Social Psychology Exam 2-Study Guide

Will you later like a blind date more if your friend promised to buy your dinner and movie tickets if you'll take him/her out (your friend is dating the blind date's friend) or if your friend promised to buy you a diet coke if you take him/her out? What does this have to do with the Festinger & Carlsmith,1959, study?

"less-leads-to-more- effect"..less reasons rewards for an action often leads to greater attitude change...."Boring experiment task"- People who got paid less did a $20 justification for lying- "less interesting", $1 no justification for lying <----Changed attitudes more by convincing themselves it was interesting to reduce dissonance.

Be able to define and give examples of the 5 techniques for maximizing compliance presented in class. Also, discuss one technique that is NOT effective in maximizing compliance.

(1). *Foor-in-the-Door*- Ask mom for $20 first, she says yes. At this point mom feels good about herself, then you ask her for $50, & she is likely to say yes because she wants to continue to feel like a great parent. The mechanism here is: *consistency* to maintain that sense of self, (2). *Door-in-the-face*- Ask for $100, she says no. The you say ok I understand money is tight can i a least have $50. If she says yes, it worked, Activates her reciprocity principle so she meets you half way. The mechanism here is: the illusion of *compromising*, FOOT IN THE DOOR IS MORE EFFECTIVE APPOACH....(3). *Ingratiation*: Giving a compliment, then asking for something. "I love your class Dr.Stewart, how about extra credit", the mechanism here is: *Manipulation*, (4). *Thats-not-all- Approach*- "Mom can you loan me $50, if you do I cannot only go to Houston's and have a nice healthy dinner, I can also go and meet with my group for class and get a good grade ob my test", (5). *Public Statement of Opinion*- Catch mom after she has just made some sort of public statement of opinion then ask for money bc she is more likely to give it then. NOT EFFECTIVE= *Lowballing Approach*- Telling someone you need $40 for a book , "oh i forgot about the taxes, so i actually need $50".

Give two examples of racial bias in jury decisions, according to class lecture.

(1). African Americans receive harsher sentences. (2). African American victims treated less seriously than white victims. 4.5% of people who believe black people will receive on death sentence.

List and describe factors that influence conformity (e.g., group size).

(1). Group Size, (2). Unanimity: just one person not conforming could change the whole group, (3). Cohesion: the tighter the group the more influence. Powerful in inducing conformity, (4). Status:higher status people have more influence, (5). Public Response, (6). Prior Commitment, (7). Culture: cultural differences

How does group deliberation influence verdicts?

(1). Some evidence for group polarization, (2). Sicking with initial majority view, (3).*Leniency Bias*- Jurors more likely to vote "guilty" individually than a group.

Under what constraints do attitudes show improved ability to predict behavior? Explain each and be able to provide examples.

(1). The principle of Aggregation- an attitude predicts the aggregate of one's behaviors better than any specific behavior. (2). Attitudes better predict behavior when the attitude are specific to the behavior. For Example: Commercial about condoms, sexy attitude so that we can put a certain action into the reason to use a condom. (3). Attitudes better predict behavior when the attitudes are made salient. (4). Attitudes predict behavior when the attitudes have been forged by experience. If our attitudes came from our own personal experience we are more likely to react. For Example: Dorms are packed so some have to sleep in the gym; the ones sleeping on the cots are going to protest more. (5). It is aways helpful to get people's true attitudes.

What are some of the general factors that influence juries, according to social psychological research?

(1).Defendant & victim characteristics , (2). Judge's instructions, (3). Group dynamics. (4). Individual differences.

How are jury decisions affected by a defendant's attractiveness? When is a defendant better off being LESS attractive? Discuss findings concerning attractiveness and jury (and judge) decisions in relation to sexual harassment cases, in particular.

(A). Physically Attractive Defendants are less likely to be convicted of crimes and more likely to receive lenient sentences..UNLESS (1). attractiveness seen to be at all used in the crime, (2). unattractive people are seen as "dangerous", especially if they are sexual offenders, lower bail and lower fines for prettier people.

Self-Presentation Theory

* Our behavior aims to create desired impressions. (a) We want to appear to act in a manner consistent with our beliefs. (b) So we change and express attitudes to match our behavior in order to look good to to others.

What are four primary elements of persuasion, according to social psychological research?

*1.* The communicator, *2.* The message, *3.* How the message is communicated, *4.* The audience

What are the causes, symptoms, and consequences of groupthink?

*6 Causes of Groupthink*- (1).A highly cohesive group- More vulnerable here, (2). Group members of similar backgrounds, (3). Group is isolated, (4). Strong Leader, (5). No system for critical review, (6). Stressful situations.....*8 Symptoms of Groupthink*- (1). An illusion of invulnerability, (2). A belief in group's inherent morality, (3). Collective rationalization, (4). Stereotyped views of the "enemy" (the public), (5). Self-censorship of ideas by group members, (6). An illusion of unanimity, (7). Direct pressure on group members who deviate, (8). The emergence of minguarding......*3 ways to help Prevent Groupthink*- (1). Consult with people outside the group, (2). Leaders should encourage criticism (Positive), (3). Establish a strong norm of critical review of all decisions.

Compare and contrast the central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Which path is more likely to be utilized when we are not motivated to think systematically about an issue and/or hav a weak message? If you have a strong message? Which route leads to longer-lasting change?

*Central Route* to persuasion focus on the content of the argument. Able or motivated to think systematically to the positive & the *Peripheral Route* to persuasion influence elicited via incidental cue's such as a speaker's attractiveness.

Discuss ways to most effectively communicate complex vs simple messages.

*Complex messages* are more persuasive when *read* and *Simple messages*are more persuasive when *seen* and *heard* (ex, video)

Discuss the following varieties of conformity and their relationship to one another: compliance, acceptance, and obedience.

*Conformity*- A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. ex: think about what someone else might think or say...*Compliance*- publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing, for ex: no food in class, i publicly act in accordance but i privately want to eat...*Acceptance*-both acting & believing in accord with social pressure. *Compliance can lead to acceptance*...*Obedience*- acting in accord with a direct order. ex: Coach's, bosses, parents, etc. obeying direct orders from them.

What is deindividuation? Give examples

*Deindividuation*- The loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension. Likely to occur in group settings or in other situations in which one feels "anonymous"... For example; 1. talking to friends from social media; disconnected because you are a different person than if it were face-to-face. For example; 2. Being at a concert.

What is the difference between an implicit attitude and an explicit attitude?

*Explicit attitudes* are conscious and reportable and *Implicit attitudes* are attitudes that are uncontrollable and perhaps not consciously accessible to us.

What is group polarization? What are two reasons that it occurs, according to social psychological research? Give examples

*Group Polarization*- arguably, a neutral rather than a negative aspect of being in a group)- A group-produced enhancement of members pre-existing tendencies. This occurs based off two factors: (1). *Selective Attention*- Only hear what you want to hear. (2). *Social Comparison*-We want to be more right than other people. "I agree but I really really agree & therefore I'm better than you"

When do moderate vs extreme appeals lead to more behavioral change?

*Moderate Appeals* work better for those who are not credible sources- "relationship partner says work out more".. *Extreme appeals* work better if credible.. "Doctor says workout more"

What is social loafing, and when is it less likely to occur?

*Social Loafing*- the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable. Social Loafing is LESS LIKELY TO OCCUR when on our friends than social acquaintances. & if its *challenging*, *appealing*, *engaging*- if group members are friends.

In class we focused on the elaboration likelihood model of paths to persuasion. What is the name of the other similar model that addresses paths to persuasion, and who generated the model?

*The Systematic-Heuristic Model* (Chaiken, 1980) & *The Elaboration Likelihood Model* (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981).

According to Gawronski and Strack (2004), why does dissonance not affect implicit attitudes?

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Describe the moral hypocrisy studies conducted by Batson and his colleagues in 1997 and 1999 and presented in class lecture? How did the "coin toss" variation impact the study's findings?

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Discuss how these findings might relate to self-perception theory: -How to discourage bullying in your kids -The mere exposure effect

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Discuss own-race bias

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How can police avoid the "best guess" problem i eyewitness identification, according to social psychological research?

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How would you determine if a bad decision is the result of groupthink or not? Are all bad decisions the product of groupthink?

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In what capacity might a social psychologist work in legal system?

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Milgram, 1974: We spent more than a day on this series of experiments alone. The topic is also covered extensively in your text. So you'll want to be very familiar with the details of these studies, particularly the three versions of the paradigm discussed in class. Also, be familiar with the ethical controversy surrounding these experiments.

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True or false: We get tired of hearing messages over and over; therefore, these messages lose their appeal. Explain why this statement is or is not correct.

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What are the implications of cognitive dissonance and the over justification effect for rewarding children's behaviors?

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What is the one symptom of groupthink that Janis argues did not apply to the Watergate cover-up?

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What is the protection motivation theory? What are the four beliefs associated with it? Give an example of an advertisement employing a fear appeal and explain why that ad would or would not be effective, according to protection motivation theory

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Why might group polarization lead to increased intergroup hostility?

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Discuss the relative persuasiveness of one-sided versus two-sided appeals.

1 sided appeal is more effective when they already agree AND when the audience won't interrupt. For example: Selling lipstick- no need to tell the customer it will look bad. 2 sided appeal is for example: The apartment is closer to school but cost $500 more, but think of all the great things. (When trying to persuade roommate to move).. *2 sided appeal is more persuasive*

What percentage of jurors is likely to be low in need for cognition on jurors' processing of case information?

1/3 of jurors tend to set "schemas" early on in the trial & then filter the remaining information through that schema. These individuals tend to score LOWER in *need for cognition*

What are the consequences of having a 6-person vs 12-person jury? Why do 6-person juries particularly disadvantage smaller demographic groups within the community?

6 person jury: Allies are less likely, which reduces likelihood of deserting views, less likely to represent minority segments of the population, they spend less time discussing the case.. but unanimous verdict more likely.

Cognitive Dissonance

: an aversive state that arises when one is simultaneously aware of inconsistent attitudes, thoughts, or beliefs. (a) we are motivated to alleviate this tension. (b) Tension is greater when: 1. We believe that we have/had a choice about our actions. 2. The consequences of our actions are fore-seeable.

What is the principle of aggregation? Give an example.

Aggregation- Cluster or collection. An attitude predicts the aggregate of one's behaviors better than any specific behavior.

What is the relationship between aging and attitude formation and change?

As we age, it is important for us to remain consistent with our choices, so if your attitude continues to change than you are not consistent. We like to remain unchangeable, therefore, as you age you focus more on a consistent attitude towards a particular goal.

Define attitudes. What is an "attitude object?"

Attitude: A favorable or unfavorable evaluation of an attitude object (a person or thing) exhibited in one's feelings, beliefs, or intended behaviors.

How does attractiveness impact persuasion concerning subjective preferences vs objective reality? What makes someone attractive to us?

Attractiveness leads to persuasion. Situations concerning subjective preference. For example the Beyonce Pepsi Commercial: Physical beauty or thinking the people that are more like us are more attractive so we are influenced by them

What is the implicit association test (IAT)? What is the dependent measure on this test? How is it used to study attitudes?

Based on the fact that we may assoicate various social objects more or less readily when positive or negative descriptive words. -used to assess whether the associations people have between a group are positive or negative. -Quicker reactions to objects & one social group over another can reflect devaluing of that group- descriptive words

Know the text's coverage of research on subliminal advertising

Classical conditioning that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness of the stimuli involved. (individuals were shown a picture of a stranger shopping, but then briefly shown happy or upsetting photos, unconsciously these photos affected how the person felt about the stranger)

Which theory focuses on "arousal:" cognitive dissonance or self-perception?

Cognitive Dissonance

In what cultures might the phenomenon we call "conformity" be considered more positively?

Collectivistic

How is credibility communicated in persuasive messages?

Credibility makes the message appear confident which can be persuasive.

Summarize the research discussed in class about the relationship between botox and empathy. .

Embodiment: we even consult our physical states as cues to what we feel Botox study: Facial expressions are now being changed which causes to individuals to feel less empathy because their facial expressions cannot meet those same standards that others have when they do not have botox.

What are some examples of peripheral cues?

Ex. Proactiv commercial - The Central route would be: Before and after pics and the Peripheral route would be: the celebrities used...Might use peripheral when you have a really bad product or weak message. More persuasive if you tap them into the peripheral route.

What is facial electromyography (facial EMG); how is it used to study attitudes?

Facial Electromyography (fEMG) refers to an electromyography (EMG) technique that measures muscle activity by detecting and amplifying the tiny electrical impulses that are generated by muscle fibers when they contract.

Is feeling that you have a choice in your attitude and the consequences of your actions are foreseeable likely to make cognitive dissonance stronger or weaker?

Stronger

How do the "foot-in-the-door" and "door-in-the-face" techniques work? What mechanisms are involved?

Foot-in-the-door- trying to get money from mom, ask her first for a smaller portion of the money and then wait a couple of days and then ask for the big total amount. Mechanism- what has changed when she gives you the $5 first, she is implied commitment and and she will be consistent in her image of herself. (More effective than door in the face) Door-in-the-face- you ask your mom for $200 first and then wait a couple of days and then just ask her the actual wanted $50.. We are driven by needs, you like to do a favor for others. Compromise.

What is groupthink?

Groupthink- an excessive tendency among group members to seek agreement. *coined by Irving Janis*

Mere Exposure Effect

Having seen an object before, but too rapidly to remember it can cause an attitude formation.

Injunctive and descriptive norms

Injunctive: norms suggesting what ought to be done. Descriptive: what most people do in a given situation.

What is inoculation theory? Give an example

Inoculation- Exposure to the weak counterarguments so refutations are available when later encountering stronger arguments. Prove to be false. For Ex. Soup Wars- Soup commercials about eating Campbells, they ask why are you eating that? Then turn around and say "oh well" so what if its a kids soup, its good, That there was a counteragent and now it no longer matters.

Discuss the life stages hypothesis and its relationship to persuasion.

Life stages hypothesis; more changes happen in young adult ages and when you are older, when you are retiring. Teens and early 20s are particularly formative adults years are when we are most persuadable.

What are some of the factors that determine whether someone is likely to be selected as the jury foreperson?

Male, high occupational status, speaks first and seated at the front.

List, describe, and give an example of 5 ways in which one can alleviate the tension associated with cognitive dissonance.

Me eating Flamin' hot cheetos: You can discriminate among them. 1. Attitude or situational change: Only strategy that involves change. 2. Minimize negative consequences: Its not like I am eating them every day.. Its not that bad... 3. Minimize personal responsibility: Its james fault because he always has them. 4. Denial: I don't really eat them that much 5. Bolstering: But it makes me happy when I eat them, so therefore, I eat them. It's the silver lining.

What does My Lai have to do with the research of Stanley Milgram?

My Lai was important when it came to the Milgram studies when looking at why people obey. The My Lai incident where innocent women and children were killed. Those who did the killing were asked to explain why they did the killing and they explained that it was because they wanted to obey and because they were told to do it. How far will you go when conforming and obeying to authority.

What does the need for cognition scale measure? What are some characteristics of people high vs low in need for cognition? How would knowing someone's need for cognition score help you decide which type of advertisement would work better on them? How do people low in need for cognition tend to process information when they are jurors? Through what route to persuasion are high need for cognition individuals more likely to be influenced?

Need for cognition: When you wish to engage in cognition..High in Masculinity, Low in Femininity= MASCULINE, High in Femininity, low in Masculinity= FEMININE, High in Masculinity= NEED FOR COGNITION..*Higher in need for cognition* Prefer complex problem-solving tasks, general intelligence, lower dogmatism, more likely to seek issue-relevant information informing attitudes, greater attitude-behavior consistency, higher self-esteem, more creative, effective at problem solving, high in masculine gender role attitudes

Normative vs informational influence

Normative influence: social influence that is based on the desire of being accepted. Informational influence: social influence based on the desire to be correct.

Self-Perception Theory

Often we don't really know our attitudes; rather, we infer them from our behavior. (a) We don't feel tension bc we're not faced with inconsistencies. (b). Example- *Embodiment*: We even consult our physical states as cues to what we feel.

Inoculation Theory:

Prepares the person for what they are going to say, preparing someone for bad news first and then good news after.

Discuss primacy vs recency effects in persuasion

Primacy & Recency is the question of: Are you more persuaded by the very first or the very last message you heard? First impressions are difficult to shake. *Primacy*-1. Two sided works best, to overcome persuasion about the other side of the case. The effect of one variable depends on effects of a second variable- interaction effect. Tide cleans clothes cleaner on hot, Cheer gets clothes cleaner on cold. Which is better? IT DEPENDS. When a one-sided appeal is more effective: when people are already leaning toward your position, AND when they are not going to hear the other side of the argument anyway. 2. First message is more persuasive. Solomon Ash- John is... more intelligent, impulsive, stubborn John is... more stubborn, impulsive, intelligent When the last message is more persuasive: When enough time separates the two messages AND when the audience commits itself soon after the second message. *Recency* - When enough time between the message AND when the audience commits itself, soon after the 2nd message. Speaker talks, fire alarm goes off, next speaker is delayed until next week and you vote right after

What pronouncement by Allan Wicker elicited a minor crisis in social psychology in the 1970s? Elaborate.

Psychologist Allan Whicker said "It may be desirable to abandon the attitude concept" "If attitudes have nothing to do with actions, should we even study it?"

According to your text, why are eyewitnesses often wrong?

When thinking back to what they remember, they usually remember only things about themselves, and it is usually inaccurate.

How are jury decisions affected by the defendant's similarity to jurors?

Similarity to the jurors lead to lower likelihood of conviction for defendants.

What is the sleeper effect, in general, and how might it influence what brand of tortillas you buy?

Sleeper Effect argues that the commercials that influence us the most, we forget. ~Delayed impact of a message when source of message is forgotten but message is remembered. You are less likely to brand that you feel is causing you to match the character in the commercial, Crest. You choose the one that makes you feel good about yourself.

Do attitudes predict behavior: What was the initial assumption and what did research in 1950s and 1960s suggest?

Social psychologists initia assumption was "YES"....Research by Wicker and others in the 1950s and 190s suggested "NO".

What is social facilitation theory? Give an example.

The effects of the presence of the onlooking audience. Ex: you run better when there is an audience watching you vs when there is not.

Discuss post-decision dissonance

The feeling you have after making a decision.

What is the social psychological definition of persuasion?

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Such as TV advertisements like the sundrop commercials, proactiv commercials, weight loss commercials, and safe sex commercials.

What does it mean to say that jury forepersons are often only "nominal leaders?"

The tend to only be the leader of the conversations that are held when discussing the verdict (will they raise their hands to vote, or handwritten, etc) but they do not tend to lead the final decision on the verdict.

Note circumstances under which low-balling is more likely to be effective vs less likely to be effective (e.g., if you know that you are being "low-balled")

This is when you give someone a very good deal, and then after the customer accepts, something happens to where you have to change the price to be less of an advantage to the customer. Ex: car salesman

What categories of actions did Dodd (1985) find to be most common for students in a deindividual state (according to student reports)? How did Dodd's findings compare to those of our informal class replication of his study?

When asked if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?......*36%* of responses were ANTISOCIAL; of these..*26%* were CRIMINAL ACTS so 26/36. *MOST COMMON*- *15%* responses was *ROB A BANK*....*36%* were NEUTRAL, *19%* were NONFORMATIVE- violating social norms without specifically harming others. Ex:Men dressing in women's clothing, *9%* were PROSOCIAL- ex:putting money in all parking meters on campus near SS building.

Know the Asch line study. What is the exact manipulation? What percentage of people conformed at least once in Asch (1955)? According to your text, in what variation of the Asch paradigm was a dramatic reduction in conformity observed?

Would you misreport your perceptions to conform with others? Which line A,B, or C is closet to the height of line D. "The Line Study" ...Someone would conform to lie & maybe say C to conform with the others if they said C too.... 75% people conformed at least once. 37% of response were conforming with others. No punishment for wrong answer. People believed they were right, but were under pressure still.

Do behaviors produce attitudes? Discuss role-playing, the Zimbardo Prison Experiment, the saying becomes believing effect, and the foot-in-the door phenomenon in elaborating on your answer.

Yes, your behaviors influence your attitude.

What famous series of experiments was responsible for the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (IRBS) in the United States? What is the purpose of IRBSs?

Zimbardo Prison Experiment and Milgram's Shocking Study, and Nazi Experiments

The Zimbardo Prison Experiment

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What is the bogus pipeline? What do mean when we say contemporary researchers are seeking a "real" pipeline through physiological measures?

the bogus pipeline technique- bring in participants, attached electrodes to their head, asking a series of questions, no response because machine can pick up on their attitude. Ask participants what they think the machine read as her attitude to the question. The only control she has it was she knows she thinks. They found that once they looked at the results, there was a correlation between the machine's results and the participants results.