -Consequently, sex differences in our species are relatively modest. -Rather than males competing and females choosing, humans have a system of mutual courtship: Both sexes are choosy about long-term mates, and both sexes compete for desirable mates. And this then extends across sexual orientations.
Newer Theory We call this the mutual mate choice (MMC) model.
-The males-compete/females-choose (MCFC) model applies to many species but is misleading when applied to human beings and limited by sexual orientation. -Males in our species commonly contribute to the rearing of the young, which reduces the sex difference in parental investment and increases offspring survival. -Consequently, sex differences in our species are relatively modest. -Rather than males competing and females choosing, humans have a system of mutual courtship: Both sexes are choosy about long-term mates, and both sexes compete for desirable mates. And this then extends across sexual orientations.
Misattribution of Arousal
-The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do (Schacter & Singer, 1962) -Add the propensity to transfer arousal from one event to another ("Excitation transfer" - Zillman, 1979) -Coupled with the preference to attribute arousal to positive instead of negative causes... -64% (suspension bridge) vs. 30% (low bridge)
What is the misattribution of arousal effect? (Note, how arousal contributes to attraction.)
-The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do (Schacter & Singer, 1962) -Add the propensity to transfer arousal from one event to another ("Excitation transfer" - Zillman, 1979) -Coupled with the preference to attribute arousal to positive instead of negative causes... -64% (suspension bridge) vs. 30% (low bridge)
Addiction & Craving
-There may be physiological basis linked to "cravings" for the ex-partner. -Brown and her colleagues used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to recorded the brain activity of 15 college-age adults who had experienced a recent unwanted breakup and reported still feeling love for the ex-partner. -Upon viewing photographs of their former partners, there was activity in the same areas of the brain as where addicts show activation when they crave a drug they are withdrawing from. -This can lead to intense distress and physiological as well as psychological discomfort.
Four experiments tested the idea that social exclusion leads to (unintentionally) self-defeating behavior. Exclusion was manipulated by telling some people that they were likely to end up alone later in life.
-This randomly assigned feedback caused people to take irrational, self-defeating risks (Experiments 1 and 2), -choose unhealthy, rather than healthy, behaviors (Experiment 3), and -procrastinate longer with pleasurable activities rather than practicing for an upcoming test (Experiment 4). -A control group, who heard that their future would be marred by frequent accidents, did not show these self-defeating patterns. Thus, the effect goes beyond just hearing bad news.
Human beings may be different from all other animals, but we are animals nonetheless. As such, we have many of the same wants, needs, and problems that most other animals have.
-We need food and water on a regular basis, preferably a couple of times every day. -We need sleep. -We need shelter and warmth. -We need air. -We suffer illnesses and injuries and must find ways to recover from them.
A trained researcher walked past other pedestrians and did one of the following: 1. glanced quickly at them 2. gave a perfunctory nod and smile 3. looked right past them as if they didn't exist Another member of the research team would stop the pedestrians on the next corner to ask a few questions about whether they feel disconnected from other people.
-When pedestrians didn't get any acknowledgment from the stranger passing them, they reported a substantially lower sense of connection to other people. -These findings mirror research of elevator riders from over 20 years ago that showed how being completely ignored by the stranger standing next to you leads to a shift away from happiness toward hurtful feelings.
Not necessarily what they do... Picky...picky...
-When you look at behavioral studies (e.g. Walster, 1966) there is often no difference between men and women, heterosexual or homosexual, in their behaviors, all desire the most attractive partner they can attain. -EX: A man who was 5' 8" could get as many dates as a 6' ft man, provided the shorter man made $146,000 more ($277,000 if 5'2") - Hitsch et al., 2006
A study of online dating found that 50% of the white women and 80% of the white men said that race didn't matter to them and they would be willing to date anyone from any race. However, the white women who said race did not matter to them sent _____ of their responses to white men, and the white men who were supposedly open to any race sent _____ of their responses to white women.
97%; 90%
Based on research, which of the following political candidates will benefit the most from the use of negative campaigning?
A candidate who is so far behind in the polls that a win seems impossible
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?
A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude. Therefore, someone can be prejudiced towards a certain group but not discriminate against them. Also, prejudice includes all three components of an attitude (affective, behavioral and cognitive), whereas discrimination just involves behavior.
What is the susceptible circle?
A taxonomy of followers associated with destructive leadership.
What is the triangular theory of love?
A theory proposing that love has three basic components - intimacy, passion, and commitment
symbolic self-awareness
A unique human ability to develop and communicate a representation of oneself to others through language.
Self-harm
-In a series of experiments, social exclusion caused people to spend and consume strategically in the service of affiliation. Relative to controls, excluded participants were more likely to: -buy a product symbolic of group membership (but not practical or self-gift items), -tailor their spending preferences to the preferences of an interaction partner, -spend money on an unappealing food item favored by a peer, and -Overall, results suggest that socially excluded people sacrifice personal and financial well-being for the sake of social well-being.
We like those near us
-In an early study by Festinger, friendships in an apartment complex were charted. People in close physical and functional proximity were most likely to form friendships. -In a new study by dating app, Hinge, people were most likely to "swipe right" on potential dates withing 3 degrees of separation.
"five faces" of dissonance
-Insufficient Justification for Discrepancies -Induced Hypocrisy Dissonance -Post-Decision Dissonance -Effort Justification -Dissonance Belief -Disconfirmation Dissonance
Keeping with the last question, research has shown that the use of deception in research is...
-Is no more harmful than non-deception research. -Can actually be beneficial to participants (e.g. they enjoy the study more, feel they learned more)
Feeling Hungry?
-Men going into a restaurant perceived fuller-figure women as more attractive, while men coming out of a restaurant preferred thinner women (Nelson & Morrison, 2005) -In an experimental replication, Swami & Tovee (2006) found 30 hungry male participants preferred figures with a higher body weight and rated as more attractive heavier figures than 31 satiated male participants
Misinformation vs. Disinformation
-Misinformation is completely false and have no evidence. -Disinformation is when people spread false info unknowingly
More Cognition & Affect Physiology Death
-Neglected, Withdrawn, Aggressive Rejected -Rejection Sensitivity -Decreased self-regulation -Risk-taking -Depression & Anxiety -Higher cortisol -"Metabolic syndrome" -Higher activity in dorsal striatum & dorso-lateral PFC -Increased morbidity & mortality -Higher "fearfulness" -Attentional bias for rejecting info -Exhibit hostile biases -Hostile attribution bias -Hostile perception bias -Hostile expectation bias -Emotional numbness -Hopelessness about inclusion -General hostility
Situations
-Neoteny: From the cradle -Universal stereotype: "What is beautiful is good" -Starts young -Evident across cultures -People tend to be poor predictors of what they will find attractive
The Eye of the Beholder?
-Neoteny: From the cradle -Universal stereotype: "What is beautiful is good" -Starts young -Evident across cultures -People tend to be poor predictors of what they will find attractive
Self-efficacy
An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
The relationship between fear and attitude change, where fear is effective when not too high nor too low in the message is called:
An inverted U-shaped relationship
According to research, which emotion helps messages travel fastest and farthest:
Anger
You know that there is a relationship between rock music and violent behavior, however you are unsure if listening to rock music leads to violent behavior, or if violent behavior makes you listen to rock music. What type of relationship is this?
Bidirectional
What is the school-to-prison pipeline? And related: the Cumulative Bias Effect?
Black students are 3-4 times more likely than their white peers to be expelled or suspended.
Dr. Sinclair decides to conduct an experiment in class where after getting back the exam results she tells the class that the students in the front of the class, on average, outperformed those in the back of the class (this is not actually true). And in her experience, she has found this to be true across multiple years of teaching. There is just something about front-seaters that makes them better than back-seaters. Over the course of the semester, what outcomes could Dr. Sinclair expect?
Both groups would immediately start to prefer their own group per the minimal group effect.
A company executive regularly brings donuts, cookies, and other tasty treats to the meetings she chairs. Her group is known for being highly productive and maintaining close cooperative relationships with each other. How would a social psychologist view the treats?
Bringing treats to meetings helps make the meetings more pleasant, thus increasing the likelihood of close cooperative relationships.
Many influential thinkers, from the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle right down to the modern social psychologist Elliot Aronson, have used this phrase.
By calling people social animals, these thinkers are saying that people seek connections to others and prefer to live, work, and play together with other people.
Social psychology has most heavily borrowed methodological tools from what other psychology branch?
Cognitive
Empty Love:
Commitment alone, as in a couple that stays together despite loss of passion & intimacy.
Love pentagons?
Compassionate - Attachment (Oxytocin) Committed - Pair-bonding (Vasopressin) Passionate - Sexual Desire (Androgens) Obsessive - Invasive Thoughts (Low Serotonin) Romantic - Idealization & Elation (Norepinephrine)
Framing effect
DEFINITION: People react differently to a particular choice depending on whether it is presented with a negative frame (e.g., as a loss) or with a positive frame (e.g., as a gain). EXAMPLE: More people became receptive to the use of military force when it was framed in terms of how many lives could be saved instead of keeping losses to a minimum.
Planning fallacy
DEFINITION: People underestimate how long it will take them to complete a task (even if they have experience in the past with misjudging the duration of similar tasks). EXAMPLE: Some students always leave studying for an exam till the night before the exam because they think it won't take long, and then inevitably end up pulling "all-nighters."
Illusory correlations
DEFINITION: Perceiving there is a relationship (often causal) between two events that co-occur even when no such relationship exists. EXAMPLE: There is a correlation between the occurrence of exams and the death of distant relatives, yet it seems unlikely that midterms kill grandmas.
Third person effect
DEFINITION: The belief that others are more affected by persuasive media (e.g., advertisements, propaganda) than oneself. BEST EXAMPLE: People may support some limits on violent media for others, but when asked if they are affected by violent imagery they will say no.
Fundamental Attribution Error.
DEFINITION: The general tendency to underestimate situational/environmental influences on people's behavior and overestimate the role of personal causes, i.e., to make internal attributions over external attributions. EXAMPLE: When explaining why a person is impoverished, people tend to focus on internal characteristics (e.g., they are lazy, don't want to work hard) and overlook external contributors (e.g., they do not get paid more than minimum wage and their employer only schedules them for 30 hours a week to avoid paying benefits, leaving them to foot the huge bills for medical care -the leading cause of debt)
Gambler's fallacy
DEFINITION: The mistaken perception that the odds of something occurring changes depending on recent occurrences despite the odds actually having a fixed probability (thus they are expecting outcomes in random sequences to exhibit systematic reversals). Is a type of base rate fallacy where people believe that base rates or probabilities "self-correct." EXAMPLE: At a casino, people watch slot machines that haven't paid out in a long time and pick them as they think the chances of payout are higher because "it's just about time" for it to be a winner.
Theory Perseverance (aka Perseverance effect)
DEFINITION: The perseverance effect is the tendency to cling to one's newly held belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief. Note, unlike the backfire effect it doesn't require that one becomes stronger in the initial belief, rather they just stubbornly refuse to change their mind or listen. EXAMPLE:Despite the failure of Florida's program to drug test welfare recipients (i.e., it failed because it cost dramatically more than it saved and few individuals tested positive [lower than the national average], plus it was found unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court), the program continues to have strong support when people hear it proposed.
False consensus effect (aka: Projection bias)
DEFINITION: The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions and undesirable attributes or behaviors. EXAMPLE: Students who engage in binge drinking dramatically overestimate the frequency in which their peers engage in the same behavior.
Actor-observer bias
DEFINITION: The tendency for those observing the actions of others to make internal attributions for the observed behaviors, whereas those engaged in the action (the actors) see external attributions as driving them. EXAMPLE: Someone cuts you off when driving, and you - the observer - assume they are a bad driver (internal attribution), but the driver - the actor - feels they only did it to get out of the way of another car that swerved into their lane (external attribution).
Hot hand fallacy
DEFINITION: The tendency to believe that because one is "on a roll" (e.g., with a gamble, in a sport) that the luck will simply continue. EXAMPLE: Basketball fans believe that players have "hot hands," being more likely than average to make the next shot when currently on a hot streak, yet several studies have shown there is no empirical evidence for such streaks predicting their ability to make the next shot.
Counterfactual thinking
DEFINITION: The tendency to imagine alternative outcomes that might have occurred but did not. If we imagine a result better than the outcome, it leads to negative emotions. If we imagine a result worse than what we got, we feel better. This is a type of simulation heuristic. EXAMPLE: Missed connections lists on craigslist are full of people who imagine "what might have been" as better - the possibility of a romantic relationship - than what actually happened (a passing glance at the Laundromat). This is the "if only..." cognitive bias.
comformation bias
DEFINITION: The tendency to notice, search, and store information that confirms our preexisting beliefs/attitudes, while discounting or ignoring information that counters our beliefs. EXAMPLE: My Dad believes that women are bad drivers and so he notices every time a female driver makes a driving mistake but doesn't notice when men do and ignore evidence like the fact that male drivers actually have higher rates of accidents (and thus pay more insurance).
False uniqueness effect
DEFINITION: The tendency to underestimate the number of other people who share one's desirable characteristics, attitudes, and abilities. EXAMPLE:Most students rate themselves as above average on being "moral" (as per the above average effect), but when asked what percentage of their peers are as moral as they are they tend to identify less than a third.
Hindsight bias
DEFINITION: Think of this as the "knew it all along" effect - it is when people believe that an outcome is more predictable and obvious than it really is AFTER they hear about the event. EXAMPLE: A lot of times when people hear the results of a psychological study they say "Duh, wasn't that obvious? It's really just common sense." Yet they would have likely said that if the results had turned out the complete opposite. (For example, if one study finds opposites attract and another study finds similarity leads to attraction, people would have the same reaction despite the opposite results.)
Omission bias
DEFINITION: We will judge actions that directly cause harm as worse (e.g., more severe, less moral) than harm that arose due to inaction, even if the outcome is the same. EXAMPLE: The man who stabbed the homeless man and left him on the street to die is a worse person than the bystander who walks by the homeless person, obviously injured, and does nothing to help them. In both instances the man dies, but one is due to the action of others and the other due to the inaction.
Backfire effect
DEFINITION: When attempts to dissuade people of a certain belief by presenting contrary evidence leads them to hold onto their beliefs even more strongly. It triggers a confirmation bias to then selectively attend to information that supports the original belief. EXAMPLE: An eyewitness to a crime rates her confidence in her identification as even stronger after the man she identified has been exonerated by DNA evidence.
Polarization (of opinion; aka Attitude Polarization)
DEFINITION: When group discussion of an attitude triggers reflection on that attitude, and, as a result the attitude becomes more extreme than it was initially. This differs from the backfire effect because no attempt to change the view point needs to have been attempted. It could just come about from a discussion among like-minded individuals. EXAMPLE: After a political discussion on Facebook, people often end up taking even stronger stances on the same issue in subsequent discussions.
Base rate fallacy
DEFINITION: When judgments of the likelihood of an outcome are based on conspicuous information (e.g., novel or distinctive information, easily accessible information - based on heuristics) as opposed to being based on the actual probability that it will occur. EXAMPLE: People will overestimate the likelihood of being a victim of a violent crime based on the salience of these incidents in the news, instead of based on the actual facts that on average Americans have a 0.02% chance of being a victim of a violent crime.
Focusing effect
DEFINITION: When we are making judgments, we tend to place too much emphasis on some aspects, typically due to heuristics, what is novel, or what fits with a schema, and less on others, leading us to weigh factors unevenly. EXAMPLE: When judging who is happier in their job, we will think that the woman who just got a raise is happiest compared to the man who didn't, disregarding the fact that her salary was low to begin with, that the raise didn't include a promotion, and ignoring evidence showing that income isn't that strong of a predictor of happiness.
Observational Selection Bias
DEFINITION: Whenever we notice something we hadn't noticed before, we will wrongly assume that the prevalence of that event/person/thing has increased. EXAMPLE: Whenever I had a child, I started noticing that a lot of my other colleagues seem to be having kids also.
Fatuous Love:
Declaring an eternal love for someone when one does not really know the person.
Which form of decision avoidance involves choosing an option that requires one to do nothing?
Default option
Jabari doesn't like discussing welfare because the recipients of welfare make him feel an array of negative emotions (e.g, pity, contempt, frustration). According to attitude functions theory, which label applies to why Jabari holds the attitudes he does towards welfare recipients?
Defensive
Social Responsibility Norms
Defined: An expectation to help those who are dependent on us, even if the cost outweighs the benefit
Derick doesn't see the need for relationships in his life. He prefers his independence and dislikes the idea of counting on others, especially as he doesn't trust other people much. Derick likely exhibits what attachment style:
Dismissive
Brandi is interested in increasing the sales of lettuce in her supermarket. So she sets up a display table at the entrance and as people come in she asks them: "Would you like to buy some Lettoose? It's really good for you." Brandi is using what social influence technique?
Disrupt then reframe
Anna has just snuck out to go to a party, but she leaves her parents a note saying she has run away from home with her boyfriend, who, by the way, has gotten her pregnant. Then at the end, she writes "turn over" and on the back says "Just kidding. I've gone to a party at Heather's. But see how much worse of a kid I could be." Anna is using what persuasion tactic to try and reduce her potential punishment?
Door-in-the-face
Which influence techniques are based on reciprocal concessions?
Door-in-the-face and that's-not-all techniques
In Fisher's neurobiological model of love the attraction system is linked to the reward center structures in the brain and elevated levels of:
Dopamine
Attitudes linked to identity can be the hardest to change, as neuroscience shows that when the self-representation center (i.e., _____________) is active in response to a persuasion attempt, the attention and engagement center (i.e., ____________) is deactivated. They just don't even attend to the message anymore:
Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex...orbitofrontal cortex
Which of the following researchers would be classified as a "basic researcher"?
Dr. Brain studies memory processes.
Which of the following is an example of a prescriptive stereotype?
East Asians are supposed to be good at math.
The _______________ argues that primates evolved bigger brains in order to help them find, figure out and digest more complex foods.
Ecological hypothesis
Who said that he spent his entire life studying social psychology because he had a "basic curiosity about people"?
Edward E. Jones
Are there any differences by age or gender?
Effects Stronger in Adolescence
One of the reasons people who scale Mount Everest feel like it was all worth it, is likely due to the ___________ form of cognitive dissonance:
Effort Justification
In fact, of the different types of "arguers" on Twitter, which type has the most influence because they use a two-sided approach:
Gatekeepers
Sometimes known as the gateway between the hippocampus and the neocortex, this part of the brain is associated with recognizing people and their relationships with others you know.
Entorhinal cortex
What are the necessary conditions for the Contact Hypothesis to work? Break them down. Does just contact work?
Equal status contact, sustained close contact, intergroup cooperation, superordinate goals, positive affect, and social norms favor equality
Jeanelle has just had plenty of caffeine and sugar when she heads to class. Suppose someone bumps into Jeanelle and she gets uncharacteristically angry. What could best account for her uncharacteristic anger?
Excitation transfer
Violet is strongly pro-life. She goes out and protests every weekend in front of clinics. However, one night, her roommate, Beth, (also her best friend and fellow protester) comes to her to tell her that she was raped and is now pregnant. Beth asks Violet to go with her to the abortion clinic, because she just can't do it alone. Because Violet loves Beth like a sister, she goes. Based on this situation it is likely that Violet will:
Experience cognitive dissonance
The reason for this difference has been much disputed. Two social psychologists found the answer:
Experiences are generally shared with others, whereas objects are often used by oneself alone. They found, for example, that solitary experiences were no more valued or meaningful than material possessions
In contrast, Damien switched to the Democratic party after having to confront a lot of hostility for being gay when he was a member of the Log Cabin Republicans. Damien's current anti-Republican perceptions are ___________?
Experiential-Schematic
What research methodology do most social psychologists use?
Experimental studies
Two characteristics can influence source credibility:
Expertise—how much the source knows. Trustworthiness—how honest the source is.
Aaron just quit his job with no notice because he feels overwhelmed by his school work and thus has no time to work. Aaron is making a(n) _______________ attribution.
External
Because aversive racists tend to fear negative evaluations (e.g., being labeled a bigot), it is reasonable to expect that they would also likely score high on _________.
External (or extrinsic) motivations to suppress prejudice
If one wants to maintain a satisfied romantic relationship, s/he should make _________ attributions for relationship problems and__________ attributions for relationship successes.
External; internal
The shooter bias may help to explain why _____________________ disproportionately affect(s) African-American men.
Extrajudicial killings
hyperpartisan news
Extremely partisan; extremely biased in favor of a political party. Sharply polarized by political parties in fierce disagreement with each other.
Which of the following is an example of confirmation bias?
Fabian thinks women are more organized than men. He thinks Gloria is neater than Bob, though Gloria stacks charts on her desk and Bob has a numerical filing system.
Automatic
Fast Outside of conscious control Unintentional Inflexible Poor at combining information Estimates Can perform simple operations Can do many things at once Intuition Effortless
Sholanda has decided she is tired of being hurt in relationships. She has been betrayed, rejected, and just burned too many times and doesn't trust that it won't happen again. She isn't sure if it is her or her partners that lead relationships to go badly, so she just doesn't want to risk it. Sholanda likely exhibits what attachment style:
Fearful
Harley and Dakota have dated for nearly three years and have been exclusive for almost six months. Harley is sure Dakota is "the one" and is about to propose, when Dakota states that she wants to break up. Which reaction might Harley experience that appears to be rooted in biology?
Feeling numb
Although culture is not all good, its advantages outweigh its disadvantages.
For example, culture has enabled modern humans to more than double the life spans of our ancestors.
The idea of abstinence-only sex education, in which adolescents are taught that no sexual activity is permissible outside of marriage, remains a popular approach among some groups, despite the fact that research has shown that it is ineffective and even counterproductive. Based on the TOTE model, what is the best way to teach young people to exert self-control over their sexual impulses?
Give them an opportunity to develop their willpower via acceptable contact
Bill, a long-standing member of AA, was at a bar one night for his birthday and drove home after having a few too many drinks. He gets pulled over and arrested for DUI. Why might Bill NOT experience any cognitive dissonance about his behavior?
He was too drunk to feel any negative arousal about his actions
Lori doesn't believe in the whole "love at first sight" idea. She believes there are any number of possible matches out in the world, but ultimately they are likely fleeting romances as the moment conflict arises her relationships tend to end. Which relationship orientation does Lori exemplify?
Helplessness
Which way are we most likely to choose?
If we can't avoid dissonance we choose the path of least resistance change cognitions
Human beings can think about and plan for the future, unlike squirrels.
If you dig up all a squirrel's nuts and cart them off, the squirrel just goes on burying more nuts at the same pace, not even trying to compensate for the loss. But if humans lose their stores—perhaps because of a power failure that causes all the food in the refrigerator to spoil—then people quickly compensate by replacing the lost supply.
What are ironic processes?
Ironic process theory, ironic rebound, or the white bear problem refers to the psychological process whereby deliberate attempts to suppress certain thoughts make them more likely to surface. An example is how when someone is actively trying not to think of a white bear they may actually be more likely to imagine one.
Many a broken heart has been soothed with ultra-rich ice cream consumed straight from the carton. What is the relationship between such dietary indulgences and rejection?
It is primarily one of self-regulation because people who are rejected do not self-regulate their eating as effectively
Mitch and Janelle just got divorce, applying what you know about gender differences in divorce statistics tell me which of the following statements is most likely true about their relationship?
Janelle probably broke up with Mitch
Jasmine wants to get her little brother, Miles, to cover for her while she sneaks out overnight to see the boyfriend her parents hate. When he resists, she reminds him that he lied for her about skipping school last week, so what's the big deal. What tactic is Jasmine using to get her brother to cover for her?
Jasmine is using the foot-in-the-door technique
The traditional emphasis is individual competition (me vs. you).
Perhaps surprisingly, they found no evidence that this kind of competition had much effect
Janice likes SUVs and says that she feels safer in them than in other vehicles. In advance of buying one herself, she does her research. She reads a magazine article that said that SUVs were involved in more fatal accidents than other types of vehicles. Now, Janice is beginning to wonder whether the magazine can be trusted to report accurate information. This can best be explained by _____.
Perseverance effect
According to Kurt Lewin's formula, behavior is a function of what two variables?
Person and situation
Hal prides himself in his winning looks and charm. He views his relationships with women as conquests and chalks up every date with a popular woman as a win in the contest of love. Which of the following love styles does Hal most closely exemplify?
Ludus
Based on what you know about the importance of attitudes, who would you say is likely to enjoy the best physical and psychological health?
Marlys, who knows and can clearly state what she likes and what she does not like
Charles is an assistant manager at a large chain store. A recent inspection by district managers revealed problems with employees not meeting the standards for grooming and how their uniforms should be worn. If Charles wants to use self-awareness to help employees self-regulate, which strategy would heighten his employees' self-awareness?
Place a mirror near the exit of the locker/break room where employees will look at themselves as they go into the store
_________ emotions are generally associated with forming social bonds, whereas __________ emotions are generally associated with breaking social bonds.
Pleasant; unpleasant
Keeping with the last question: In order to reduce his dissonance, Terrence is likely to do what?:
Rationalize how his phone is superior and the iPhone inferior
How might you best respond to someone who claims that women are far more emotional than men and therefore not suited for jobs in which they have to make critical decisions?
Research using objective measures has found that men are actually slightly more emotional than women, at least in Western society.
Self-regulation is most similar to which of the following concepts?
Self-control
_____________ argues that maintaining novelty in a romantic relationship is an essential ingredient for relationship success.
Self-expansion theory
Terrence is worried about how he is going to do on Thursday's test, so rather than study he decides to be a "good employee" and pick up late shifts at work. Then he doesn't "have time" to study and is sleep-deprived come Thursday. This way his poor performance isn't about him being a "bad student" but a overworked student. Terrence is doing what to protect his self-esteem?
Self-handicapping
"Do I like parades? Well, each year there have been several parades in town, and I haven't gone to one yet. I must not like parades." Which theory explains this internal dialogue?
Self-perception theory
Still most of the time Aaron blames his failures to complete a project on others, and often fails to credit others for their contributions to his successes, thereby exhibiting a:
Self-serving bias
Donald can't imagine his life without Daisy. He thinks he would be absolutely devastated if they broke up. Yet when she does leave him for some Daffy other guy, he finds he is over it in two weeks. Donald's overestimate of his reaction is an example of what?
Prospective impact biases
Alice just read a post on social media about how the Newtown elementary school massacre was faked with "crisis actors," the conspiracy effect would predict what?
She is more likely to become wary of science She is less likely to engage in community service
Loriana is a nervous person and she gets especially anxious before taking tests. In fact, she has been so anxious recently that her grades are suffering. Based on the Yerkes-Dodson law, what might be her best alternative?
Since there is an inverted-U shaped relationship between arousal and performance, she should try to reduce her anxiety somewhat, but not eliminate it.
Being social animals is not what is most special about human beings. What is special is being cultural animals.
Some other animals have bits and scraps of culture, such as when a tribe of monkeys all use stones to open nuts, or learn to rinse their potatoes in the stream to get the dirt off, but none comes anywhere close to having the remarkably rich and powerful cultural systems that humans have
The automatic and deliberate systems are not independent of one another.
Sometimes they work together, and sometimes they work against each other.
Keeping with the last question: In choosing to focus on the benefits his phone has over the iPhone, Terrence is engaging in what?:
Spreading the alternatives
You are watching TV late one night and an info-mercial advertising The Bullet comes on. They show you all the neat things the Bullet can do, and then say, "we will throw in this set on knives for free." This is an example of :
That's Not All Technique
What are the different sources of anxiety about intergroup interactions for majority vs minority interaction members?
The concern of being seen as good or moral. Interaction avoided because fear it will result in not being liked and thus less positive self-views due to biased "missteps" vs Concern about being treated with respect as an individual or group member. Voluntary interactions avoided due to past mistreatment, misunderstanding, feeling forced to sacrifice identity, having to manage feelings of the other, and stereotype threat.
Convert communicators make up for their deficits in trustworthiness by arguing against their past transgressions.
They can be very persuasive. They are likable because they are similar to audience members. They show a sense of mastery because they were able to overcome their undesirable behavior.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) and the heuristic/systematic model are similar.
They describe two routes to persuasion: one involving conscious processing and one involving automatic processing.
Which statement is true of preoccupied individuals?
They enjoy closeness but are constantly worried that their partners will abandon them.
What is Ambivalent/racism Bias?
They have both positive and negative views about the out-groups.
Consistency theories have three parts:
They specify the conditions that are required for consistency and inconsistency of cognitions. They assume that inconsistency is unpleasant and therefore motivates people to restore consistency. They specify the conditions that are needed to restore consistency.
Suppose you show up for a paid experiment and receive $10. The researcher says you can double your earnings if the outcome of a coin toss is a head or lose your earnings if the outcome of a coin toss is a tail. What does research show that most people would do?
They would not flip the coin and keep their $10.
What is the positive-negative asymmetry effect?
Things high in arousal and high in negative feelings are going to spread the fastest
Some psychological facts and principles are
true for people everywhere. There are also cultural differences, and some of them are quite substantial and important.
Self-protection
trying to avoid loss of esteem
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
Theories
unobservable constructs that are linked together in some logical way
According to self-awareness theory, a self-aware state is ______
unpleasant
An individual who loves someone that does not return his/her affection experiences _____.
unrequited love
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, there is a(n) ________ curve between arousal and performance.
upside down U-shaped
Twelve-year-old Katelin goes shopping with her mother to buy a dress for her first school dance. Katelin and her mother must walk past racks of very expensive dresses to get to the ones they can afford. It appears the store is hoping that _____ will help persuade families to spend more than they can afford.
upward social comparison
stimulus sampling
using more than one exemplar of a stimulus (e.g., more than one violent video game)
When you question whether a survey measures what it purports to measure, you are questioning the instrument's _____.
validity
Intrinsic motivation
wanting to perform an activity for its own sake
Competition between groups (us vs. them)
was a significant but small contributor. (These researchers focused specifically on human females, and so they may have underestimated group vs. group competition, because in prehistory it was mainly males that banded together to fight other groups.) These findings are tentative and provide one intriguing example of what is being learned.
In contrast, dealing with challenges in the environment (me vs. nature)
was the biggest factor—though they thought much of the brain size came from learning from culture how to deal with nature (e.g., how to make fire, which all human societies but no animal groups master).
Nia is waiting to board the train when her traveling companion has a seizure. Nia quickly moves to ensure her friend's safety and her companion soon recovers. Afterward, when her companion is talking about the incident, Nia has no idea who called 911 nor does she recall anything about the emergency responders. Is this normal?
Yes, because arousal tends to focus attention and Nia's attention was focused on her companion.
An innovative program designed to helping individuals who live in homeless shelters to find jobs and progress toward independent living provides makeovers for both men and women who are going on job interviews. The makeovers can include personal grooming, clothing, and even dental services. Are these programs likely to be helpful?
Yes, because people judged to be more attractive do better on job interviews, even when appearance is not related to the job.
Thaddeus, who is five, begins sobbing when he is told he cannot have an ice cream cone. A stranger offers her opinion that "someone" needs to learn how to control his emotions. Is the stranger correct that emotions are subject to conscious processing?
Yes, emotions involve the deliberate part of the duplex mind and are subject to conscious processes.
Which song lyrics have the best, most accurate idea about happiness?
You've got to accentuate the positive, eliminate the negative, latch on to the affirmative
A highly goal-oriented person experiencing constant intrusive thoughts about unfinished goals is most likely experiencing the _____.
Zeigarnik effect
What are zero-sum fallacies?
Zero-sum thinking perceives situations as zero-sum games, where one person's gain would be another's loss. The term is derived from game theory. However, unlike the game theory concept, zero-sum thinking refers to a psychological construct—a person's subjective interpretation of a situation
dominant response
a behavior that takes very little effort or thought and is frequently the default or habitual response to a specific situation
tradeoff
a choice in which taking or maximizing one benefit requires either accepting a cost or sacrificing another benefit
group
a collection of at least two people who are doing or being something together
generalized other
a combination of other people's views that tells you who and what you are
pique technique
a communicator makes a request in an unusual manner, thereby piquing the target's interest
Trust
a confidence that others will provide benefits and/or not harm you, even if they may be tempted to do otherwise
commitment
a conscious decision that remains constant
emotion
a conscious evaluative reaction that is clearly linked to some event
What is the jigsaw classroom?
a cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts
jigsaw classroom
a cooperative learning technique for reducing feelings of prejudice by having students interact and cooperate to learn material
The jigsaw classroom, developed to reduce prejudice, is
a cooperative learning technique in which group members must work together as a team and share unique information to accomplish a common goal.
consistency motive
a desire to get feedback that confirms what the person already believes about themself
consent form
a document that participants receive before a study begins; the form contains enough information about the study procedures, including any potential harm they (or others) might experience, so participants can decide if they want to participate
Reactance occurs when
a freedom or a choice is removed, making the person want the lost option more and perhaps take steps to reclaim it.
prisoner's dilemma
a game that forces people to choose between cooperation and competition
private acceptance
a genuine inner belief that others are right
In general, favors are
a good way to promote liking.
Testosterone
a hormone associated with masculinity, is a mixed blessing, both for the individual who has it and for others connected with that person; it is better suited to finding mates than to maintaining stable families.
replication crisis
a methodological crisis in which scientists have found that many scientific studies conducted in the past do not replicate, or if they do the effects tend to be smaller in size.
shame
a moral emotion that, like guilt, involves feeling bad but, unlike guilt, spreads to the whole person
social cognition
a movement in social psychology that began in the 1970s that focused on thoughts about people and about social relationships
unconditioned response
a naturally occurring response (e.g., salivation)
Prejudice is
a negative feeling or attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group.
Arousal
a physiological reaction, including faster heartbeat and faster or heavier breathing, linked to most conscious emotions
volunteering
a planned, long-term, nonimpulsive decision to help others
Gratitude
a positive emotion that results from the perception that one has benefited from the costly, intentional, voluntary action of another person
conscious emotion
a powerful and clearly unified feeling state, such as anger or joy
self-fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that ensures, by the behavior it generates, that it will come true
self-defeating prophecy
a prediction that ensures, by the behavior it generates, that it will not come true
automatic affect
a quick response of liking or disliking toward something
panic button effect
a reduction in stress or suffering due to a belief that one has the option of escaping or controlling the situation, even if one doesn't exercise it
inverted U-shaped relationship
a relationship that looks like an upside down U when plotted
Praising people is
a reliable way to get them to like you.
accomplice
a research assistant pretending to be another participant in a study
conditioned response
a response that, through repeated pairings, is evoked by a formerly neutral stimulus
fight or flight syndrome
a response to stress that involves aggressing against others or running away
tend and befriend syndrome
a response to stress that involves nurturing others and making friends
that's-not-all technique
a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision
random sample
a sample wherein each person in the population has an equal chance of being selected
interdependent self-construal
a self-concept that emphasizes what connects the self to other people and groups
independent self-construal
a self-concept that emphasizes what makes the self different and sets it apart from others
group polarization effect
a shift toward a more extreme position resulting from group discussion
unrequited love
a situation in which one person loves another but the other does not return that love
Zero-sum games
a situation in which one person's gain is another's loss
social acceptance
a situation in which other people have come to like you, respect you, approve of you, and include you in their groups and relationships
culture of honor
a society that places high value on individual respect, strength, and virtue, and accepts and justifies violent action in response to threats to one's honor
Applied researchers study
a specific practical problem, usually outside the laboratory.
Stroop test
a standard measure of effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify the color of a word (which may name a different color)
decision fatigue
a state of depleted willpower caused by making decisions, which can affect subsequent decisions by causing people to fail to think and choose carefully
humiliation
a state of disgrace or loss of self-respect (or of respect from others)
margin of error
a statistic measure of the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results—for example, a 3% margin of error means that the survey's result could be 3% lower or 3% higher than the average response—the larger the sample is, the smaller the margin of error is
neutral stimulus
a stimulus (e.g., Pavlov's bell) that initially evokes no response
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus (e.g., meat powder) that naturally evokes a particular response (salivation)
Disgust
a strong negative feeling of repugnance and revulsion
experiment
a study in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and randomly assigns people to groups (levels of the independent variable)
risky shift
a tendency for groups to take greater risks than the same individuals (on average) would have decided to take individually
need for cognition
a tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful thinking, analysis, and mental problem solving
What is rejection sensitivity?
a tendency to expect rejection from others and to become hypersensitive to possible rejection
rejection (social exclusion)
a tendency to expect rejection from others and to become hypersensitive to possible rejection
rejection sensitivity
a tendency to expect rejection from others and to become hypersensitive to possible rejection
Zeigarnik effect
a tendency to experience automatic, intrusive thoughts about a goal whose pursuit has been interrupted
cognitive miser
a term used to describe people's reluctance to do much extra thinking
hedonic treadmill
a theory proposing that people stay at about the same level of happiness regardless of what happens to them
social learning (observational learning, imitation, vicarious learning)
a type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
a type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is
a type of learning. People are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and are less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.
quasi-experiment
a type of study in which the researcher can manipulate an independent variable but cannot random assign participants to conditions
Domestic violence (also called family violence or intimate-partner violence) is
a violence that occurs within the home, between people who have a close relationship with each other (such as parents and children, spouses, and siblings).
A person's ability to predict his/her emotional reactions to future events is known as _____.
affective forecasting
According to social learning theory,
aggression is not an innate drive but rather a learned behavior.
violence
aggression that has as its goal extreme physical harm, such as injury or death
Violence is
aggression that has extreme harm as its goal.
appetitive aggression
aggression that is motivated, in part or whole, by an intrinsic enjoyment of the aggressive act
Repeated experiences of rejection or social exclusion can create ___________
aggressive tendencies.
There are two types of rejected people who are actively picked on by their peers, but they differ in whether they lash out -the __________ - or "lash-in" (self-harm) - the ___________ - after being rejected.
aggressive...withdrawn
Kanisha has been married for nearly a decade and is quite satisfied with her relationship. She and her spouse have both put in the effort to ensure that their relationship endures. However, Kanisha has a tendency to wonder whether other people that she dated in the past would make good spouses and, on occasion, has been seriously tempted to reconnect with previous boyfriends. In terms of the investment model, Kanisha is evaluating her _____.
alternatives
Cortical Midline Structures
always looking for things in environment that are relevant to the self
Despite all evidence, Abner believes that the earth is flat. Which approach to attitude change is most likely to work with those whose attitudes are most extreme?
amplified reflection
According to the current view, people think in order to find
an answer that will be persuasive to others
persuasion
an attempt to change a person's attitude
Anger
an emotional response to a real or imagined threat or provocation
homophobia
an excessive fear of homosexuals or homosexual behavior
field experiments
an experiment conducted in a real-world setting
hypothesis
an idea about the possible nature of reality; a prediction tested in an experiment
goal
an idea of some desired future state
Increases in celebrity suicides are linked to increases in plane crashes. This is an example of:
an illusory correlation
one-shot illusory correlations
an illusory correlation that occurs after exposure to only one unusual behavior performed by only one member of an unfamiliar group
perceived behavioral control
an individual's beliefs about whether they can actually perform the behavior in question
subjective norms
an individual's perceptions about whether significant others think he or she should (or should not) perform the behavior in question
behavioral intentions
an individual's plans to perform the behavior in question
Culture is
an information-based system in which many people work together to help satisfy their biological and social needs.
instinct
an innate (inborn, biologically programmed) tendency to seek a particular goal, such as food, water, or sex
non-zero-sum game
an interaction in which both participants can win (or lose)
The independent variable is
an observable event that causes a person in an experiment to do something. It has at least two levels, categories, types, or groups.
debriefing
an oral or written statement participants receive at the end of a psychological study; it serves two main purposes: (1) to fully inform participants about the study and answer any questions they have, and (2) to reduce or eliminate any stress or harm the participant experienced by being in the study
survivor guilt
an unpleasant emotion associated with living through an experience during which other people died
reactance
an unpleasant emotional response that people often experience when someone is trying to restrict their freedom
Guilt
an unpleasant moral emotion associated with a specific instance in which one has acted badly or wrongly
The initial reaction to rejection is often closer to numbness than to
anxiety or sadness. It can interfere with normal psychological and cognitive functioning.
self-defeating behavior
any action by which people bring failure, suffering, or misfortune on themselves
Self-defeating behavior is defined as
any action by which people bring failure, suffering, or misfortune on themselves.
displaced aggression
any behavior that intentionally harms a substitute target rather than the provocateur
indirect aggression
any behavior that intentionally harms another person who is physically absent
direct aggression
any behavior that intentionally harms another person who is physically present
Self-presentation
any behavior that seeks to convey some image of self or some information about the self to other people
When a correlation is negative,
as one variable increases the other variable decreases.
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
Commercials for a well-known animal welfare group often start with feel-good statements about the wonderful things companion animals contribute to our lives and how we, of course, want to protect and care for them. This approach, which addresses positive feelings about companion animals and our obligations to them, relies on _____ to increase the likelihood of donations.
attitude accessibility
Propinquity (being near someone on a regular basis) causes
attraction, but it also can to lead to conflict and friction.
When all else is equal, most people show a substantial preference for _________ over_________ others.
attractive over unattractive
Couples who have a relationship-enhancing style of attribution tend to _____.
attribute their partner's good acts to internal factors and bad acts to external factors
Nina saw her pet cat fall into a pit, and her immediate reaction was to run toward it to help the cat out of the pit. Based on the concept of the duplex mind, Nina's reaction was that of a(n) _____ mind.
automatic
When people form very fast, evaluative responses about an object or issue, it is known as a(n) _____.
automatic attitude
In general, it is most difficult for people to fake _____.
automatic attitudes
People tend to furnish a very positive image of themselves, unless circumstances dictate otherwise. This tendency is called ___________
automatic egotism
Fred worried about flying. He believes the odds of being involved in a crash are high because he can remember hearing about plane crashes in the news. This is an example of________:
availability heuristic
Although some people believe in racial equality and equal opportunity, they tend to feel uncomfortable around people of other races and tend to avoid them when possible. This phenomenon is called _____.
aversive racism
People often __________ making decisions because they fear they will later regret their choice.
avoid
Which of the following is NOT one of the five faces of cognitive dissonance?
avoidance of aversive consequences
People who get uncomfortable when others want to get too close to them are known as _____ individuals.
avoidant
You see the ad for the perfect lamp in the store's circular. When you get to the store, the salesperson says, "I'm sorry, but we do not have that model in stock. However, we do have an upgraded model that is slightly more expensive." What persuasion technique is being used?
bait and switch technique
Sometimes, stores use "sold out" products in their advertisement just to get a customer to visit the store. Once in the store, the customer decides to shop for other things when the intended product is no longer available. This type of selling resembles the _____ technique.
bait-and-switch
Fitting in vs. sticking out
balance between social proof and self-expression
Communal relationships are
based on love and concern for each other, without expectation of direct, equal repayment.
Exchange relationships are
based on reciprocity and fairness.
bad apple effect
based on the folk observation that one bad apple can spoil all the other apples. One loafer can thus cause other workers to loaf as well.
antisocial behavior
behavior that either damages interpersonal relationships or is culturally undesirable
relational aggression (also called social aggression)
behavior that involves intentionally harming another person's social relationships, feelings of acceptance, or inclusion within a group
Prior to the invasion of Iraq, the Bush administration made repeated claims that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program, including biological and chemical weapons as well as the capacity to deliver the WMDs. As the war progressed, no such stockpiles were found, although caches of old, pre-1991 weapons were found. Despite both the lack of supportive evidence as well as evidence to the contrary, some individuals continue to think that Iraq had an active WMD program. This illustrates _____.
belief perseverance
social reality
beliefs held in common by several or many people; public awareness
stereotypes
beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits
Stereotypes are
beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits.
Jose reads Sarina's essay that strongly supports capital punishment. Jose knows that Sarina had been assigned the task of writing the essay favoring capital punishment by her debate teacher. Jose is likely to
believe that Sarina does, at least to some extent, favor capital punishment
Powerful speakers are
believed to be credible.
The automatic system just _____; the deliberate system can ________ this belief by deciding that it is false.
believes; override
Being self-aware can make people behave _________.
better
Women: Men:
better able to judge "hotness" of others; less discerning
This biological movement gained further momentum as some social psychologists began to study the _____ in order to learn how its workings are related to social events
brain
Clinical psychology
branch of psychology that focuses on behavior disorders and other forms of mental illness, and how to treat them
People will conform to a group in which everyone agrees,
but if group members disagree about even the smallest point, then people become willing to stand up for what they believe and go against the majority.
dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
carriers strong emotional component
subtypes
categories that people use for individuals who do not fit a general stereotype
Bill thinks that if he's irritated with his children, he'll feel better and be less inclined to hit them if he just yells and screams. Bill believes in the notion of _____
catharsis
Love activates the ___________ nucleus, whereas lust (i.e., sexual desire)activates the _________ nucleus.
caudate...lenticular
Forgiveness
ceasing to feel angry toward or seek retribution against someone who has wronged you
Fed-up with the misinformation circulating about a particularly volatile topic, you decide to create a series of blog posts that will present the facts and systematically rebut the misinformation. You are therefore relying on the _____ route to persuasion to get your message across.
central
-Preoccupied (or anxious/ambivalent) attachment
characterized by an excessive desire for closeness to the point of desiring to merge with the partner, and worry about abandonment.
-Dismissing avoidant attachment
characterized by avoidance of intimacy and discomfort with close relationships while viewing partners as unreliable, unavailable, and uncaring.
-Fearful avoidant attachment
characterized by avoidance of intimacy and discomfort with close relationships while viewing the self as unlovable.
-Secure attachment
characterized by the comfort with intimacy and no excessive fears of abandonment.
Setting goals includes
choosing among possible goals and evaluating their feasibility and desirability.
self-censorship
choosing not to express doubts or other information that goes against a group's plans and views
A trait that increases an organism's survival rate or leads to better reproductive success is likely to become more
common in a population.
When two brothers help each other without expecting anything in return, it is best considered an example of a(n) _____ relationship.
communal
Like
we agree more with people and things we like
similarity technique
we are attracted to things that are similar to us
When our personal freedom is threatened,
we experience an unpleasant emotional response called psychological reactance, which motivates us to do what is forbidden.
A culture is
what a group of people have in common, including shared beliefs, meanings, and values, as well as shared ways of doing things.
ingratiation
what people actively do to try to make someone like them
Goals tell you
what to do in order to pursue and uphold your values, and setting and pursuing goals is a vital job of the self.
What is belief disconfirmation dissonance?
when a belief becomes part of their identity it becomes extremely difficult when these are questioned for them to change
altruistic helping
when a helper seeks to increase another's welfare and expects nothing in return
What is assortative mating?
when individuals mate with those who are similar to themselves
rule of law
when members of a society (including its most powerful leaders) respect and follow its rules
What is neoteny?
when reproductive adults retain larval characteristics.
Cute Aggression
when something is so cute you just can't handle it
The automatic system may often sustain prejudices,
whereas the conscious system may strive to overcome those prejudices and stereotypes.
Natural selection is a process
whereby genetically based traits become more or less common in a population
trustworthiness
whether a source will honestly tell you what he or she knows
A major attribution dimension is
whether one believes another person's behavior was intentional versus accidental.
Two factors influence our ability to process a message:
whether we are free from distractions and whether we have sufficient knowledge.
yielding
whether you "accept" (believe, and especially whether you change your attitude to agree with) the message
receptivity
whether you "get" (pay attention to, understand) the message
Outgroup members ("they") are people
who belong to a different group or category than we do.
Ingroup members ("we") are people
who belong to the same group or category as we do.
Women act as the gatekeepers
who restrict sex and decide whether and when it will happen.
Women show more erotic plasticity than men, meaning that
women's sex drive can be shaped and altered by social, cultural, and situational forces, whereas men are more driven by innate, biological needs.
Larry and Lavanya are discussing self-awareness and the extent to which it is possible for individuals to accurately know and evaluate themselves. Larry maintains that, because of privileged access, individuals are more capable of knowing themselves than are others. Lavanya points out that, although research supports the idea that people are more accurate in evaluating themselves on traits like_____, they are less accurate with other traits.
worrying
When a bad event happens to a person, if it is extremely unpleasant, people remember it as being __________, and if it was mildly unpleasant, people remember it as being _____________
worse than it was; better than it was
Continuing with the scenario in the previous question, Mark- unlike Alissa- is quite happy with their relationship. He realizes that Alissa is responsible for most of the household duties, but he thinks that it is ok that he does not help with chores because he works 6 days a week and for long hours to ensure that Alissa will not have to get a job and that the two of them can partake on a few luxuries like a couple of trips during the year and nice vehicles, etc. Mark knows that the cost/benefits aspect of their relationship might be a little unequal, but he thinks that this inequality will benefit their relationship in the future. Mark's analysis of he and Alissa's relationship can best be explained by:
communal orientation
Upward social comparisons
comparing yourself to people better than you
Downward social comparisons
comparing yourself to people worse off than you
What is histocompatibility? (Also called immuno-complementarity)
compatibility between the tissues of different individuals, so that one accepts a graft from the other without having an immune reaction.
At age 32, Isabelle has not yet met the person with whom she wants to spend the rest of her life. While having lunch with her grandmother, her grandmother says "there's a lid for every pot." Isabelle's grandmother, while emphasizing that her granddaughter will ultimately find a suitable partner, seems to be emphasizing the importance of _____.
complementarity
Human social systems are more ________ than those of other creatures, so there is more emphasis on each individual being special or unique.
complex
Humans also have far more ______ attitudes than other animals do.
complex
lowballing technique
compliance to an initial attempt is followed by a more costly and less beneficial version of the same request
You are engaging in a spirited discussion with your uncle about gender roles and explain the results of recent research. He responds by dismissively telling you, "that's only a theory." You sigh and emphasize that in science, a theory is _____.
composed of logically linked constructs
Powerless speech includes
compound requests and disclaimers.
evaluation apprehension
concern about how others are judging you and/or your performance
reverse double standard
condemning men more than women for the same sexual behavior (e.g., premarital sex)
reliability
consistency of measurement
People may have some desire to be
consistent in the privacy of their minds, but they have a much stronger desire to be seen by other people as consistent.
"dark tetrad" of personality
consists of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism
identity theft
consists of stealing someone's personal information (e.g., Social Security number, bank account, credit card number) and using it without their permission, usually to obtain money or goods
A state health department creates a campaign to encourage smoking cessation. The materials feature former smokers who describe their transformative experiences during and after quitting. The campaign is making use of _____.
convert communicators
Seven types of hate
cool hate, hot hate, cold hate, boiling hate, simmering hate, seething hate, and burning hate
Competition has
costs, but it also has benefits.
"If only I hadn't driven home from work using a different route," thinks Minh, "then my car would not have been hit in the rear by that other driver!" Minh's statement most clearly reflects
counterfactual thinking
Relationships can thrive when
couples remain on their best behavior with each other.
Stereotypes can also
create a self-defeating prophecy, which ensures, by the behavior it generates, that it will not come true.
Heath believes that jazz musicians tend to be alcoholics and drug addicts. However, his cousin, who is an accomplished jazz musician, is not a drug addict and rarely consumes alcohol. Heath is most likely to deal with this by _____.
creating a "subtype" of jazz musicians who are neither alcoholics nor drug addicts and placing his cousin in that category
Reproductive success consists of
creating many offspring who will in turn create many offspring. Put another way, nature judges you by how many grandchildren you produce.
Reproductive success means
creating offspring who will in turn create other offspring.
The self-serving bias leads people to claim
credit for success but deny blame for failure.
An older member of your family reminisces somewhat wistfully about the so-called Summer of Love in 1967 and the sexual revolution. The sexual revolution attested that _____.
culture can shape the expression of the sex drive
Milgram used ______, a technique where the researcher deliberately lies to the participant about the experiment they are partaking in.
deception
The process of natural selection
decides which traits will disappear and which will continue.
When faced with too many decisions, a person spending too much energy on early choices and taking the easy way for later choices is an example of _____.
decision fatigue
Alcohol has been shown to __________ self-awareness.
decrease
Individual effort __________ as group size increases.
decreases
The sexual double standard is
defined as a pattern of moral judgment that says specific sexual behaviors are acceptable for men but immoral for women. It is supported more by women than by men.
personal relevance
degree to which people expect an issue to have significant consequences for their own lives
Seven-year-old Maxwell has been promised a trip to an amusement park just before school starts in the fall if he reaches certain goals. These include reading at least one book a week, completing an arithmetic workbook, going to his swimming lessons and passing the test, and completing his chores. Maxwell is very excited about the trip, but for it to work as a reward, Maxwell must have the ability to _____.
delay gratification
Communal relationships are more
desirable in intimate relationships, but exchange relationships are more powerful for driving progress and increasing wealth in larger groups.
Prosocial behavior
doing something that is good for other people or for society as a whole
When a natural disaster causes widespread, severe damage, it is not uncommon for people to acknowledge their losses but then add an "at least" statement, such as "at least, unlike what happened to others, we all survived" or "at least, unlike what happened to others, we still have a home to return to." These statements reflect the use of _____.
downward comparison
Suzanne is feeling very discouraged about the only apartment she can afford. It is small, has an outdated kitchen and bathroom, overlooks a bus depot, and is on the fifth floor of a building that has no elevator. Hoping to make her feel better, Suzanne's friend points out that "at least you don't have to share the bathroom and kitchen." Suzanne's friend is hoping that _____ will help Suzanne feel better.
downward social comparison
When we compare ourselves to others who are less capable, we are engaged in a(n) _____.
downward social comparison
People usually form relationships
easily and readily but are reluctant to let relationships end.
Social psychological theories based on _____ predict commitment to relationships by considering factors such as costs, rewards, investments, and the number of alternatives available.
economics
The mere presence of another person _________ performance on a simple task.
enhances
survival in part depends on the circumstances of your ___________
environment
Depressed people _______ how favorably other people regard them, whereas normal people ________ how favorably other people regard them.
estimate accurately; overestimate
A psychologist who focuses on the impact of nature on patterns of human behavior is most likely influenced by _____ theory.
evolutionary
social comparison
examining the difference between oneself and another person
narcissism
excessive self-love and a selfish orientation
Donald places a great deal of emphasis on competing and winning. His focus, whether at work or at home, is on achievement and wealth. Donald's relationships are most likely predominantly _____ relationships.
exchange
Tyrone had a stressful day at the office, so he stopped at the gym on the way home to work out. Even after he gets home, Tyrone still feels wound up. When his wife remarks in passing that he forgot to take out the trash, Tyrone responds by yelling and cursing at his wife. Tyrone's overreaction to his wife's comment illustrates ______
excitation transfer
People automatically and normally know stereotypes and think of them, whereas they have to
exert themselves to override them.
Mario wants to see whether the gender of the test giver affects math test performance. He divides 100 students into two groups. Group A is administered by a man; Group B is administered by a woman. Mario tallies the results of each group for comparison. What type of study is this?
experimental
Dreama is a Caucasian female who is externally motivated to behave in a non-prejudiced way. As a result, you would expect that she would _____.
express non-prejudiced attitudes when being observed by a non-prejudiced audience but, when no longer being observed by a non-prejudiced audience, respond with a backlash and actually express more prejudice
Construct validity of the effect
extent to which the dependent variable is a valid representation of the theoretical response
Construct validity of the cause
extent to which the independent variable is a valid representation of the theoretical stimulus
Motivation matters
external motivation - Because I don't want people to see me as a bigot Internal motivation - Because I strongly value treating people fairly
You have reviewed research on the use of graphic images to persuade people that they should not text while driving. The research was typically conducted with college students and other adults who are licensed drivers, but you are interested in whether the findings will hold for 14-year-olds to 16-year-olds who are in the process of learning to drive. You are concerned about _____.
external validity
The television show Dirty Jobs focuses on jobs that, at first glance, seem less than attractive, yet are essential for society to function. These jobs, like trash collection or working in a slaughterhouse, are often accepted by people because of _____.
extrinsic motivations
No matter what is involved, Olga is always looking for what is in it for her. "It" could be money, or acclaim, or power. In social psychological terms, Olga is _____ motivated.
extrinsically
The part of emotional intelligence that focuses on a person's ability to generate an emotion and then reason with that emotion is called _____.
facilitating thought
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
audience inhibition
failure to help in front of others for fear of feeling like a fool if one's offer of help is rejected
Suppose that you have known someone for less than a week but you feel a strong passionate, obsessive love at first sight for this individual. In addition, you have made an emotional commitment to the object of your affections. Intimacy has not yet developed in your relationship, but you expect that it will. According to Sternberg, you are experiencing _____.
fatuous love
Suppose that you have known someone for less than a week but you feel a strong passionate, obsessive love at first sight for this individual. In addition, you have made an emotional commitment to the object of your affections. Intimacy has not yet developed in your relationship, but you expect that it will.According to Sternberg, you are experiencing _____.
fatuous love
One of the reasons people may engage in behaviors that can cause them harm is _____, such as when people use smokeless tobacco because they think that unlike cigarettes, smokeless tobacco cannot cause cancer.
faulty knowledge
The two main reasons for self-defeating behavior are _______
faulty knowledge; tradeoffs
Social psychologists often
find the topics they study to be intrinsically interesting.
bait-and-switch technique
first offers an extremely favorable deal, gets the other person to commit to the deal, and then makes additional demands
Reid moved to a different part of the country for his new job. As he settles into his job and builds a social network in his new town, if he is like most people, he will be satisfied with _____ people who care about him, whose company he enjoys, and with whom he can spend time on a regular basis.
five
Which of the following standard views of heuristic thinking may be incorrect based on the current evidence?
flawed
Positive moods can increase
flexibility, creativity, and problem-solving ability. People in a good mood perform better, are more persistent, try harder, and are more motivated than people in a neutral mood.
In contrast, the cultural explanations
focus on what people learn from their parents, from society, and from their own experiences.
gain-framed appeal
focuses on how doing something will add to your health
loss-framed appeal
focuses on how not doing something will subtract from your health
Obedience
following orders from an authority figure
When people start with a small request just to get someone's eventual compliance with a much larger request, it is known as the _____ technique
foot-in-the-door
Willpower is like a muscle,
getting depleted after it is used, but getting stronger with exercise.
underbenefited
getting less than you deserve
overbenefited
getting more than you deserve
Social acceptance means
getting others to like you, respect you, approve of you, and in general want to have some kind of relationship with you.
Pauletta's goal orientation has sometimes created problems for her. For example, while working on particularly interesting, challenging coding problems, she may neglect other, perfectly reasonable goals, such as assignments for other classes, or even eating. Pauletta is experiencing _____.
goal shielding
informational influence
going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do
normative influence
going along with the crowd in order to be liked and accepted
Normative influence involves
going along with the crowd in order to be liked and accepted.
Conformity
going along with the crowd, that is, saying or doing whatever other people are doing
Affect is generally mapped onto ________ dimensions.
good and bad
Good relationships are
good for you. Married people (especially happily married people) live longer, healthier lives than single or divorced people.
Nearly everyone strives for a
good self-presentation as a way of obtaining social acceptance.
Blaming oneself can be a
good way to cope, if one blames oneself for having made a mistake, as opposed to blaming oneself for being a bad person.
People with high self-esteem think they are _________, but most people with low self-esteem think they are only __________ (rather than awful).
great; mediocre
Although other animals may have free will, among humans free will has
greater behavioral flexibility and can be regulated more easily.
The Sallet & Rushworth study wherein monkeys were raised alone, in pairs, or in groups revealed what?
grey matter density increased when monkeys were assigned to larger groups rather than alone.
Conformity increases as
group size increases (up to a point, then it levels off).
The deliberate mind, when dealing with novel circumstances, is _____.
guided by intention and reasoning
How does the need for positive self-regard get in the way of positive intergroup interaction?
guilt and defensiveness instead of acknowledgement and especially among those more powerful
Dual attitudes refer to
having different, competing attitudes, one deliberate and the other automatic.
extradyadic sex
having sex with someone other than one's regular relationship partner
Failure to satisfy the need to belong leads to significant
health problems, up to and including a higher risk of death.
Probably only _____ feel guilty if they break norms and rules.
humans
Although animals have some attitudes (e.g., they have likes and dislikes)
humans have many more attitudes
Although conflict between groups is not unique to humans,
humans surround group conflict with meanings, values, and other ideas.
People in love generally hold
idealized versions of each other.
Standards
ideas (concepts) of how things might possibly be
prescriptive stereotypes
ideas about how people *should *behave based on their group memberships
Descriptive stereotypes
ideas about how people do behave
A survey is reliable
if it gives consistent results.
A survey is valid
if it measures what it purports to measure.
autokinetic effect
illusion, caused by very slight movements of the eye, that a stationary point of light in a dark room is moving
natural selection example
imagine that one baby was born with no ears, another with one leg longer than the other, and the third with eyes that could see farther than the average eye. Having no ears or having legs of unequal length would probably be disadvantages, and natural selection would not preserve these traits for future generations.
Upward counterfactuals
imagining alternatives that are better than actuality
downward counterfactuals
imagining alternatives that are worse than actuality
Counterfactual thinking
imagining alternatives to past or present events or circumstances
Suicidal people focus on the _______ ________ at a time when present circumstances may be changing for the worse.
immediate present
Companionate love is
important for a long, happy marriage or a stable, trustworthy, lasting relationship.
Vincent is a member of Alpha Gamma Rho. He thinks that each brother is very different from the next. Some are athletic, others more artistic. Some studious, others partiers. Whereas the members of Alpha Phi Alpha are all a bunch of snobs. Vincent's thinking is an example of:
in-group heterogeneity
advertisement wear-out
inattention and irritation that occurs after an audience has encountered the same advertisement too many times
Forgiving others, being grateful for blessings, practicing religious beliefs, sharing good feelings, and being optimistic can all _______ happiness.
increase
Similarity and physical attractiveness
increase liking and therefore increase persuasion.
By using stereotypes to justify and act on prejudices, people can
increase their feelings of self-worth.
What is false-tagging theory?
indicates a sort of mechanism about how we respond to new info that we receive. So when we initially hear something we tend to believe it is true because it involves less thinking.
A social psychologist is usually interested in studying the _______
individual
coping
individual efforts made to manage distressing problems and emotions that affect the physical and psychological outcomes of stress
An independent self-concept reflects_____ cultural norms, while an interdependent self-concept reflects_____ cultural norms
individualistic; collectivist
narcissists are
individuals who regard themselves as better than others and are constantly trying to win the admiration of others.
Only humans appear able to resist
influence and persuasion.
Social proof
influence tactic that relies on the tendency people have to behave in a particular way because others are doing so
pique technique
influence technique in which one captures people's attention, as by making a novel request.
disrupt-then-reframe technique
influence technique in which one disrupts critical thinking by introducing an unexpected element, then reframes the message in a positive light
that's-not-all technique
influence technique in which one first makes an inflated request but, before the person can respond, sweetens the deal by offering a discount or bonus
foot-in-the-door technique
influence technique in which one starts with a small request in order to gain eventual compliance with a larger request
door-in-the-face technique
influence technique in which one starts with an inflated request and then retreats to a smaller request that appears to be a concession
fast-approaching-deadline technique
influence technique in which one tells people an item or a price is only available for a limited time
legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique
influence technique that involves a phrase that suggests that even a very small amount of aid will help (e.g., "even a penny will help").
labeling technique
influence technique, in which one assigns a label to an individual and then requests a favor that is consistent with the label
Scripts are knowledge structures that contain
information about how people (or other objects) behave under varying circumstances; scripts define situations and guide behavior
Asch's study demonstrated that sometimes people rely more on
information from other people than on their own senses.
People selectively expose themselves to
information that supports their preexisting views and avoid information that contradicts their preexisting views.
People often give more weight to what others think because they think others know more than they do. This best represents _____.
informational influence
Dale Carnegie's classic self-help book How to Win Friends and Influence People suggests that it is important to give honest and sincere appreciation to others and make other people feel important through sincere means. Carnegie was writing about what social psychologists refer to as _____.
ingratiation
It's Girl Scout Cookie sales season. Your neighbor's daughter tells you that the cookie sales fund pro-social activities for girls in the area and encourages you to buy lots of cookies. When you decline because you are on a diet, she flatters you, saying that you don't need to diet - you look great. She uses what technique is she using to sell cookies:
ingratiation
Social stories for individuals with special needs, such as autism spectrum disorders, help with learning skills needed for social encounters. For example, social stories on being friends may point out the importance of saying nice things to friends and doing nice things for them. Strategies like this are broadly referred to as _____.
ingratiation
People are more accepting of evidence presented by ______ members and more skeptical of evidence presented by _______ members.
ingroup ; outgroup
Categorization by stereotypes is predominantly_____; content of stereotypes is _____.
innate; learned
Concerned that peer pressure increases the risk of underage drinking, some schools teach refusal skills, in which adolescents learn how to resist giving in to peer pressure. They learn to say "no" to alcohol in a way that is firm, short, clear, and simple. In this context, refusal skills can best be considered as a form of attitude _____.
inoculation
Groups reject ________ more than outsiders for the same degree of deviance.
insiders
Carol and Mike just got married. It is the second marriage for both of them and both have brought three children from a previous relationship into their marriage. If Mike and Carol want to increase their children's feeling that they belong to the new family, they would be best advised to _____.
insist on regular family meals that are mandatory for all family members
Evolution may have had a hand in
instilling the human readiness to form groups and hold prejudices against rival groups.
People from collectivistic cultures understand the self as ___________ whereas people from individualistic cultures lean toward an _________
interdependent (connected to others in a web of social relations); independent self-construal (seeing the self as a separate, special or unique, self-contained unit).
If a researcher is very confident that changes in the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable, the study is said to have _____.
internal validity
Larinda is watching a reality show in which fashion designers compete to win several prizes, including money and a feature in a fashion magazine. She notices that, in their audition videos, each designer focuses on a list of accomplishments and tries to convey the impression of being creative, innovative, and professional. In other words, each designer seems to be focused on which aspect of the self?
interpersonal self
Stereotype threat makes
interracial interactions anxiety provoking for both races because both worry about confirming stereotypes about themselves.
According to Sternberg, when people experience a feeling of closeness, mutual understanding, and mutual concern for each other's welfare and happiness, they are experiencing _____.
intimacy
Sternberg's (1986) triangular model of love includes three major components:_____, _____, and _____.
intimacy, passion, commitment
ingratiation technique
involves gaining compliance by gaining personal approval from an individual first
Making a choice is typically a two-step process,
involving whittling many choices down to a few and then doing a careful comparison of those few.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
is a committee that makes sure that a research study conducted in university settings is ethical. The board must contain at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one person not affiliated with the university
What is the Shooter bias (and extrajudicial killings)?
is a form of implicit racial bias which refers to the tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians, even when they are unarmed.
Open science
is a movement to make the results from scientific studies openly accessible to all people.
Paradoxical thinking
is a process in which you identify and define contrasting personal characteristics in order to bring about their positive aspects.
The view that prejudice and stereotyping are morally wrong
is a product of modern, Western culture. Many cultures tolerate stereotyping.
Passionate love
is found all over the world, but the forms and expressions of romantic passion vary significantly from one culture to another.
The main weakness of the correlational approach
is it does not allow the researcher to conclude that changes in one variable caused the changes in the other variable.
What is aggressive behavior? (What is the definition and how does it differ from violence?)
is not limited to the physical, can include other types of behavior like verbal aggression or social or relational aggression. violence must be physical.
What separates philosophy from psychology
is psychology's heavy reliance on the scientific method
subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (subgenual ACC)
is responsible for emotional regulation espicially of negative emotions
An important feature of most living things, including animals and hence humans,
is the drive to prolong life.
source
is the individual who delivers the message
monitoring
keeping track of behaviors or responses to be regulated
honor killing
killing another individual who has brought "dishonor" to the family (e.g., a woman who has committed adultery)
Scripts
knowledge structures that define situations and guide behavior
Schemas
knowledge structures that represent substantial information about a concept, its attributes, and its relationships to other concepts
Nerissa is, according to her own statements, not prejudiced. Research suggests that Nerissa most likely _____.
knows the stereotypes and they are activated, but she chooses to act otherwise
An environmental group has developed a series of advertisements aimed at persuading people that fracking, the high-pressure injection of water, chemicals, and sand underground in order to release natural gas from rock, is dangerous. The fear-based campaign is focusing on the use of carcinogenic chemicals that leach into drinking water supplies and the increased risk of earthquakes. Which individuals would be most likely to be persuaded by this type of advertising?
Those who live near fracking sites and are already concerned about its impact
Yet the reason that Aaron has given for all of this quitting is often different (e.g., his own lack of ability, family problems, a breakup, discomfort with a co-worker, team member ineptitude), indicating that, at least in his explanations, Aaron's attributions are _____________.
Unstable
What areas of the brain are associated with love?
VTA + Caudate, and... Several regions associated with long-term attachments (like maternal love) e.g., Dorsal Raphe nucleus (serotonin modulation) e.g., Globus Pallidus (controlling outputs from the caudate nucleus to regulate excitement & behavior) e.g., Periaqueductal grey matter (PAG - correlated with long-term & unconditional bonding) And memory (e.g., the posterior hippocampus) linked to cravings, particularly for certain couples...
Along with the RVLPFC, ____________ has been linked with certain species (e.g., prairie voles) maintaining monogamous pair-bonds and ignoring alternative partners.
Vasopressin
The ___________ experiences negative self-conscious emotions but the _____________ regulates those emotions to maintain a positive self-evaluation.
Ventral Pregenual ACC...dorsomedial PFC
The anterior cingulate cortex has multiple functions which are localized to the dorsal vs. ventral regions and within the ventral region there are pregenual and subgenual differences. Which part of the ACC is associated with modulation of negative emotions generally?
Ventral Subgenual ACC
Group selection hypothesis
We are more likely to help people in our in-group rather than those in an out-group
Reciprocity
We have an innate desire to repay favors in order to maintain social fairness
Not all positive illusions are created equal. When do we want to maintain idealized views of our partner and when can they hurt?
We want to be idealistic about global partner assessments, but more realistic about specifics.
Another aspect that makes "gatekeepers" so effective is that they tend to highlight the weaknesses in one side compared to the strengths in the other. This is in-line with the ____________ approach to attitude change.
Weight of evidence
What is the pique technique?
When a person is asking for change if they change the script and ask for a specific amount than people are more likely to say yes.
When do you find gender differences in attraction research with men desiring physically attractive partners more so than women?
When asked to rank characteristics desired in a long-term partner.
What is magical thinking?
When one believes their thoughts may influence events. Conclusions based on desires of how things should work, rather than how they actually do.
Which statement best describes Stanley Milgram's findings?
When people are given orders by someone who appears to have legitimate authority, many will follow the orders even if it means harming others.
What is the Outcast-lash-out effect?
When people are rejected by peers, they often lash out. In children, that aggression occasionally takes horrifying directions, leading to school shootings or other deadly acts. ... "In discussing it with colleagues, the alienation concept came up; maybe there is something to alienation that increases aggression."
An example of cognitive dissonance
When people still smoke even though they know it is bad for them
induced compliance paradigm example
When people were given either no money, $1, or $20 to lie about whether or not a task was boring it was found those who got $1 gave it the best rating
According to self-evaluation maintenance theory, we are most likely to sabotage a friend's performance instead of a stranger's when:
When they outperform us on a task that is highly self-relevant and we are uncertain about our abilities.
Finkel & Eastwick, 2009
When you ask people to differentiate between features they look for in a romantic versus sexual partner, attractiveness is a high priority for both in sexual relationships, but not romantic ones (Kendrick et al., 1990).
Disrupt and reframe technique
When you break the script you look to the environment and other people around you to figure out what to do. It builds off of the pique technique by telling them what to think.
The exchange principle
When you recieve a small gift in the mail you feel more obligated to donate or do something in return
Propaganda Factual vs Biased
Whether they have factual evidence or not and can still be biased and true
Emotions help people
learn from their mistakes. Without emotions, people don't learn.
Someone views people with different religious beliefs, as well as atheists, as being all the same and much more similar to each other than those individuals with whom the person shares the same religious beliefs. This view is known as _____.
outgroup homogeneity bias
The outgroup homogeneity bias assumes that
outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another.
Emotions are mostly ________ our conscious control, even though we may feel them consciously.
outside
public compliance
outwardly going along with the group but maintaining a private, inner belief that the group is probably wrong
According to the sleeper effect,
over time people separate the message from the messenger
Applying equity theory, the romantic partner who sacrifices less for the relationship but still receives a lot from that relationship, is said to be ____________ - which is linked to_________ positive affect in romantic relationships in Western cultures.
overbenefitted...lower
To be impartial—as a judge or referee is supposed to—may require _____ one's attitudes.
overcoming
People generally _________ how long they will feel a particular emotion.
overestimate
The ability of the deliberate mind to _____ is vital to life in culture.
override the automatic mind
Trying to suppress a thought can have the _____________ of increasing the thought.
paradoxical effect
within-subjects design
participants are exposed to all levels of the independent variable
between-subjects design
participants are exposed to only one level of the independent variable
In a between-subjects design,
participants are exposed to only one level of the independent variable; in a within-subjects design participants are exposed to all levels of the independent variable.
The human mind is designed to
participate in society, and this means its primary job is dealing with other people.
The nature explanations say that
people are born a certain way; their genes, hormones, brain structure, and other processes dictate how they will choose and act.
According to the affect-as-information hypothesis,
people judge something as good or bad by asking themselves how they feel about it.
To reduce their feelings of inconsistency,
people may have to seek out new or reinterpret old information, realign or abandon cherished beliefs, or change patterns of behavior. People will generally choose the easiest of these (the path of least resistance), which often means changing their attitudes.
Who has the option to be apathetic?
people of power
convert communicators
people perceived as credible sources because they are arguing against their own previously held attitudes and behaviors
The Zeigarnik effect states that
people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
What is an egalitarian optimist?
people that are optimistic that other people can change
Learned helplessness occurs when
people think they will fail so they quit trying to succeed.
Feelings
people when left out often feel more hurt and higher levels of depression and they often feel like they were left out in the cold(you actually have a bodily drop in temp when left out)
outgroup members
people who belong to a different group or category than we do
One fraternity is trying to raise money for the local animal shelter, so they show pictures of playful puppies and furry kittens. When Jim sees the ad, he immediately donates because he feels good about caring for defenseless little animals. The fraternity's campaign has used which of the following:
peripheral route: Jim uses a mental short cut to make the decision
bullying
persistent aggression by a perpetrator against a victim for the purpose of establishing a power relationship over the victim
stalking
persisting in romantic, courtship, or other behaviors that frighten and harass the rejecter in a relationship
Research indicates that college students said they would rather marry someone who is a cocaine user or embezzler than a(n) _____.
person who is obese
People high in need for cognition are more
persuaded by strong arguments and are less persuaded by weak arguments than are people low in need for cognition.
Jared is on a quest to improve himself and finds that he tends to focus on only a small subset of his personal qualities at any particular time. This smaller subset of characteristics is referred to as the working self-concept, or the _____ self.
phenomenal
Milan is madly, passionately in love. You might expect him to have high levels of _____.
phenylethylamine
Loneliness is bad for _________ health.
physical
Stigmas can be ________ characteristics
physical
When people are overly optimistic about succeeding in a project without considering any possible problems, they have fallen prey to the _____.
planning fallacy
Hurt and Rescue/ Fear then Relief
point out someones weak point that they want to change and then show them how you specifically can help them change it
People tend to be ________ predictors of what they will find attractive
poor
There are very few differences between lonely and non-lonely people, with the major exception that lonely people are
poorer at figuring out other people's emotional states.
Attractive children are more
popular with other children than their less attractive peers, and teachers like them more, too.
Stereotypes can be both
positive and negative
People may prefer to ___________ hard decisions and keep their options open as long as possible.
postpone
Social psychology focuses especially on the ________ of situations.
power
praxis
practical ways of doing things
What is the similarity-matching effect? (Vs. the matching-similarity effect?)
refers to the widespread tendency of people to be attracted to others who are similar to themselves in important respects. ... Similarity effects tend to be strongest and most consistent for attitudes, values, activity preferences, and attractiveness.
Experimental realism
refers to whether participants get so caught up in the procedures that they forget they are in an experiment (important for determining whether the results obtained in the experiment can be applied to the real world).
Mundane realism
refers to whether the setting of an experiment physically resembles the real world
Shandi has had several bad relationships during a generally rough period of her life. She typically falls for one "perfect match" after another, only to be dumped shortly thereafter. After taking a break from dating to get her life back on track, Shandi meets a potential partner through a friend. This time, however, when a date is cancelled due to what is described as a family emergency, Shandi is the one who ends the relationship. Shandi seems to have developed _____.
rejection sensitivity
coercion tactics
relational aggression and hurt and rescue technique
communal relationships
relationships based on mutual love and concern, without expectation of repayment
exchange relationships
relationships based on reciprocity and fairness, in which people expect something in return
Your sister and brother-in-law are discussing their four-year-old son's first year of school. Although he is old enough to start first grade this fall, because he will turn five in late December, they are thinking about delaying school entry by a year, believing that it will be to his advantage. They are hoping to make use of the _____ effect.
relative age
Which of the following is not one of the elements that distinguishes automatic from deliberate processes?
relevance
Audience Inhibition
reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers
Many persuasion techniques
rely on norms and implicit rules.
To quench the drive of most living things to prolong life, nature has been kind enough to present us with a viable strategy to enable life to continue into the future through _____.
reproduction
deception studies
research studies that withhold information from participants or intentionally mislead them about the purpose of the study
basic research
research that focuses on a general understanding of basic principles that can be applied to many different problems
applied research
research that focuses on solving particular practical problems
automatic egotism
response by the automatic system that "everything good is me, and everything bad is not me"
Anterior Insula
responsible for integrating emotions to help us decide what to do and what emotions to attach to our actions
Precuneus
responsible for resting self-concsiosness; always on the lookout for something to feel self-concious about
A natural and biological need, such as sex, that demonstrates a strong influence of culture on sexual behaviors in society, is best described as _____.
restraining
Unlike other animals, humans can
rise above their prejudices and feelings.
Self-presentation concerns often influence people to engage in __________ actions than they would otherwise engage in.
riskier
Angel and Rosita are lovers. They are both physically and emotionally attracted to each other, but neither has made a long-term commitment to the other. Sternberg would describe this as _____.
romantic love
A person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth constitutes his or her _______
self-esteem
The sociometer theory suggests that
self-esteem is a measure of how socially acceptable you think you are.
The night before an important test, Boozer drinks all night instead of studying. This is an example of ______
self-handicapping
The degree to which individuals regulate their behavior based on the situation is referred to as _____.
self-monitoring
Mary is walking up the stairs when she trips. Reflecting on her behavior, she infers "boy, am I clumsy." Mary has just illustrated...
self-perception processes
John is a young gang member who wants to look tough to his fellow gang members. This concern about looking tough is called ______
self-presentation
The comedian Billy Crystal used to say, "It is more important to look good than to feel good!" This concern with looking good to others is called __________
self-presentation
The finding that people process information more thoroughly and thus remember it better when it pertains to them is called the _____ effect.
self-reference
The finding that we recall information better when it is relevant to the self is called the _________
self-reference effect
Felix thinks of himself as a bright student but he received 68 on the physics midterm. Felix thinks that the professor made the test too difficult. What social psychological phenomenon is he demonstrating?
self-serving bias
You and I work on a joint project, and it succeeds. In describing our relative contributions to the project, you assume that your contribution is greater than mine, but I assume that my contribution is greater than yours. This illustrates the
self-serving bias
Keeping with the last question, in American society we find that people with low self-esteem have the tendency to _______________ while high self-esteem people have a stronger tendency to _____________.
self-verify...self-enhance
Nature makes us _____; culture requires us to ______ ______ _______.
selfish; resist selfish impulses
Rejection undermines self-regulation and often makes people behave
selfishly rather than acting in a socially conscientious manner.
Social constructionist theories of sex assert that
sexual attitudes and behaviors vary widely based on culture and learning. These theories seek to understand how personal experiences and cultural influences shape sexual desire and behavior.
Both nature and culture are important in
shaping behavior
As a project coordinator for a program to be implemented in an African country, you are scheduled to be there for a year. Being a yoga enthusiast yourself, you intend to inspire the local African teenage boys by teaching yoga classes on weekends and engaging in pep talk. This initiative of yours best suggests a culture of ___________.
shared ideas
Loretta is known for being abrasively self-aggrandizing. She thinks very highly of herself and expects that everyone else will as well. If Loretta is like most people, when she is among friends, _____.
she will tend to be more modest
People prepare for social interaction by
shifting to become more similar to the people they expect to interact with.
An important aspect of many tradeoffs is
short-term versus long-term gain.
Social psychology is both _________ to and _________ from other social sciences.
similar; different
The automatic system is especially useful for the _______ we perform, whereas the deliberate system is useful for the more _______.
simple tasks; complex tasks
Charlie and Blair broke up over the summer and spent a few months apart. When they came back to school for the Fall, Blair thought it would be easy for her to win Charlie's heart back because they have always broken up and easily gotten back together. Blair is falling victim to the ____________ heuristic by being able to easily imagine her and Charlie getting back together, because that is how it has always been before
simulation
What is Aversive Bias
simultaneously holding egalitarian values and negative feelings toward people of other races
aversive racism
simultaneously holding egalitarian values and negative feelings toward people of other races
competition
situation in which people can attain their goals only if others do not
When trying to explain a pattern of behavior at a university, a social psychologist would likely look first to the _____.
situation itself
Cultures may tell
some groups that they are inferior, but many members of those groups successfully reject such messages.
High self-esteem and narcissism are associated with
some negative qualities that pertain to relations with others, such as prejudice and aggression.
The three components of self-regulation are
standards (concepts of how things should be), monitoring (keeping track of behaviors), and willpower/capacity for change (bringing behavior into line with standards).
norms
standards established by society to tell its members what types of behavior are typical or expected
You have decided to conduct research on how religiosity is related to the persuasiveness of messages promoting environmental regulations to stop climate change. Your next step is to _____.
state a testable hypothesis
The original frustration-aggression hypothesis
states that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression.
People in good relationships often think their relationships are getting better and better, but research suggests they actually _______ __ ____ _______
stay at the same (good) level.
People often rely on
stereotypes as heuristics (mental shortcuts).
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Realistic conflict theory
suggests that competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict; hostilities form when groups compete against each other.
What are positive illusions?
tendencies to perceive ourselves more favorably than others do
relationship-enhancing style of attribution
tendency of happy couples to attribute their partner's good acts to internal factors and bad acts to external factors
distress-maintaining style of attribution
tendency of unhappy couples to attribute their partner's good acts to external factors and bad acts to internal factors
The discontinuity effect suggests
that groups are more prone to hostile competitiveness than individuals are.
For present purposes, the important thing about culture is
that it is a kind of social system.
The bad apple effect suggests
that one person who breaks the rules can inspire other people to follow his or her example.
Rejection, also known as social exclusion, means
that others exclude you, so that you are not able to form or keep a social bond with them.
Stigma by association shows
that people are discriminated against for merely being associated with a stigmatized person.
The matching hypothesis states
that people tend to pair up with others who are equally attractive.
The self-fulfilling prophecy effect proposes
that people will come to act in accordance with the stereotypes that others hold of them.
The contact hypothesis proposes
that regular interaction between members of different groups reduces prejudice, providing that it occurs under favorable conditions.
Zajonc's theory of social facilitation states
that the presence of others increases arousal, which increases the dominant response tendency (the most common response in that situation).
investment model theory
that uses three factors—satisfaction, alternatives, and investments—to explain why people stay with their long-term relationship partners
serotonin
the "feel good" neurotransmitter, low levels of which have been linked to aggression and violence in both humans and animals
In many cases, even people who are aware of the importance of good health fall short on exercise and deviate substantially from a healthy diet. This best illustrates the concept of_____.
the A-B problem
Most social psychological research has been conducted in _________.
the United States
Claudia is waiting in line to see a movie on the first day it is released. Just as she gets close to the ticket booth, the person in the booth announces that the movie is sold out. Rather than wait in line for the next show, Claudia leaves, but she spends the rest of the day thinking about the movie. This illustrates _________
the Zeigarnik effect
self-monitoring
the ability to change one's behavior for different situations
The capacity to delay gratification is
the ability to make short-term sacrifices in order to get long-term rewards.
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, access and generate, understand, and reflectively regulate emotions
Affective forecasting
the ability to predict one's emotional reactions to future events
validity
the accuracy of a test in measuring what it is intended to measure
upward comparison
the act of comparing oneself to people who are better off
downward comparison
the act of comparing oneself to people who are worse off
capacity for change
the active phase of self-regulation; willpower
Three motivations for wanting self-knowledge are
the appraisal motive, the self-enhancement motive, and the consistency motive
In excitation transfer,
the arousal from one event transfers to a subsequent event.
halo effect
the assumption that because people have one desirable trait (e.g., attractiveness), they also possess many other desirable traits (e.g., intelligence)
belief in a just world
the assumption that life is essentially fair, that people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get
outgroup homogeneity bias
the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another
what is beautiful is good effect
the assumption that physically attractive people will be superior to others on many other traits
two-sided messages work best when
the audience can process the message thoroughly.
One-sided persuasive messages work best when
the audience is not able to process the message thoroughly
We can call the two systems
the automatic and the deliberate
affect
the automatic response that something is good (positive affect) or bad (negative affect)
In contrast, we use the term affect to refer to
the automatic response that something is good or bad (liking versus disliking)
Sexual stimulation may affect
the brain, the genitals, neither, or both.
Personality psychology
the branch of psychology that focuses on important differences between individuals
Attributions
the causal explanations people give for their own and others' behaviors, and for events in general
Unquestioned morality?
the cause is just, and there's no need to question what they are proposing; they are only doing what is best for their just cause. This causes members to ignore the consequences of their actions
Attitudes help deal with
the complex social world. People need far more attitudes than most animals.
The term narcissism describes
the condition of thinking oneself superior or special, feeling entitled to preferential treatment, being willing to exploit others, having low empathy with "lesser" human beings, and entertaining grandiose fantasies or other ideas about oneself as a great person.
We will use the term emotion to refer to
the conscious reaction, often including a bodily response, to something
In an evolutionary perspective,
the costliest type of sexual error for a woman was to reproduce with a non-optimal male, while the most costly sexual error for a man was to miss an opportunity to have sex and thus possibly to reproduce.
With the fast-approaching-deadline technique,
the customer is told that items can only be obtained for a limited time.
With the limited-number technique,
the customer is told that items exist in a limited supply.
Personal relevance is
the degree to which people expect an issue to have significant consequences for their own lives.
Group entiativity?
the degree to which people perceive themselves and others to be a team or collective
erotic plasticity
the degree to which the sex drive can be shaped and altered by social, cultural, and situational forces
self-enhancement motive
the desire to learn favorable or flattering things about the self
Message discrepancy is
the difference between the initial attitude of the audience and the content of the speaker's message.
social roles
the different roles a person plays, as in a play or a movie
According to social brain theory,
the driving force behind the evolution of intelligence and the brain was the need to understand others so as to form and maintain social relationships.
According to realistic group conflict theory, white people will show the most prejudice against minority groups when:
the economy is doing poorly, and whites feel as though they are competing with minorities for a scarce supply of jobs
Social psychology is concerned with
the effect of other people on (mainly adult) human beings' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
kin selection
the evolutionary tendency to help people who have our genes
Extensivity
the extension of self to include others, attachment to others and a sense of responsibility for others' welfare
Entitativity
the extent to which a group is perceived as being a coherent entity
internal validity
the extent to which changes in the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable
external validity
the extent to which the findings from a study can be generalized to other people, other settings, and other time periods
Paternity uncertainty refers to
the fact that a man cannot be sure that the children born to his female partner are his (at least until recent advances in DNA testing).
first instinct fallacy
the false belief that it is better not to change one's first answer on a test even if one starts to think that a different answer is correct
illusion of control
the false belief that one can influence certain events, especially random or chance ones
Stereotype threat is
the fear that a stereotype might apply and that one's behavior might confirm it.
stereotype threat
the fear that one might confirm the stereotypes that others hold
The social allergy effect refers to
the finding that a partner's annoying habits grow more annoying with repeated exposure.
The panic button effect refers to
the finding that believing there is an escape option can reduce stress, even if the option is never used.
discontinuity effect
the finding that groups are more extreme, and often more hostile, than individuals
self-reference effect
the finding that information bearing on the self is processed more thoroughly and more deeply, and hence remembered better, than other information
endowment effect
the finding that items gain in value to the person who owns them
belief perseverance
the finding that once beliefs form, they are resistant to change, even if the information on which they are based is discredited
bystander effect
the finding that people are less likely to offer help when they are in a group than when they are alone
Risk aversion refers to
the finding that people are more affected by possible losses than by possible gains.
social loafing
the finding that people reduce effort when working in a group, compared to when working alone
minimal group effect
the finding that people show favoritism toward ingroup members even when group membership is randomly determined
altruistic punishment
the finding that people will sometimes sacrifice their own gain for the betterment of all, by punishing people who cheat the system
attitude polarization
the finding that people's attitudes become more extreme as they reflect on them
One measure of happiness, affect balance, is equal to
the frequency of positive emotions minus the frequency of negative emotions
social allergy effect
the idea that a partner's annoying habits become more annoying over time
excitation transfer
the idea that arousal from one event can transfer to a later event
cognitive coping
the idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope with and recover from misfortunes
scapegoat theory
the idea that blaming problems and misfortunes on outgroups contributes to negative attitudes toward these outgroups
error management theory
the idea that both men and women seek to minimize the costliest type of error, but that men's and women's goals, and hence worst errors, differ
realistic conflict theory
the idea that competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict
Equity
the idea that each person receives benefits in proportion to what he or she contributes
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
the idea that emotion has two components: a bodily state of arousal and a cognitive label that specifies the emotion
appraisal theory of emotion
the idea that emotion is determined by how an event in the environment is appraised (e.g., evaluated, interpreted, explained)
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that empathy motivates people to reduce other people's distress, as by helping or comforting
Equality
the idea that everyone gets the same amount, regardless of what he or she contributes
facial feedback hypothesis
the idea that feedback from the face muscles evokes or magnifies emotions
Belief perseverance is
the idea that once beliefs form, they are resistant to change.
bad apple effect
the idea that one person who breaks the rules can inspire other people to break the rules also
reactance theory
the idea that people are distressed by loss of freedom or options and seek to reclaim or reassert them
affect-as-information hypothesis
the idea that people judge something as good or bad by asking themselves "How do I feel about it?"
looking-glass self
the idea that people learn about themselves by imagining how they appear to others
risk-as-feelings hypothesis
the idea that people rely on emotional processes to evaluate risk, with the result that their judgments may be biased by emotional factors
Effort justification is
the idea that people who expend a great deal of effort will want to convince themselves that their effort was worthwhile.
contact hypothesis
the idea that regular interaction between members of different groups reduces prejudice, providing that it occurs under favorable conditions
Gamblers who throw dice softly to get low numbers and who throw harder to get high numbers are demonstrating
the illusion of control
phenomenal self
the image of self that is currently active in the person's thoughts
interpersonal self
the image of the self that is conveyed to others
weapons effect
the increase in aggression that occurs as a result of the mere presence of a weapon
Debbie and Paul have been taking the same classes for the past three years. Although, they have never really interacted, over the course of three years Debbie finds she likes Paul more and more. What is Debbie displaying?
the mere exposure effect
The automatic preference toward members of one's own group even in the absence of any pragmatic benefit is called _____.
the minimal group effect
What is groupthink?
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
How does setting an interdependent goal for the interaction facilitate that interaction?
the more favorable the interaction will go
Sexual selection hypothesis
the more prosocial we are the more sexual partners we will have. People higher in altruism are deemed more attractive.
The more other people know about your partner's infidelity,
the more upset and jealous you are likely to be.
The sibling relationship is
the most violent relationship in the world.
What is collective narcissism?
the narcisistic attitude of an entire group of people or nation
categorization
the natural tendency of humans to sort objects into groups
Consistency
the need for us to stay consistent with our past choices
density
the number of people divided by the area of the space they share
Reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us
Reciprocity is
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us.
A teacher promises one of his preschool students a candy bar for finger painting, a task the student loves to do. The reward is likely to produce ________
the overjustification effect
Loneliness is
the painful feeling of wanting more human contact or connection (either more quantity or quality of relationships) than you have.
loneliness
the painful feeling of wanting more human contact or connection than you have
automatic system
the part of the mind outside of consciousness that performs simple operations. It handles the endless mundane tasks, such as interpreting, organizing, and categorizing all the information that comes in through your eyes and ears.
deliberate system
the part of the mind that performs complex operations. is the other "half" of the duplex mind. is what seems to turn on when you wake up and turn off when you go to sleep.
agent self
the part of the self involved in control, including both control over other people and self-control
What is the catharsis hypothesis? Is there evidence to support it?
the perception as we vent our anger then it actually reduces aggression because it gets it out of our system. There is no evidence to support it.
social categorization
the process of sorting people into groups on the basis of characteristics they have in common (e.g., race, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation)
self-regulation
the process people use to control and change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
"Excitation transfer."
the process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus
catharsis theory
the proposition that expressing negative emotions produces a healthy release of those emotions and is therefore good for the psyche
reinforcement theory
the proposition that people and animals will perform behaviors that have been rewarded more than they will perform other behaviors
matching hypothesis
the proposition that people tend to pair up with others who are equally attractive
broaden-and-build theory
the proposition that positive emotions expand an individual's attention and mind-set and promote increasing one's resources
Yerkes-Dodson law
the proposition that some arousal is better than none, but too much can hurt performance
James-Lange theory of emotion
the proposition that the bodily processes of emotion come first and the mind's perception of these bodily reactions then creates the subjective feeling of emotion
Both conscious and automatic systems help in
the pursuit of goals.
Self-regulation, or self-control, refers to
the self's capacity to alter its own responses; it is essential for cultural animals to adapt to many different demands.
The TOTE model refers to
the self-regulation feedback loop of Test, Operate, Test, Exit.
When Frank does well on a test, he claims responsibility for the success, but when he does poorly on a test, he denies responsibility and blames his professor for writing a difficult test with ambiguous items. This is an example of __________
the self-serving bias
Evolutionary theory emphasizes that
the sex drive was shaped by natural selection. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand innate patterns of sexual desire and behavior.
Coolidge effect
the sexually arousing power of a new partner (greater than the appeal of a familiar partner)
Self-complexity refers to _____.
the similarity vs. difference of the organization of the self-concept across relational contexts
appraisal motive
the simple desire to learn the truth about oneself, whatever it is
A family that had been the local "face" of faith-based homeschooling is forced to acknowledge a history of child and domestic abuse in their home after a news investigation. Although there is concern that this may damage the message about the wholesomeness of families that homeschool for religious reasons, it is generally believed that, with time, people will separate the messenger from the message. That is, they are hoping for _____.
the sleeper effect
Although your roommate's love of practical jokes bothered you from the beginning, sometimes the jokes were actually somewhat funny. The most recent joke, involving a surprise beverage topped with whipped cream and emanating a strong odor, was not even slightly funny. You now begin to think that you don't t even like your roommate anymore. You seem to be experiencing _____.
the social allergy effect
correlation coefficient
the statistical relationship or association between two variables
statistical regression
the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to be followed by others that are less extreme and closer to average
Developmental psychology
the study of how people change across their lives, from conception and birth to old age and death
Anthropology
the study of human culture—the shared values, beliefs, and practices of a group of people
Sociology
the study of human societies and the groups that form those societies
History
the study of past events
Political science
the study of political organizations and institutions, especially governments
Economics
the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, and the study of money
Cognitive psychology
the study of thought processes, such as how memory works and what people notice
Biological psychology
the study of what happens in the brain, nervous system, and other aspects of the body
crowding
the subjective and unpleasant feeling that there are too many people in a given area
One of the assignments for your social psychology class is to develop an experiment addressing a social psychological topic of particular interest to you. You know from your text that an experiment involves _____.
the systematic testing of a theory
Whataboutism
the technique or practice of responding to an accusation or difficult question by making a counteraccusation or raising a different issue.
Attitude polarization is
the tendency for attitudes to become more extreme as people think about or reflect on their attitudes, especially if they held strong attitudes to begin with.
Diffusion of Responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
overjustification effect
the tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with rewards
The mere exposure effect is
the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more after the individual has been repeatedly exposed to them. Familiarity breeds liking!
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers to attribute other people's behavior to internal or dispositional causes and to downplay situational causes
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
mere exposure effect
the tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
planning fallacy
the tendency for plans to be overly optimistic because the planner fails to allow for unexpected problems
commons dilemma
the tendency for shared or jointly owned resources to be squandered and not used in an optimal or advantageous fashion
groupthink
the tendency of group members to think alike, which often leads to bad decisions
hostile expectation bias
the tendency to assume that people will react to potential conflicts with aggression
The hostile expectation bias is
the tendency to expect others to react to potential conflicts with aggression.
base rate fallacy
the tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged
availability heuristic
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
simulation heuristic
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally simulate) it
representativeness heuristic
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case
anchoring and adjustment
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (called an anchor) and then making adjustments up or down.
What is the Ultimate Attribution Error?
the tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people
confirmation bias
the tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one's beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms one's beliefs
illusory correlation
the tendency to overestimate the link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the number of other people who share one's opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs
hostile attribution bias
the tendency to perceive ambiguous actions by others as aggressive
The hostile attribution bias is
the tendency to perceive ambiguous actions by others as intentionally hostile.
The hostile perception bias is
the tendency to perceive social interactions in general as being aggressive.
The certainty effect refers to
the tendency to place more emphasis on definite outcomes than on odds and probabilities.
self-serving bias
the tendency to take credit for success but deny blame for failure; or internal attributions for success, external attributions for failure
omission bias
the tendency to take whatever course of action does not require you to do anything (also called the default option)
private self-consciousness
the tendency to think about one's inner thoughts and feelings
false uniqueness effect
the tendency to underestimate the number of other people who share one's most prized characteristics and abilities
supplies are limited
the use of deadlines and having a limited stock
cyberbullying
the use of the internet (e.g., email, social network sites, blogs) to bully others
dependent variable
the variable in a study that represents the result of the events and processes
independent variable
the variable manipulated by the researcher that is assumed to lead to changes in the dependent variable
assumptive worlds
the view that people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs (assumptions) about reality
What is violent media?
the visual portrayal of acts of physical aggression by one human or human-like character against another
Only humans rationalize
their behaviors by changing their attitudes.
Men's general attitudes predict
their sexual behavior much better than women's.
Freudian psychoanalysis
theoretical approach that seeks to explain behavior by looking at the deep unconscious forces inside the person
behaviorism
theoretical approach that seeks to explain behavior in terms of learning principles, without reference to inner states, thoughts, or feelings
social constructionist theories
theories asserting that attitudes and behaviors, including sexual desire and sexual behavior, are strongly shaped by culture and socialization
elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
theory that posits two routes to persuasion, via either conscious or automatic processing
heuristic/systematic model
theory that posits two routes to persuasion, via either conscious or automatic processing
social exchange theory
theory that seeks to understand social behavior by analyzing the costs and benefits of interacting with each other; it assumes that sex is a resource that women have and men want
Virtue talk
they play up the ones willing to follow as good soliders and heroes and those who don't are cowards
Evolutionary psychologists generally
think that beauty is linked to signs of being a good mate and potential partner, which especially means being young and healthy.
For decades, young people with little dating experience have been advised to get their dates to talk about themselves. Recent research has found that _____.
this is good advice because the brain regions associated with reward become active when we talk about ourselves
The human mind has two main systems. In a sense,
this is what Freud said when he distinguished between the conscious ego and the unconscious. Most experts no longer accept Freud's account of how the mind is laid out, but there is a new and exciting version of the theory that the mind has two parts. We call this the duplex mind, as in a duplex house with two separate apartments.
entity theorists
those who believe that traits are fixed, stable things (entities) that are not subject to change
incremental theorists
those who believe that traits are subject to change and improvement
Attitudes can be formed or changed
through operant conditioning, classical conditioning, or observational learning
Good moods can serve a protective function because individuals in a good mood tend
to avoid taking risks.
Ostracism refers
to being excluded, rejected, and ignored by others.
Conflict and stress tend
to bring out stereotypes and prejudice.
People who were paid a small amount to lie came
to change their attitudes to believe their own lie; people who were paid a large amount to lie did not.
In general (though not always),
nature says go and culture says stop.
Which is true of deliberate attitudes?
They are reflective responses that people think more carefully about.
What is the role of attitudes in human life?
They are useful in sorting things into good and bad categories.
Prejudice is more often _________ rather than positive
negative
The social network effect predicts_____.
That the approval of our social network can help our relationship succeed, while disapproval hurts it.
Both heterosexual men and women are more likely to find members of the opposite sex attractive when:
They are wearing red
Eisenberger & Lieberman, 2004
-Also active: Portions of dorso-mPFC - commonly associated with making self-evaluations ("how does this affect ME? How do I feel about me?" -Sebastian et al., 2010) -And even somatosensory cortices when rejection is severe (Kross et al., 2011)
Identity Politics
-An attack on MY beliefs is an attack on ME -Resist - default mode network, increased dorsomedial PFC, anterior insula, amygdala, decreased orbitofrontal cortex & dorsolateral PFC -Change - less activity in insula and amygdala, more OFC & DLPFC -When presented with counter-evidence
Attitudes predict behavior best if any or all of the following conditions are met:
-Attitude measures are very specific. -Behaviors are aggregated across time and different situations. -Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence how the person thinks about the choices they face. -Attitudes are highly accessible (i.e., they come to mind easily).
Similarity-Matching Effect Psychological Similarity
-Attitudinal Similarity (Byrne, 1971) vs. Attitudinal -Dissimilarity (Rosenbaum, 1986) -Gender role orientation (Ickes & Barnes, 1978) -Name similarity (Pelham et al., 2002) And eventually... -Mutual friends (e.g., social network overlap; Parks, 2007)
Cognition & Affect Physiology Death
-Breakup of a significant relationship creates a panic response in the brain and such stress in the body that neuroscientists believe can lead to a lowered immune system and illnesses. -Researchers at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine have found that a loss of a loved one can create physical heart pain and shortness of breath. They call it Broken Heart Syndrome.
What has research shown about concepts such as the death drive and fear of success?
Research supports neither Freud's death drive nor Horner's fear of success
The limbic brain region of their brains, which regulate emotions, responded strongly to ______________ sounds, but did not differentiate between neutral and happy sounds.
negative or sad
Matching Hypothesis Berscheid, 1971
-Even though everyone desires the most attractive, who we end up with is moderated by attainability. -Ultimately we end up learning our value on the dating marketplace and matching on attractiveness. -Across all couple types (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002)
Sweaty t-shirt study --> Pheromone parties
-Even though everyone desires the most attractive, who we end up with is moderated by attainability. -Ultimately we end up learning our value on the dating marketplace and matching on attractiveness. -Across all couple types (Jepsen & Jepsen, 2002)
mirror neurons
neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action
Grey matter is to _____ as white matter is to__________.
neurons; axons
What is insufficient justification?
reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient"
Many people find romantic partners online, which has both advantages (___________________) and disadvantages (__________________).
(e.g., more potential partners to choose from) (e.g., easier for potential partners to mislead others or even lie to them).
People can think of their traits as fixed and stable (_____________) or as subject to change and improvement (_____________)
(entity theorists) ; (incremental theorists)
Ovulating or not --> hot or not
-Feingold (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of studies wherein participants report what features they look for choosing a romantic partner/mate. In this analysis, there was a moderate gender difference that men were more likely to say that they choose a mate base on physical attractiveness, where women were more likely to say earning potential and expressiveness. -Dancers who weren't on the pill made about $70 an hour during peak fertility, versus about $35 while menstruating and $50 in between. Women who took birth control averaged about $37 an hour with no performance peak.
Liking begets
(reciprocal) liking.
o Helping
- 92% of participants helped white "victims" vs 70% of participants helped black "victims"
Destructive Leaders
- Charismatic, narcissistic, self-absorbed - rarely completely destructive ( do some good)
Companionate love (sometimes called affectionate love)
refers to a high level of mutual understanding, caring, and commitment to make the relationship succeed.
What are some ways to change prejudicial attitudes?
- Multiple one on one long-term interactions where group identities are salient - make inclusive social norms salient - train your brain to look for "counter stereotypes" - Paradoxical thinking for entrenched conflict - As an in-group member, challenge fellow in-group members
The Power of the Picky
-However new speed-dating evidence shows that alleged gender differences in "choosiness" is a function of the social norms of the situation. -In the standard "men rotating" events, the researchers replicated previous findings (not to mention prevailing stereotypes) that women were pickier about who they liked relative to men. -Importantly, in the non-standard "women rotating" events where men and women reversed roles, the researcher found the exact opposite pattern: men were picky whereas women were less selective
Another theme of this book is the conflict between selfish impulses and social conscience. The self is right in the middle of this battle.
- On the one hand, selves sometimes naturally feel selfish (hence the very term selfish!), and in many situations they have strong impulses to do what is best for themselves. They are designed to know and do what is best for them. - On the other hand, selfishness must be kept under control if society is to operate effectively, and selves often incorporate the morals and other values of the culture. Those morals mostly tell you to do what is best for the group instead of what is best for you personally or what you feel like doing. Hence, the self must be able to understand these social morals and other values—plus be able to act on them, even when that requires overriding one's natural, selfish impulses.
What are the necessary conditions for dissonance to occur? (If these features are absent, people will not feel that uncomfortable dissonance to motivate change.)
- we must experience emotional arousal - we must attribute arousal to attitude discrepency - negative or aversive consequences for us or those we like - we have to take personal responsibility for. attitude-discrepent behaviors
What is competitive victimhood?
- which is a tendency to see one's group as having comparatively suffered relative to an outgroup, has been gaining attention in social psychology. - especially for long intractable conflicts where there has been wrong on both sides and enhanced by self-interested misremembering
Experimenting with Ostracism Rejection by strangers (on "trains," streets, elevators)
-I don't like your profile -Not picked for a team -"Mean girls" -Eye rolls -Silent treatment -Reliving past rejections -Imagine this... -Dark and lonely future
Anthropologists now argue among themselves as to whether a culture should be understood more on the basis of shared beliefs and values or shared ways of doing things.
(Many use the term praxis to refer to practical ways of doing things.)
Leary and colleagues (2003) conducted an archival analysis of reports of school shootings in the U.S.
-87% of school shooters were ostracized in school -More likely to conform (Salzstein, 1975; Williams et al., 2000) -More likely to ingratiate when rejection threatens self-definition (Romero-Canyas et al., 2010) -Some evidence that one is more likely to engage in pro-social/helping behavior (Zadro, 2011)
Long distance relationship challenges:
-Idealization not necessarily a plus -Lack of interactions - key component of -"Interdependence" -Sharing self-growth -Mate guarding
prejudice
A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.
They listed three "positive illusions" that characterize the thought processes of these normal people
- People overestimate their good qualities (and underestimate their faults). Normal people think they are smarter, more attractive, more likable, more virtuous, easier to get along with, and in other ways better than they actually are. This explains the "above average effect" already noted, by which most people claim to be better than the average person. - People overestimate their perceived control over events. Normal people tend to think they are largely in control of events in their lives and that what happens to them is generally the result of their own actions. They believe they have the power to make their lives better and to prevent many misfortunes and problems from occurring. - People are unrealistically optimistic. They think their own personal chances of getting a good job, having a gifted child, acquiring a great deal of money, and experiencing other positive events are better than the chances of the average person like themselves. Conversely, they think their chances of being unemployed, getting a divorce, having a child with a disability, losing a lot of money, being severely injured in an accident, and experiencing other misfortunes are lower than the average person's chances. Each person tends to see his or her own future as somewhat brighter than other people's.
Why does scarcity work?
- Rareness signals value - simulation heuristic - reactance - effort justification - evolution - meets both belonging and individualistic goals
Satire vs. Fabricated Newstories
- Satire is for humor purposes and it is not intended to be taken seriously - Fake news is supposed to malicously decieve people
like tactics
- The mere exposure effect - Ingratiation - Generate positive affect - make it pretty - similarity
Here are some of the main conclusions about people with low self-esteem:
- Their ideas about themselves are conflicted and uncertain, a pattern called "self-concept confusion." - They focus on self-protection instead of self-enhancement. - They are more prone to emotional highs and lows.
"pushing" tactics
- They are. direct, overt, and you can usually tell when someone is trying to persuade you - rational persuasion and coercion
Authority tactics
- celebrity - anyone with a lab coat
How has prejudice reduced over time and how has it endured? (e.g., segregation, interracial relationships and social distance, current targets of blatant prejudice, etc.)
- only about 10% of individuals endorse blatant race biases - Interracial marriages are at an all time high (17%) - Discrimination and hate crimes are illegal NONETHELESS - people have shifted targets to hate crimes to others like gays -Many prejudices today are subtle, implicit, aversive, ambivalent, symbolic, and "colorblind"
scarcity tactics
- supplies are limited
What is effort justification dissonance?
- things like hazing or initiation - trying to rationalize why you are doing something
What are any links to psychopathology?
-higher cortisol -"metabolic syndrome" -Higher activity in dorsal striatum and dorsal-lateral PFC -increased morbidity and mortality
Propaganda (what are the defining criteria)
-info that is heavily biased in how it is presented -Criteria: uses truths, half-truths, or lies -omits info selectively -simplifies complex issues or ideas -plays on emotion -advertise a cause - attacks opponents -targets a desired audience
Cialdini's 6 rules of social influence
1) Consistency 2) Reciprocity 3) scarcity 4) authority 5) like 6) social proof
Reciprocity Tactics
1) Door-in-the-Face 2) The exchange technique 3) "That's Not All"
Basic assumptions of cognitive dissonance theory
1) Humans dislike cognitive inconsistency 2). Cognitions that are inconsistent with our behaviors with our other behaviors cause unpleasant arousal 3) Motivated to reduce dissonance
According to Robin Dunbar, humans can only have about _______ relationships within their social network before the ability to maintain excess relationships deteriorates.
150
Passionate love (also called romantic love)
refers to having strong feelings of longing, desire, and excitement toward a special person.
emo diversity
refers to how much a person experiences a variety of different emotions
What is the neocortex ratio?
A comparison of the weight of the neocortex to the weight of the "old brain" (mammalian + lizard brain)
Self-regulation
refers to the self's capacity to alter its own responses
Illusions of invulnerability?
A group immersed in groupthink believes so strongly it is the best that it loses all sense of reality.
Companionate Love:
A long-term, deeply committed, and close relationship, can be lovers & friends.
Which of the following is NOT a necessary condition for the contact hypothesis to work?
A minimal group design
Who is most likely to develop learned helplessness and refuse to try again?
A person who attributes his failure to talents that he is simply unable to develop
Who is most likely to be happy in old age?
A person who has some health problems but is usually a happy person
Who is likely to adjust best to newly implemented, exceptionally demanding productivity requirements at work?
A person who knows he can easily find another job.
Scarcity
A situation in which unlimited wants exceed the limited resources available to fulfill those wants
Guilt is the subject of philosophical and religious discourses, as well as jokes, and can serve a number of important interpersonal functions. Which statement about guilt is accurate?
A small amount of guilt can increase enjoyment of activities such as eating a candy bar
Which of the following individual differences variables have been established as increasing the likelihood that people will respond aggressively when rejected?
A) Narcissism B) Rejection Sensitivity C) Social Alienation
The theory that maintains that neocortex size corresponds to group size/complexity, is:
A. Parasite stress theory B. Ecological hypothesis C. Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis D. None of the above*****
Jaclyn wants to become a neuroscientist. She has known this since middle school, when she saw a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan performed on jazz musicians while they listened to music. Jaclyn has just started her undergraduate education as a psychology major and recognizes that she has a long way to go. Jaclyn is motivated and dedicated to her goals, but if she is like most people, when would you expect her motivation to wane?
About midway through, probably when she is nearing completion of her master's degree
Which of the following is a consistent predictor of divorce?
Age at marriage
Alonzo thinks that women are more caring than men, on average, but also believes that women are less competent than men in leadership positions. Alonzo is exhibiting:
Ambivalent sexism
Which form of bias represents a dual attitude?
Ambivalent sexism
Aversive racists tend to avoid social interactions with other races because they fear "coming off as racist." It is likely that aversive racists are:
Also high on external motivations to suppress prejudice
Following the last question, using what you know about how most people react to cognitive dissonance, it is likely that Violet will:
Alter her beliefs somewhat to allow for abortions in the case of rape
Kin selection hypothesis
Altruistic behavior evolved because it promoted the survival of our kin
medial prefrontal cortex
An area of the brain located in the middle of the frontal lobes (at the front of the head), active when people mentalize about the self and others.
The area of the brain that is responsible for alerting an individual as to when they are engaging in behavior that is inconsistent with their goals is the:
Anterior cingulate
Which statement about dissimilarity is true?
Once we detect dissimilarities, liking decreases
What is dehumanization?
One group denies the humanity of the other group
Which group of Americans places the greatest emphasis on emotional moderation?
Asian Americans
Keeping with the last question, the process by which we end up with a partner of relatively equal attractiveness to ourselves (despite aspiring for the most attractive partners) is called what:
Assortative mating
Terrence arrives at a party. When he gets there, he immediately notices that Jimmy - who has never liked him - is there. He starts to feel unwelcome at the party and wants to leave, ignoring the fact that the majority of attendees are happy to see him.Terrence is exhibiting:
Attentional bias for rejecting information
Unfortunately for Derek, he doesn't know that Donna has familiarized herself with all the weak counter-arguments to her position on illegal immigration and is unlikely then to be persuaded because she has bolstered her beliefs in advance. In other words, Donna exhibits:
Attitude inoculation
As such, when Derek tries to convince Donna to think differently about immigration, he finds that not only does she maintain her perspective, but she becomes even more adamant in her beliefs, thereby exhibiting:
Attitude polarization
According to Gordon Allport, what was the most central concept in social psychology?
Attitudes
Attitudes vs. Values vs. Beliefs
Attitudes- driving force behind behavior Values- More perminent attitude; what you deem morally right or. wrong Beliefs- what you think you know
If you were to see an advertisement on television where Colgate claims that "9 out of 10 dentists surveyed" support this brand as the best, what type of persuasion method are these advertisers using?
Authority
Richard is sitting at home watching television when an ad advertising a new grill cleaner comes on. The ad features actor Vin Diesel and promises that if you purchase the grill cleaner you will receive a patented mini-gill. Richard sees this as a "steal" and rushes to dial the number. Which combination of tactics did the makers of this product use?
Authority and Reciprocity
The duplex mind contains what two systems?
Automatic; deliberate
____________ mean well, but they underestimate their biases and subconsciously their primary motivation for wanting to be unbiased is more about not looking bad than actually wanting to reduce bias in the world. Thus, they end up avoiding interactions with outgroups so as not to risk losing face.
Aversive racists
Guests at your wedding reception are invited to have their picture taken in a photo booth and digitally write some advice for you and your spouse on the photo, which will then become part of an album commemorating the occasion. Suppose one of your guests is a graduate student in social psychology who studies long lasting romantic relationships. Which advice would you expect that this particular guest would give?
Avoid the downward spiral.
In the 1950s and 1960s, psychology was divided between what two camps?
Behaviorist and psychoanalytical camps
In short, being social provides benefits.
Being social is a strategy that enables some animals to survive and reproduce effectively. That is the biological starting point of social psychology: Being social improves survival and reproduction.
The time has come to think about an exclusive dating relationship and there are two candidates. Candidate A is tremendous fun to be with, exciting, exhilarating but sometimes a bit sketchy, and leaves you worried about his trustworthiness. Candidate B is definitely more sedate and offers fewer thrills, but is a very moral person and utterly trustworthy. Given social psychological research, your best choice for a lasting happy romantic relationship would be _____.
Candidate B, since trustworthiness is vital to lasting relationships
Which of the following is an example of the illusory truth effect?
Ciara continues to believe that her 3-year old dog is "21 in human years" because she has always heard that 1 dog year = 7 human years.
What type of participants do most social psychologists use in their studies?
College students
Which statement based on recent research pertaining to stereotyping is true?
People tend to assume that corporations that make very large profits are inflicting harm to society.
Central route is to ________ processing as peripheral is to ___________ processing.
Controlled...Automatic
Negativity bias
DEFINITION: People attend more to negative information/events (notice it, recall it, etc.) than positive information. Traditionally thought to be due to evolutionary drives to pay attention to potential threats. EXAMPLE: We will remember the one time a trusted friend let us down better than the four times they helped us out.
Some groups of people are more easily persuaded than other groups. Which of the following groups is MOST likely to be persuaded by an eloquent speaker?
People under age 25
Loss aversion
DEFINITION: People attend to information more about how to avoid big losses rather than accrue big gains, which can influence their decisions. EXAMPLE: Sometimes people are afraid to leave jobs - even if they are dissatisfied with them - to take a chance at finding a better job.
Hyperbolic discounting (aka: Current moment bias)
DEFINITION: People choose immediate gratification (even if the payoff is smaller) over larger rewards that would come later. EXAMPLE: I would rather enjoy eating my Krispy Kreme donut today than wait the months it will take for the reward (e.g., losing weight) that comes from abstaining from eating Krispy Kremes.
Another main difference between humans and other animals is culture.
Culture allows humans to accumulate knowledge over time and across generations.
Which statement about culture is true?
Culture can occur, to a very limited extent, in nonhumans
What, then, is culture? The different components mentioned in this section can be summarized in this way:
Culture is an information-based system, involving both shared understandings and praxis, that enables groups of people to live together in an organized fashion and to get what they need. Culture can have a significant influence even on basic human needs, such as food and sex
Impact bias.
DEFINITION: A) Retrospective impact bias is when people overestimate the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to past events. B) Prospective impact bias is when people overestimate the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to possible future events. EXAMPLE:A) In retrospect I think that the trip to Disney World for my daughter's third birthday was so much more fun than it actually was (e.g., it was 90+ degrees, cost a fortune, was crowded). We are already planning our next trip. B) When people imagine how devastated they would be to lose their job, their beliefs are often not matched by reality when they do lose their job and, as a result, often find new opportunities
Neglect of probability.
DEFINITION: Also called probability neglect, this is the tendency to completely disregard probabilities when making decisions during periods of uncertainty (base rate fallacy is an example of this general tendency). EXAMPLE: When people elect to engage in high risk medical procedures because, in their mind, "some chance is better than no chance" but neglect to also take into account the chance of survival without the risky procedure
Bandwagon effect
DEFINITION: Also called the "herd effect" or "social proof" it is the tendency for people to go along with actions or attitudes without much consideration because they perceive that is what everyone else is doing or thinking. EXAMPLE: Polls revealing that the majority of Americans oppose going to war in Syria increases the likelihood that others will oppose (especially if they have little knowledge of the actual conflict or rationale).
Von Restorff effect
DEFINITION: Also called the distinctiveness principle or isolation effect, we tend to pay attention more to things in our environment that are novel, surprising, or out of the ordinary (assuming we are not distracted). EXAMPLE: We will recall the one person dressed in red in a sea of black and grey suits better than any of the rest of the applicants we interview.
Magical thinking
DEFINITION: Cognitions based on assumptions that don't hold up to rational deduction/evidence (e.g., such as superstitious beliefs)but are resistant to change. EXAMPLE:In one study, people refused to eat chocolate when it was molded into the shape of dog poo, but would eat the chocolate when pieces were cut up. When told the chocolate came from the original sample, they still refused to eat the chocolate when molded into the shape of dog poo.
Choice-supportive bias
DEFINITION: Once we make a choice, we selectively attend to information that reaffirms our choice so we do not have to worry about regretting a decision.This is a type of confirmation bias specific to choices. EXAMPLE: The moment students choose which college they are going to attend they rate it more favorably than they had previously and can list more reasons why their school is superior to the alternatives they declined. This tendency increases over time as they gather more information.
What is DARVO?
Deny, Accuse, and reverse victim and offender. Preserving our belief in a just world (Bad things wouldn't happen to them if they weren't bad people)
If the findings from the Sallet et al.'s (2011) study with macaques extends to the human race, we could expect that:
Each additional friend we make could lead to 3-8% in neocortical grey matter growth.
Change is another common trait of living things.
Each living thing changes as it grows older, but more important forms of change occur from one generation to the next: Children are different from their parents.
Fatima feels deep sadness because her dog died. What term most accurately describes what Fatima is feeling?
Emotion
What types of messages "go viral" faster?
Emotions & lies travel faster than fact
Keeping with the last question, normally the ________________ predicts that decreases in satisfaction would result in decreases in commitment, making having a child seem like an exception to the theory, but this model also accounts for other factors in addition to satisfaction with the relationship as a buffer to demise.
Investment Model
In the Robber's Cave experiments and Jigsaw Classroom studies, they showed that one way to reduce intergroup hostility was to:
Foster interdependence via superordinate goals
Which statement best describes the research about guilt and shame?
Guilt is good and shame is bad for the individual and society.
Which of the following lists contains only "basic" facial emotions (i.e., biologically determined, culturally universal in expression)?
Happiness, sadness, surprise
Behavioral Responses to Rejection
Harm others Emotional Eating
What is the Valence-Arousal-Dominance model? And how does it explain which emotions are effective in spreading misinformation?
High arousal emotions spread faster than low arousal emotions
o Hiring (and Pay)
People while implicitly not hire someone whose name is seen as not white
Mark is a real amateur when it comes to art, but Denise, his wife, is a pro. According to research on the inclusion of other in self effect, when Mark is asked if he is artistic, he will likely:
Hesitate to think about it a second, and then say "sure"
Many students complete their quiz day slides and as soon as they see the answer think "I knew that all along" - leading them to feel perhaps overconfident about their likely test performance and stop studying. These students are exhibiting:
Hindsight bias
What is social network homophily? (Vs. sexual racism?)
Homophily is the principle that a contact between similar people occurs at a higher rate than among dissimilar people. The pervasive fact of homophily means that cultural, behavioral, genetic, or material information that flows through net- works will tend to be localized.
_____________ is when you assume that conflicts between people are going to end aggressively
Hostile Expectation Bias
What is "mate-guarding?"
Human mate guarding refers to behaviors employed by both males and females with the aim of maintaining reproductive opportunities and sexual access to a mate. It involves discouraging the current mate from abandoning the relationship whilst also warding off intrasexual rivals.
What creatures intentionally kill themselves (i.e., commit suicide)?
Humans
Research shows that ________________ is more problematic than fake news stories.
Hyperpartisan news
Disrupt and reframe technique example
If people are selling something they break the script and tell you it is a bargin(or what to think)
The Shooter bias (aka: "The Police Officer's Dillema") is an example of ____________.
Implicit bias
Keeping with the last question, it probably also doesn't hurt that Eric and Erica's names are so similar as ___________ would predict we are more likely to end up with someone whose name shares letters in common with our own name.
Implicit egotism
What is a colorblind ideology?
In a colorblind society, white people, who are unlikely to experience disadvantages due to race, can effectively ignore racism in
Which statement about people with low self-esteem is true?
People with low self-esteem tend to focus on self-protection
And even on self-reports...
In fact there is evidence that women are even MORE selective than men in general
Tom finds more than a dozen friends to paint his fence, and they start to work. Upon inspecting the progress, Tom finds that they don't seem to be working especially hard and that their work is shoddy. How would Max Ringelmann interpret this?
In general, the larger the number of painters, the less effort each individual painter will put into the work.
Which of the following statements is true?
Inmates in correctional facilities rate themselves as above average on moral and prosocial traits.
Rejection can come in many forms. Which of the following is NOT an aspect of how we defined variations of social rejection in class.
Instrumental vs. Expressive
According to Bertram Malle, what is the most important dimension people use when making attributions about the behavior of others?
Intentional/accidental
People high in ________ are less likely than people high in ___________ to show activation of their amygdala when viewing pictures of outgroup members.
Internal Motivation to be Non-prejudiced.... External Motivation to be Non-prejudiced
In a common analogy used by psychologists, the brain is compared to a computer. In that analogy, culture is like the __________.
Internet
What type of motivation leads to the best goal outcomes?
Intrinsic
Joni wants to see an R-rated (17+) movie with some friends. However, Joni is only 14, and her parents forbid her to go. Which of the following responses could be predicted from Brehm's psychological reactance theory?
Joni would behave aggressively toward her parents. Joni would want to see the movie more. Joni would sneak into the movie anyway.
Infatuation:
Just lust, really. Passion alone can lead to an obsessive love, often brief.
Stephen recognizes that if he does not improve his study skills, he is unlikely to graduate on time. Which strategy is most likely to produce fast results?
Keeping a calendar recording how much time he spends studying for each course, every day
People regularly avoid going out on Friday the 13th, yet evidence is quite mixed as to whether car accidents (or any accidents) are higher on that day (in fact a 1993 study suggested car accidents are lower because more people stay home). Yet people continue to think of this day as unlucky. This is an example of:
Magical thinking
Although the ______________ model of mate selection argues that women are more selective than men in choosing long-term partners, the ____________ model suggests both genders are picky about long-term partners.
Males compete/females choose...mutual mate choice
Which branch of emotional intelligence involves the most psychologically integrated processes?
Managing emotions
Each time Jessie falls for someone new, she just can't stop thinking about them and just hates to be apart from them for very long. Jessie likely has the_______ love style.
Mania
Tradeoffs are an important feature of human social life.
Many decisions and dilemmas involve tradeoffs, so that no one right answer will suit everyone. (In this way, tradeoffs also preserve diversity because there is more than one way to be, with none being the best.) Solving one problem will sometimes create another.
It starts early
Many friendships in grade school are determined in part by seating chart
Keeping with the last question, what is Mario's dependent variable?
Math performance
A new study exposed men to pictures of women standing or women in sexually suggestive positions, they found that when viewing the latter men's _____________ failed to activate, indicating that they ___________.
Medial Prefrontal cortex ...saw the women as objects
The next largest challenge was for cooperation (us vs. nature):
People work together to get food and shelter.
Erica and Eric were involved in a multi-car pile-up on the highway. They both survived and escaped with their vehicles relatively unscathed. They meet as they get out to assist other drivers, but don't get to interact much. At the end, they exchange phone numbers along with insurance information. The next day, Eric calls Erica and they start dating.
Misattribution of arousal
Which of the following is an example of destructive self-presentation?
Missy has such a strong desire to fit in her dance troupe but feels too "fat" so she starts taking laxatives after every meal she eats but skips a lot of meals, and exercises excessively.
Which statement about stereotypes is true?
Modern stereotypes have a high level of accuracy
Which of the following situational variables has been established as increasing the likelihood that people will respond aggressively when rejected?
Perceived groupness
Sallet et al.'s (2011) study of macaques living in different group sizes (not the same as Harlow's) showed that:
Monkeys living in groups for 18 months showed 20% more neocortical growth than monkeys living alone.
What are some psychophysiological consequences of prejudice? (For targets and those prejudiced. May get to next time...)
More likely to victims of violence, risky behavior, have higher blood pressure, higher periods of increased heart rate, heightened cortisol reactivity, and higher mortality rate
One very important set of tradeoffs concerns time.
Most commonly, the tradeoff requires choosing between something that has benefits right now versus something that has benefits in the future. Our shorthand term for this sort of tradeoff is "now versus tomorrow." Studies of delay of gratification often make the tradeoff between present and future explicit. In a typical study two marshmallows, a child is offered a choice between having one right now—or if the child can wait for 20 minutes.
What body part does willpower most resemble?
Muscle
Which of the following is an essential component of belongingness?
Mutual concern
Why are people the way they are? Why is the human mind set up as it is? Why do people think, want, feel, and act in certain ways?
Nature and culture.
Which of the following is a stigma that is high in visibility, pervasiveness/globality, and perceived choice?
Obesity
___________ theory argues that social rejection is so impactful because it threatens multiple basic needs.
Ostracism Detection Theory
Which branch of emotional intelligence involves the most basic psychological processes?
Perceiving emotions
To get more customers in the door, instead of having a sale where everything is 20% off, Oscar advertises that everything is 17% off. He gets more customers even though the sale is less that one might expect? Oscar is using what social influence technique?
Pique technique
Romantic Love:
Passion & intimacy lead to romantic love, often the first phase in a romantic relationship.
Which statement about passionate love is the most accurate?
Passionate love exists across cultures, but how it is experienced and viewed depends on the culture
Suppose Dimitri has been hired to work for an advertising agency and is presently working on a new campaign for a cruise company. He suggests a commercial in which happy vacationers enjoy numerous activities on-board the beautifully decorated ship. Which characteristic of effective persuasion is Dimitri targeting?
Pathos
Which of the following is NOT an example of the demand-withdraw patterns that lead to relationship deterioration?
Paul recognizes that there is give and take in every relationship. He tries to make compromises.
Do the girls get prettier at closing time?
Pennebaker et al. (1979) interviewed the patrons of bars at different times during the evening and asked them to rate the attractiveness of same sex and opposite sex people in the bar at the time
How long have I known them?
Pennebaker et al. (1979) interviewed the patrons of bars at different times during the evening and asked them to rate the attractiveness of same sex and opposite sex people in the bar at the time.
What topic do people spend the greatest amount of time thinking about?
People
Which of the following is not an explanation given for the fundamental attribution error?
People are high in need for cognition.
Which of the following findings regarding the influence of physical attractiveness on social behavior is NOT true?
Physical attractiveness is more important in determining how positively women are regarded than men.
Mary really wants a romantic relationship but worries that should she get involved in one that it will end in rejection because others don't seem to want to be as close as she wants. Still, she keeps trying, but time and again, they end with her partners telling her she was just too needy. Mary likely exhibits what attachment style:
Preoccupied
The earliest social psychological experiments were conducted in the late 1800s by researchers such as Max Ringelmann and Norman Triplett. What was the topic of these early studies?
Presence of others on individual performance
One reason that distractions may increase the persuasiveness of a message is because distractions _____.
Prevent central processing of the message content
A few research projects used data generated by Facebook users. Which statement accurately depicts findings from these experiments?
Positive updates are more effective in increasing positive updates than negative updates are in increasing negative updates.
Having just signed a two year contract for his brand new smart phone, Terrence is feeling pretty good about himself until he sees his roommate's brand new iPhone Xs. Terrence might end up feeling ___________ form of cognitive dissonance:
Post-decision regret
People who feel lonely all the time have less grey matter in this area of the brain associated with accurately interpreting social cues (such as whether others like you)?
Posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus
selective exposure
refers to the tendency of individuals to select information that supports their preexisting views and avoid information that contradicts their preexisting views
Again, keeping with the last two questions, use of relational aggression is a _______ tactic and use of foot-in-the-door is a ________ tactic.
Pushing...pulling
Cara is a fifth-grade schoolteacher. In order to yield the best performance from her students, her principal tells her that she is assigned to the honors class of exceptional students. Cara, throughout the semester, praises students often and lets them know that she naturally assumes that they will always do well in her class. When a peer observer comes in to watch Cara's class she writes the students up as exceptional. This is a good example of what?
Pygmalion effect
Much of the hostility toward immigrants coming to America derives from fear that "they are taking our jobs" which is an attitude consistent with __________________ as to how intergroup hostility arises.
Realistic Conflict Theory
The brown eyes-blue eyes and Robber's Cave experiments also illustrated how once groups were formed and hierarchies and competition were put in place, intergroup hostility quickly developed. Thereby illustrating :
Realistic conflict theory
Familiarity via Intimacy-Building (e.g., Aron's Fast friends paradigm)
Reciprocity Familiarity Proximity Similarity Attractiveness Arousal
The need to belong has two parts:
Regular social contact with others. Close, stable, mutually intimate contact.
Even in Passing...
Rejection = Stress
Andrea's boyfriend, Mark, is in trouble with the law. He needs her to hide some stolen goods at her house until he can pick them up at a safer time. Andrea expresses that she does not want to be a part of his legal ordeal and refuses to hide the items. Mark says if she really loved him, she would do this tiny favor for him. Even though it could get her in trouble, Andrea gives in and lets him store the merchandise in her apartment. Mark uses _______ to persuade Andrea.
Relational Aggression
Following the last question, when couples maintain this attribution pattern(internal for good/external for bad), is called what:
Relationship-serving attribution
What concept allows science to be self-correcting over time?
Replication
Tate is over 6 ft 5 inches tall, is athletic, and wears shorts a lot, so people naturally assume that he is a basketball player. This is an example of
Representativeness heuristic
Researchers conducting an fMRI study of individuals allegedly in love found they were able to predict relationship stability from what was more activated (the __________) and less activated (the ___________) among those "truly" in love - who stayed together.
Reward network...medial orbitofrontal cortex
Activation of the ____________ is negatively correlated with activation of the ventral striatum. Thus many have identified this portion of the brain as responsible for ensuring those invested in their relationship are not attracted to alternatives.
Right ventro lateral prefrontal cortex
What is Symbolic Bias?
Saying it is not personal it is just politics. Like when they were desegregating schools some parents did. not want their kids on the bus so they said it is the bus not black people.
Which theory proposed the idea that emotion has two different components: physiological arousal and a cognitive label?
Schachter-Singer
What is the primary approach that social psychologists use to uncover the truth about human social behavior?
Scientific method
Disrupt-the-reframe, pique techniques, and classic cons like "how to take someone's wallet by just asking" all illustrate the disruptions of our __________ can increase our susceptibility to persuasion.
Scripts
Mindguarding?
Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group
Deliberate
Slow Controllable Guided by intention Flexible Good at combining information Precise, rule-based calculations Can perform complex operations Does one thing at a time Reasoning Effortful
The colorblind ideology doesn't work because it attempts to interrupt the "prejudice process" at the ______________ stage which is actually a necessary stage for stereotype inhibition to effectively occur.
Social Categorization
Which theory assumes that sex is a resource that women have and men want?
Social exchange theory
Tanya never considers voting Democrat because her parents never voted Democrat - just like her current husband. Tanya's anti-Democrat attitude has what function?
Social-expressive
What type of investment decreases satisfaction in a relationship yet, ironically, increases commitment in a romantic relationship?
Social: Having a child together
The belief that welfare recipients should be tested for drugs in order to receive benefits because they are perceived as more likely to use drugs than non-welfare recipients (despite evidence to the contrary) is an example of what:
Stereotyping
In class, we watched a video of a dog attacking its own foot for getting too close to its bone. This dog seems to even lack the most basic_____________ self-awareness.
Subjective
Evidence has shown that, aside from humans, while most animals exhibit __________ only a handful have been shown to have __________.
Subjective...Objective
Keeping with the last question, which area of the brain is essential to theory of mind (e.g., where, for example, children on the autism spectrum show grey matter deficits)
Superior temporal sulcus
Inner processes often serve interpersonal functions.
That is, the psychological traits people have enable them to connect better with others.
Donna is firmly opposed to allowing illegal immigrants "guest worker" benefits. If she is to be persuaded to think differently, Derek will need to:
Take the two-sided approach
Negative-State relief hypothesis
That if we do something that creates negative feelings but something happens to replace these with positive emotions we will not engage in helping behavior.
If I were an evolutionary psychologist and I believed that human neocortex size was due to humans needing to adapt to rapidly fluctuating climate change I would endorse:
The Ecological Dominance hypothesis
What is empathy (vs. sympathy)?
The ability to adopt the perspective of another, experiencing what they are experiencing vs feeling sad or pity for what someone is going through
Cognitive Load
The amount of a person's cognitive resources needed to carry out a particular cognitive task.
What is hypocrisy induction?
The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior.
What is implicit bias (and Implicit Association Test)?
The automatic biases that are learned through society.
What is the difference between automatic(fast) and controlled(slow) cognitive processes?
The automatic is fast and your brain is trying to take the shortest route to an answer; and controlled is slower and is stuff like math
"While watering plants in my garden, I am breathing fresh air." How are the deliberate and automatic minds related in this particular sentence?
The automatic mind serves the deliberate mind and makes consciousness possible
The two parts of the duplex mind are not entirely independent of each other. In fact, they often work together.
The automatic system serves the deliberate system, in the sense that it operates behind the scenes to make conscious thought possible. You may think consciously that something you heard on the radio is illogical. But before that can happen, the automatic system has to have done a great deal of work: It processed the stream of sounds into comprehensible language, understood the gist of the message, and activated various other ideas in your memory that were associated with the core idea. The automatic system also works like an alarm system that signals to the deliberate system that something is wrong and that careful, conscious thinking is needed.
Keeping with the last question, suppose that Janice now becomes even stronger in her beliefs than BEFORE she read the information about SUVs being unsafe. She would be exhibiting :
The backfire effect
The social brain hypothesis argues:
The brain evolved to help us negotiate increasing complex social networks.
To support her strong beliefs about the superior safety of SUVs, after buying an SUV Janice is sure to note that every time she drives it, she feels safe. She is exhibiting:
The choice-supportive bias
What is the ANCODI hypothesis? (Which emotions are most important to invoke violence?)
The combination of the three promote violent action. Anger, disgust, and contempt.
Which of the following correlations shows the strongest relationship between the variables?
The correlation between time spent partying and grades among college students is r = −.80.
•Commitment:
The decision to love someone and behavior to maintain that love.
What is the Illusory Truth effect?
The illusory truth effect, also known as the illusion of truth, describes how, when we hear the same false information repeated again and again, we often come to believe it is true. Troublingly, this even happens when people should know better—that is, when people initially know that the misinformation is false.
social norms
The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
•Intimacy:
The investment in the relationship characterized by feelings of closeness, caring, trust, and mutual understanding.
____________ predicts that we will ultimately end up with someone of equal attractiveness to ourselves.
The matching hypothesis
Every where we look, pink is the dominant color on girls toys and clothes. Thus, it isn't all that surprising that many girls say "pink" is their favorite color. This could be an example of:
The mere exposure effect
What is the main factor that separates philosophy from psychology?
The methods used to study problems The length of time the disciplines have been around
The brown eyes-blue eyes and Robber's Cave experiments illustrated how easy it was to basically randomly create ingroups and outgroups. Thereby illustrating :
The minimal group effect
Which of the following is an operational definition of racial prejudice?
The number of negative traits the person selects from a list of traits when doing the list for his or her own race versus another race
What is the paradox of tolerance?
The paradox of tolerance states that if a society is tolerant without limit, its ability to be tolerant is eventually seized or destroyed by the intolerant. Karl Popper described it as the seemingly paradoxical idea that in order to maintain a tolerant society, the society must be intolerant of intolerance.
What is the difference between the right and left areas of the amygdala?
The right is focused on negative emotions, while the left processes all emotions.
Informational influence involves going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do, such as when
The situation is ambiguous, so people do not know how to behave. There is a crisis, and people don't have time to think for themselves.
Culture is harder to define than nature.
The term originally referred to a system of farming (a usage one can still see in terms like agriculture). Then it came to refer to musical and artistic achievements, such as paintings and symphonies. Social scientists eventually began to use the term to refer to what a large group of people have in common. French culture, for example, refers to everything that French people share: language, values, food preferences, a style of government, a place (France), and a shared sense of connection to the artistic and historical achievements of other French people.
Generate positive affect technique
The use of humor
Which common household device best illustrates a feedback loop?
Thermostat
Over the course of four months in 1994 approximately 800,000 people were killed in violence between two groups in Rwanda. Given what you know about the nature of prejudice, what was the primary underlying cause of the genocide?
Unequal distribution of power/resources Lack of superordinate goals Social categorization
The _____ argues that relationships end when couples have insufficient resources to cope with the inevitable obstacles & conflicts, especially when already dissatisfied.
Vulnerability-Stress Adaptation Model
What advice would a psychologist give a recently married happy couple who is thinking of having children?
Wait a while after getting married to have children; that will allow the relationship to better withstand the stress of parenthood.
pluralistic ignorance
looking to others for cues about how to behave, while they are looking to you; collective misinterpretation
Sternberg proposed that
love is composed of passion, intimacy, and commitment, and that these three ingredients can vary in strength in different relationships.
What is Helen Fisher's three-component model of love?
lust, attachment, and attraction
Yolanda simply steps over a homeless man panhandling in the street without even acknowledging his presence. To her, he is just a part of the "scenery" in the inner city. Yolanda's ___________ likely didn't activate when seeing this man.
mPFC
Big brains may have evolved to enable
more complex social relationships.
Both men and women are
more intolerant of homosexuality in their own gender than in the opposite gender.
People from collectivist countries are
more likely to be influenced by group norms than are people from individualist countries.
Keeping with the last question, someone with an "evaluation orientation" is:
more likely to think problems in the relationship are "signs" that the relationship is not meant to be.
Overheard messages are
more persuasive than direct attempts to change attitudes.
People who are in a good mood are
more receptive to persuasive messages.
Married people have sex ______ often and more satisfyingly, but single people spend more time at each sexual episode and have ______ different partners.
more; more
Suppose that a new baby girl was born with no teeth. Unfortunately, because she had great difficulty eating, she died of starvation before she could have any children. Thus, the trait of having no teeth was not preserved for future generations. This process is called ____________.
natural selection
What is the induced compliance paradigm?
one paradigm to create dissonance; this was a complex task in which one is asked to act in a way that contradicts his or her attitudes about a specific subject or person through an exchange of roles
Happiness is rooted in
one's outlook and approach to life, as well as in one's genes.
The duplex mind is
only found in humans, so only humans have two routes to persuasion.
Parents often desire that their children share their important values, attitudes, and beliefs, whether about religion, human rights, or other fundamental issues. As a result, children are often rewarded for making public declarations that support their parents' values by, for example, becoming active members of a particular religious community. In this case, such children are learning their parents' attitudes via _____.
operant conditioning
You are working on a research that examines the relationship between climate change and human migration. You have created a series of questions that assess a participant's socioeconomic status, not just now but also what it was during childhood, adolescence, and each decade of adulthood (as applicable). In doing so, you have developed a(n) _____.
operational definition
People's plans tend to be overly_________, especially over a long time span.
optimistic
Some religions practice shunning, in which individuals who are judged to have broken important rules are systematically excluded from the group. Although it varies, shunning may include excommunication (exclusion from important religious practices) as well as social exclusion, which may include a ban on communication with family members who wish to remain in good standing. In this context, shunning is best described as a form of _____.
ostracism
Gus is preparing for his senior recital, which is the last requirement for his degree. There are several passages of one piece, however, that frequently create problems in his performance. Gus would be best served by imagining himself _____.
practicing hard and mastering the troublesome passages
The status quo bias is a
preference to keep things the way they are rather than change.
ingroup favoritism
preferential treatment of, or more favorable attitudes toward, people in one's own group
Ingroup favoritism is
preferential treatment of, or more favorable attitudes toward, people in one's own group, as compared to people in other groups.
racism
prejudiced attitudes toward a particular race
People may use
prejudices and stereotypes to strengthen the bonds within their group.
Nature has
prepared humans to use ideas.
What is the mutual acculturation approach?
preserving social identities and emphasizing relationship building via appreciation of similarities and differences
Random assignment
procedure whereby each study participant has an equal chance of being in each treatment group
Goal shielding is the
process of keeping others from interfering with your goals.
theory perseverance
proposes that once the mind draws a conclusion, it tends to stick with that conclusion unless there is overwhelming evidence to change it
Belief in free will leads people to act in more _________ ways.
prosocial
People who believe in free will are more __________ than people who do not believe in free will. Answer
prosocial
What is prosocial behavior? And, relatedly, what is altruism? (vs. everyday helping, vs. acts of heroic self-sacrifice; what makes altruistic helping altruistic?)
prosocial behavior- helping behavior, doing good for other people. altruism- behavior that puts others welfare before yours.
Behavior (prosocial, asocial, antisocial, self-harm)
prosocial- forms social relationships asocial- withdraw, no social value antisocial- lashing out harms social relationships self-harm- suicide and cutting
Unconscious forces are to reinforcement histories as _______ is to ________
psychoanalysis; behaviorism
A commercial advertising exercise equipment says: "Want to lose some of that unwanted flab? Now, for only a limited time you can! The new Multi-Flex Home Gym is specially designed to work all of your muscles at once, so you can yield maximum results in only six weeks! Call now to order because there are only a limited number of supplies! Plus, if you order now we'll include this set of stainless steel barbells! The Home Gym AND the barbells can both be yours for only three easy payments of $49.95!!" This advertisement is displaying which of the following tactics?
reciprocity and scarcity
Explaining the opposite theory _____ or _______ belief perseverance.
reduces or eliminates
