Social Psychology unit 2

Which of the following statements is likely to be the most persuasive?

"Students who don't complete the assignment by Friday will receive a failing grade."

If the first-year students at college X are initially more intellectual than the students at college Y, that gap is likely to increase by the time they graduate. This phenomenon is known as the _____ effect.

"accentuation"

David sears put it, researchers have found

"almost invariables found generational rather than life cycle effects"

Alan Leshner, the executive director for the American Association for the Advancement of Science, believes that science offers answers to questions such as ______, and that religion offers answers to the questions of ______.

"when?" and "how?"; "who?" and "why?"

lowball technique

(variation of foot in the door). Tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.

*** Anthropologists tell us that if we could trace our ancestors back ______ or more years, we would see that we are all Africans.

100,000

When was the original Milgram experiment conducted?

1961

Forgetting creates the recency effect

1: when enough time separates the 2 messages 2: when audience commits itself soon after second message.

Among ingredients of persuasion explored by social psychologists, there are four

1:communicator 2: message 3: how message is communicated 4: the audience. "Who says what, by what method, to whom"

There are ______ routes to persuasion.

2

Group

2 or more people who interact and who influence one another Pair of joggers would be a group

Conformity is highest when a group has at least _ members

3

Asch and other researchers found that maximum conformity occurs in groups with ______ people.

3 to 5

In Milgram's experiment, when participants were required to force the learner's hand into contact with the shock plate, ______.

30 percent continued to obey

Compared with lesbians, gay men report more interest in uncommitted sex, more frequent sex, more interest in pornography, more responsiveness to visual stimuli, and more concern with partner attractiveness

47% of lesbians in US are in committed relationships, double the rate for gay men (24%)

Genetic influences explain approximately ______ percent of variations in personality traits.

50

Boys and girls smile just as often in elementary school pictures, but by

6th grade, girls smile significantly more than boys

Compared with males, the average female has ______ percent more fat.

70

compared to males, the average female hass

70% more fat and 40% less muscle. is 5 inches shorter, and weighs 40 pounds less. Is more sensitive to smells and sounds. is twice as likely to experience anxiety disorders or depression

Out of 12 participants, how many continued to shock "learners" all the way to the end of the experiment?

9

Cohesive

A "we feeling" the extend to which members of a group are bound, such as by attraction to one another

Social psychologists offer 2 possible explanations for age differences in persuasion

A life cycle explanation: Attitudes change, more conservative as you grow Generational explanation: Attitudes do not change, older people largely hold onto attitudes they adopted when they were young. Because attitudes are differently from those being adopted by young people, a generational gap develops.

Interact

A relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment).

Which of the following is an example of social loafing in everyday life?

A team playing tug-a-war

According to Daniel Gilbert and colleagues, it is easier to accept a persuasive message than to _____ it.

According to Daniel Gilbert and colleagues, it is easier to accept a persuasive message than to _____ it.

Leung and Bond (2004) reported that there were five universal dimensions of social beliefs.

Across 38 countries, people varied in Cynicism, social complexity, reward for application, spirituality, and fate control. People's adherence to these appears to guide their living

According to evolutionary psychology, what two abilities are the most important similarities among humans?

Adapt Learn

Different groups help us meet different human needs

Affiliate: belong and connect with Achieve: To gain a social identity

In this situation, what would be the advice: Helen is writer, who is said to have creative talent but has been earning a comfortable living writing cheap westerns. She came up with idea for significant novel. If it was written and accepted it could have considerable literary impact and be a big boost to the career. If she cannot work out her idea or novel is flop, she will have expended time and energy without remuneration. For lowest probability for Helen to consider novel 1-10, check marks.

After making decision, guess what book's average reader would advise. Would groups be likely to take greater risks or be more cautious or stay the same Groups decisions riskier

What are the two audience traits that influence persuasion?

Age and thoughtfulness

Gender roles have changes dramatically, in 1938, just 1 in 5 Americans approved of married women earning money in business or industry if she has a husband capable of supporting her, by 1996 4/5 approved.

Among U.S. 12th graders in late 1970s, 59% agreed that a preschooler is likely to suffer if the mother works. But by 2015, only 20% agreed

Even chimps are more likely to mimic behaviors of high ranking group members

Among both humans and primates, prestige begets influence.

Which of the following conditions might encourage counterargument?

Anticipating audience disagreement

In experiments people conform more when they must respond in front of others rather than writing answers privately

Asch's participants after hearing how others respond, were less influenced by group pressure if they could write answers that only the experimenter would see.

_____ is mildly attacking a message to strengthen its resistance to later attacks.

Attitude inoculation

The six persuasion principles are (by Robert Cialdini)

Authority Liking Social proof reciprocity consistency scarcity

Which of the following are true about biology and culture with regard to attitudes and behaviors?

Biology and culture interact. Everything psychological and social is biological.

_ tends to carry a negative judgment in Western cultures, where it is seen as giving into peer pressure and not reflecting Western individualist culture.

Blank 1: Conformity

is a communicator's ability to appear authoritative and trustworthy.

Blank 1: Credibility

is defined as characteristics that people use to define males and females.

Blank 1: Gender

In 1965, Harvard Business School had never granted a degree to a woman. In the class of 2006 41% of the students were women. This is an example of how _ _ vary over time.

Blank 1: Gender Blank 2: Roles

**include two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another.

Blank 1: Groups

cultures make people feel better because they see themselves as moderately unique.

Blank 1: Individualistic, Western, or Individual

Children develop because of the way their parents raise them. This is the underlying theme of the _ assumption

Blank 1: Nurture

Co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity are called co- _

Blank 1: actors

Sherif's experiment asked people to estimate how far a pinpoint of light moved; the optical illusion used in this study is called the _phenomenon.

Blank 1: autokinetic

The way a message is delivered (for example a face-to-face appeal) is called the _ of communication.

Blank 1: channel

Group members critique one another can allow for the group to avoid some forms of _ _

Blank 1: cognitive Blank 2: bias

One commonality in the Asch and the Milgram studies is that both showed how _ can take precedence over moral sense.

Blank 1: compliance

Someone who is perceived as both an expert and as trustworthy is considered to be high _ in and thus more able to persuade an audience.

Blank 1: credibility

The _ perspective emphasizes human diversity and the _ perspective emphasizes human kinship.

Blank 1: cultural Blank 2: evolutionary

Across the globe, the majority of people would like to see gender roles become more

Blank 1: equal, parallel, or similar

According to Roy Baumeister, " _ made us for culture."

Blank 1: evolution

The two major perspectives about human similarities and differences are the _ perspective and the _ perspective.

Blank 1: evolutionary Blank 2: cultural

A person who demonstrates a high rate of smiling is most likely a

Blank 1: female, woman, or girl

When looking at gender research, findings show that _ play in smaller groups, play less aggressively, and tend to talk to one friend at a time.

Blank 1: females, women, or girls

One of the major criticisms of evolutionary psychology is the _ bias, which is the tendency to explain past behavior instead of predicting future behavior.

Blank 1: hindsight

By mildly attacking a message, resistance is built against later, potentially stronger attacks. This is called attitude

Blank 1: inoculation

Perhaps the most important similarity among humans is to _ and _, which allows us to live creatively in a changing world.

Blank 1: learn Blank 2: adapt

In workplace group experiments, employees produce _ when their individual performance is _ posted for all to see.

Blank 1: less Blank 2: not

The Y Corporation is looking for a directive- and task-focused leader. This leadership style is most characteristic of _

Blank 1: males, men, or masculine

Testosterone influences _ appreance

Blank 1: masculine, male, or men's

People are _ (more/less) likely to voice their different opinions in a group if just one other person agrees with nonconformity opinion.

Blank 1: more

Based on research on the link between personality and conformity, a person who favors smooth social experiences, doubts the existence of free will, and follows the rules is _ likely to conform.

Blank 1: more or most

The process of _ _ passes heritable traits aiding in survival and reproduction to the next generation.

Blank 1: natural Blank 2: selection

Two forms of social influence that explain conformity are _ influence and _ influence.

Blank 1: normative Blank 2: informational

Standards for accepted and expected behaviors are called

Blank 1: norms

Learning bad words, musical tastes, and your culture as a whole comes from _ influence

Blank 1: peer or social

If a message is based on emotion and the attractiveness of the communicator, the persuasion route used is the _ route

Blank 1: peripheral

Juan stands very close to Troy. Troy steps back to become more comfortable and Juan steps forward to become more comfortable. This illustrates differences in _ _

Blank 1: personal Blank 2: space

While making a decision in a group, group _ describes group members' tendency to move their opinions toward a more extreme point.

Blank 1: polarization

Females describe themselves in _ terms.

Blank 1: relational

Friendship norms and status norms both represent cultural

Blank 1: similarities

Learning the rules, roles, and norms of your gender through cultural institutions is called gender

Blank 1: socialization

The presence of others

Boosts performance on simple tasks and hinders performance on complex ones

Which of the following is (are) true about an evolutionary and a cultural perspective?

Both play a role in understanding human similarities and differences.

Which method of persuasion is the MOST effective?

Both the central route and the peripheral route can be effective means of persuasion.

Social leadership

Building teams, encouraging participation in decisions, mediating conflicts, and building unity

Self-confidence, consistency and persistence convey self-confidence. Nemeth and Joel Wachtler reported that behavior by a minority that conveys it rends to raise self-doubt among majority.

By being firm and forceful, minority's apparent self-assurance may prompt majority to reconsider position. especially so on matters of opinion, rather than fact.

Which theorist postulated the theory of natural selection?

Charles Darwin

Effectiveness of fear-arousing communications has been applied in ads discouraging smoking, risky sexual behaviors, drinking andd riving.

Claude-Levy-Leboyer found that French youth drank less alcohol after seeing fear-arousing pictures. French government incorporated such pictures into TV spots

_____ are co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity.

Co-actors

poison parasite defense

Combines a poison (strong counterarguments) with a parasite (retrieval cues that bring those arguments to mind when seeing the opponent's ads)

Solomon Asch

Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines.

Conformity is highest when group has 3 or more people and is unanimous, cohesive, and high in status

Conformity also highest when response is public and made without prior committment

Normative influence

Conformity based on person's desire to fulfill others' expectations often for acceptance (wanting to be liked)

Which of the following statements about conformity is FALSE?

Conformity is meant to cause injury to another person.

Informational influence

Conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people

Which three of the following aspects of conformity does the book contend are the biggest predictors of conformity?

Culture Social roles Personality

Nonconformity supports creative problem solving, groups thrive when coordinating responses to threats

Damian Murray stated that countries that have high risk of disease like malaria, typhus, and tuberculosis tend to have cultures with high conformity levels and those with lower risk promote less conformity and encourage innovation and new ideas in science, technology and business.

Out of the arguments of the Wright brothers came first airplane

Debates between Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak came first apple computer

______ leadership is associated with poorer decisions, because subordinates sometimes feel too weak or insecure to speak up.

Directive

despite power and fame of groupthink concept, some people have been skeptical. Evidence retrospective so Janis could pick supporting cases. follow-up experiments have supported aspects of the theory though.

Directive leadership associated with poorer decisions, because subordinates feel too weak or insecure to speak up Groups prefer supporting over challenging information when members look to group for acceptance, approval, and social identity, they may suppress disagreeable thoughts. Groups that make smart decisions have widely distributed conversation, with socially attuned members who take turns speaking Group with diverse perspectives outperform groups of like-minded experts, engaging people who think differently from yourself can make you uncomfortable. But compared with comfortable homogeneous groups, diverse groups produce more ideas and greater creativity. Group success depends on what group members know and how effectively they can share info. In discussion, unshared info often gets suppressed as discussion focuses on what group members all know already

Another research strat has been to pick issues on which opinions are divided and then isolate people who hold that same view.

Does discussion with like-minded people strengthen views? Does it magnify attitude gap that separates both sides?

In the last five years, the text noted some things that researchers have found to be socially contagious. Which of the following is NOT socially contagious?

Domestic violence

______ involves being able to feel what another person feels.

Empathy

is when a person can experience another person's feelings.

Empathy

Which of the following are suggestions for preventing groupthink?

Encourage critical evaluation. Be impartial.

When teenager leaves for party, parents might say, have fun and remember who you are

Enjoy being with the group, but be self-aware, maintain personal identity.

Around world, people describe others between 2 and 5 universal personality dimensions.

Evaluating others as good or bad appears across almost all cultures and languages.

What is it about other people that creates arousal. 3 possible factors

Evaluation apprehension, distraction mere presence.

When using fear-arousing statements, how much fear should you elicit?

Experiments show that, often, the more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond.

Experiments show that nonconformity especially persistent nonconformity, is often painful and that being a minority in a group is unpleasant

Explains minority slowness effect (tendency for people with minority views to express views less quickly than do people in majority)

Attitude inoculation

Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so when stronger ones come, they have refutations available.

Which of the following are true about gender and empathy?

Females express more empathy than males. Differences in empathy are found in both laboratory and non-laboratory studies.

To explain traits of our species, Charles Darwin proposed an evolutionary process.

Follow the genes, he advised

When cult members first have new members over for dinner and then invite them to a weekend retreat, they are using what psychological concept?

Foot-in-door

Which of the following is an area of cultural similarity?

Friendship norms

Increasing partisan divide

Gap between republican and democrat expressed in congressional speeches and citizen attitudes never been greater

Which of the following are true with regard to gender and aggression?

Gender differences may be affected by the context of aggression. Males tend to use more direct aggression.

Sometimes the arousal and self-conscious attention created by large audience interferes even with well-learned, automatic behaviors, such as speaking.

Given EXTREME pressure, we are vulnerable to "choking) Stutterers tend to stutter more in front of bigger audiences than when speaking to just 2 people.

________ often enhance persuasion partly by linking positive thinking and positive emotions with the message.

Good feelings

Select all of the following that predict higher rates of conformity.

Group has high status Group has three or more people Group is unanimous

______ occurs when being in a group enhances the members' preexisting tendencies such that they become more extreme.

Group polarization

______ occurs when members in a group interact, but instead of changing their minds about a topic, they keep their original ideas and strengthen those ideas.

Group polarization

Group polarization

Group produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the average, not split within the group. Illustrates the process of inquiry and how an interesting discovery often leads researchers to hasty and erroneous conclusions which get replaced with more accurate conclusions.

_____ influences when people tend to lose their sense of self and become "deindividualized."

Group size

attractiveness

Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator, is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.

Which of the following personality traits is associated with being more likely to conform?

High agreeableness

Which of the following statements is/are true regarding criticisms of evolutionary psychology?

Hindsight bias is a major criticism. There is little empirical data. Researchers work backward to explain some effect.

Evidence supports mostly generational explanation.

IN surveys of groups of younger and older over several years, attitudes of older people usually show less change than those of young people

In simulated trials, defense case becomes more credible when defense brings up damaging evidence before the prosecution does, thus a political candidate speaking to a politically informed group or community advocating against gay rights would be wise to respond to opposition

If your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a 2 sided appeal

People everywhere have common norms for friendship. In studies conducted in Britain, Italy, Hong Kong, and Japan, Michael Argyle and Monika Henderson noted several cultural variations in norms that define role of friend.

In Japan, especially important not to embarrass friend with public criticism. But there are some norms, respect friends privacy, make eye contact while talking, don't divulge things said in confidence: Universal norms.

In workplace group experiments, employees have produced more when their individual performance was posted.

In one such experiment, assembly-line workers produced 16% more product when their individual output was identified, even though they knew their pay would be unaffected

Which of the following is/are true about gender roles?

In the United States, gender roles are more equal than they were in the past. In the United States, gender roles may change over time.

______ influence results from an individual believing that another member of the group has more accurate information than they do.

Informational

Select the two forms of social influence that explain why people conform.

Informational Normative

Which theorist discovered the "risky shift phenomenon"?

James Stoner

CHinese consumers who felt more powerful were less likely to conform by choosing popular products and came up with advertising slogans more focused on uniqueness

Jeff Galak found a creative way to test status and conformity by examing 16K purchases of woman shoes.

Select all of the following factors that are a part of Milgram's experiment to determine obedience.

Legitimacy Authority's closeness

George Bishop and person set up groups of relatively prejudiced and unprejudiced high school students and asked them to respond, before and after discussion, to issues involving racial attitudes

Like minded students increased initial gap between 2 groups.

Which of the following statements is true about gender and social dominance?

Males are socially dominant.

Which of the following is/are true about gender and play?

Males tend to engage in more large-group activities than females do. As males and females interact with their own gender, the differences between them grow.

Which of the following are true with regard to gender and sex?

Males tend to seek more partners. Females are more slowly aroused.

"safe" scientific contexts of obedience experiments differ form wartime context.

Mastroianni and Fenigstein both argue that most German soldiers killed willingly, not because of orders. They no longer saw Jews as human beings and they were then not fit for empathy

Which group tends to have more permissive attitudes toward sex?

Men

Adults maintain more distance than children.

Men keep more distance from one another than women.

In 2017, women were only 24% of world's legislators

Men more than women concerned with social dominance and more likely to favor conservative political candidates and programs that preserve group inequality

Which of the following plays a role in the fact that our arousal is increased by the presence of others?

Mere presence

Which of the following are factors in our increased arousal by the presence of others?

Mere presence Evaluation apprehension Distractions

______ occurs when one person in a group influences the other members in a group.

Minority influence

Dozens of studies confirm group polarization

Moscovici and Zavalloni observed that discussion enhanced French students initially positive attitude toward president and negative attitude toward Americans Mititoshi Isozaki found that university students gave more pronounced judgments of guilty after discussing a traffic case. When jury members inclined to ward damages, group tends to exceed preferred by median jury member. When people believe they were watching an online video of a political speech at the same time as many other viewers (viewer vs none) judgments of speech more extreme Markus Brauer and others, found French students more adamant about dislike of someone after discussing shared negative impressions with others. If some individuals dislike you, together they may dislike you more.

Need for cognition

Motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as the "notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to"

chameleon effect (tanya Chartrand and John Bargh)

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements

Which of the following is/are true about norms?

Norms can restrain and control people. Norms are often implicit. Norms are standards for behaving.

In western individualistic culture, submitting to peer pressure is discouraged. The word conformity carries a negative connotation.

North American and European social psychologists reflecting their individualistic cultures, give social influence negative labels (conformity, submission, compliance) rather than positive ones, (communal sensitivity, responsiveness, cooperative team play_

British and Scandinavians prefer more distance than the French and Arabs

North Americans prefer more space than Latin Americans

People high in openness to experience (related to creativity and socially progressive thinking) are less likely to conform

Novelty seekers who leap into stimulation are less likely to conform

Overall women's language on facebook warmer, and boys colder, more hostile and more impersonal.

On average, women are aware of hos their actions affect others. and feel closer attachment to friends.

Among several proposed theories of group polarization, 2 have survived scientific scrutiny

One deals with arguments presented during a discussion and is an example of informational influence (accepting evidence about reality) Other concerns how members of a group view themselves vis-a-vis the other members, an example of normative influence (desire to be accepted)

What circumstances breed counterarguments:

One is knowing that someone is going to try to persuade you. In courtrooms, defense attorneys sometimes foreworn juries about prosecution evidence. "Stealing thunder" neutralizes its impact.

How does one become an authoritative expert. One way is to say things the audience agrees with which makes you seem smart

One reason why "scientific consensus" about climate change fails to persuade, is that people count as expert, someone whose conclusions support their own preexisting values and views. This is known as "congenial views seems more expert" phenomenon.

Light experiment in Sheriff's experiments, joined by 2 other participants who had same experience day before

One says one inch, another says 2, you say 6, with repititions of group experience, will responses change. The results suggest they will. when retested alone a year later, estimates again supported group norm

Socialization facilitation effect

Original meaning is: tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present Current meaning: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others Also occurs with animals

Which of the following are true about the Nurture Assumption?

Parental nurture plays a crucial role in development. The major socializing agent of the child is the parents.

Prevailing assumption, Judish Rich Harris, calls nurture assumption

Parental nurture, the way parents bring their children up, governs who the children become.

Critics see problem with natural selection, with evolutionary explanations

Paul Ehrlich and Marcus Feldmen pointed out that the evolutionary theorist can hardly lose when employing hindsight. Today's evolutionary psychology is like yesterday freudian psychology. Either theory can be retrofitted to whatever happens.

Social proof according to Robert Cialdini

People allow the example of others to validate how they think, feel and act use "peer power" have respected others lead the way

After you give judgment and hear everyone disagree. If experimenter offers opportunity for you to reconsider, would you

People almost never do

Authority according to Robert Cialdini

People defer to credible experts Establish expertise, identify problems you have solved and people you have served

Consistency according to Robert Cialdini

People tend to honor public commitments instead of telling restaurant reservation callers please call if you change your plans, ask "will you call if you change your plans, " no shows will drop."

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. in lab settings, might mean electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings

Persistent partisanship

Rate of americans voting for same party across successive presidential elections never been higher.

______ is a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom, and it may arise when someone threatens an individual's freedom of action.

Reactance

counterarguments

Reasons why a persuasive message might be wrong

Trustworthiness is higher if audience believes the communicator is not trying to persuade them

Researchers shows British adults fake newspaper articles suggesting either that most scientists just want to inform public about it, or that they wanted to persuade the public and governments to stop climate change Those who thought the aim was to inform, were more likely to trust in climate scientists and say they would take action.

in 1910, Norwegians and English engaged in race to south pole. Norwegians led by Roald Amundsen made it. English led by Robert Falcon Scott did not.

Scott and 3 team members died. this is the power of leadership.

Autokinetic Phenomenon

Self (auto) motion (kinetic) apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark

_____ is the opposite of deindividuation.

Self-awareness

self-awareness

Self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions.

What makes a minority persuasive?

Serge Moscovici in Paris identified several determinants of minority influence Consistency self-confidence defection

Does person fidget, look away, back off or show signs of discomfort?

Signs of arousal noted by "space-invading" researchers

Which of the following are true with regard to smiling?

Smiling indicates greater connectedness. Females smile more than males. Smiling varies from situation to situation.

According to Leung and Bond (2004), which of the following is/are part of the Big Five Social Beliefs?

Social complexity Fate control Spirituality

_____ is the tendency for people to put forth less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually responsible.

Social loafing

Which of these statements is TRUE?

Social norms can influence even small behaviors, like taking one's hat off.

Norms

Standards for accepted and expected behavior. Prescribe "proper" behavior. (what is normal)

This symptom of groupthink occurs when group members see those outside of the group as evil, weak, or unintelligent.

Stereotyped view of opponent

Groupthink symptoms include which of the following? (Select all that apply)

Stereotyped view of opponent Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity

Fairly universal across cultures:

Studies in 37 cultures (australia to Zambie) reveal men feel attracted to women whose physical features like youthful faces and forms suggest fertility. Women attracted to men whose wealth, power and ambition will help protect them and offspring. Both women and men desire kindness, love and mutual attraction. Men attracted to women whose age and features suggest fertility. For teen boys, women older than themselves, for men in 20s, it is women their own age, for older men, it is younger women, greater age difference. Monthly fertility matters. Behaviors, scents and voices provide clues to ovulation.

______ leadership focuses on goals, standards, and organization.

Task

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

In terms of the ingredients to persuasion, the question of "who says what" represents which two elements of communication?

The communicator The message itself

Natural selection (important principle)

The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations Organisms have many and varied offspring, offspring compete for survival in environment certain biological and behavioral variations increase changes of survival and reproduction in that environment Offspring that do survive and reproduce more like to pass genes to ensuing generations Over time population characteristics can change

After 330 volts the "learner" in Milgram's experiment fell silent. Which verbal prods were used to keep the participant going?

The experiment requires that you continue. You have no other choice; you must go on. Please continue.

What are the four main elements of persuasion?

The message The communicator How the message is communicated The audience

If asch's noncoercive unambiguous situation could elicit a 37% conformity rate, would others produce more.

The more insecure of our judgments, the more influenced we are by others. Group attributes matter

Shana usually yells at basketball game referees because she believes they will change their calls afterward if the crowd seems to disagree. Which of the following statements below is true in this context?

The referees will probably not change their calls, due to prior commitment.

In one variation of Stanley Milgram's obedience study, what was one of the situations where obedience was low?

The subject saw confederates dissent.

precarious manhood

The theory that manhood is an elusive and achieved social status that is hard-won and yet easily lost, and that requires constant public proof.

Which of the following is/are true about personal space?

There are cultural variations in personal space. There are age differences in personal space. There are gender differences in personal space.

Which of the following is/are true about gender roles?

There are gender role inequalities. The majority of people would like to see more equal gender roles.

Compared to boys, girls talk more intimately and play less aggressively noted by Eleanor Maccoby

They also play in smaller groups often talking with one friend. Boys more often engage in larger group activities and boys play with boys and girls play with girls, and as it develops, the differences grow larger. Sex differences in play among youngsters appear in nonhuman primates like monkeys as well, suggesting fairly universal and maybe biological roots

Unhappy people ruminate more before reacting, they are less easily swayed by weak arguments

They also produce more cogent persuasive messages.

Muzafer Sherif completed a famous study in which participants experienced conformity related to the autokinetic phenomenon. When this phenomenon occurs, what do participants experience?

They believe a stationary light moves, when it doesn't.

Milgram obedience studies differ from conformity studies in strength of social pressure. Obedience is explicitly commanded. Asch and the Milgram studies share 4 similarities

They show us how compliance can take precedence over moral sense They succeed in pressuring people to go against their own consciences. They sensitize us to moral conflicts in our own lives They affirm 2 familiar social psychological principles: the link between behavior and attitudes and the power of the situation

Immigrants often have to learn the social norms of their new country and inevitably conform to their new culture. If those people then move back to their home country, what often takes place?

They slowly "re-conform" to their former roles and culture.

Cynics express lower life satisfaction and favor assertive influence tactics and right wing politics

Those who believe in hard work, (reward for application) are inclined to invest themselves in study planning and competing.

What two audience traits influence persuasion?

Thoughtfulness Age

True or false: Janis's evidence for groupthink is retrospective, leading many researchers to question the validity of the research.

True

in individualistic countries, university students more likely to see themselves as less conforming than others in their consumer purchases and political views as individuals among the sheep. (weird phrasing in the textbook. Yikes)

US participants believed children who conformed were less intelligent whereas pacific islanders thought conforming children were more intelligent

_____ people are not as easily persuaded because they think more before reacting.

Unhappy

Which of the following often lead groups to overestimate their "might and right," sometimes leading to groupthink.

Unquestioned belief in the group's morality Illusion of invulnerability

Often we take the peripheral route (automatic) byt using simple rule-of-thumb heuristics, "trust the experts"

We all make snap judgments using heuristics.

Much of personality is peer influence, according to Harris

What children and teens care about most is not what parents think but what friends think. Children and youth learn through culture, games and musical taste's, accents even dirty words are learned from peers.

In experiment with Columbia University students and Ontario science center visitors Freedman, had people listen to humorous tape and watch movie with other participants.

When all sat close together, accomplice could more readily induce the individuals to laugh and clap. as theater directors and sport fans know, a good house is full house.

travel fatigue

When flying to the East coast, West coast NFL football teams do better in night games than when playing 1 p.m. games

Pakistanis disagreed with world majority opinion by 4/1 wheras Spanish concurred by 13/1

When jobs are scarce, should men have more right to a job, agreed were 1/8 in Britain, Spain, and the US, and 4/5 in Indonesia, Pakistan and Nigeria

After having made a public commitment, people stick to it, Most they wil lchange judgment i nlater situations

When people apologize and admit they are wrong, they often feel less in control.

Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, Alice Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, theorized that persuasion is likely to occur via one of 2 routes

When people are motivated and able to think about an issue, they are likely to take the central route of persuasion: Focusing on the arguments. If arguments are strong and compelling, persuasion is likely. If message offers weak arguments, thoughtful people will notice that it is not compelling and will counterargue against them

Which of the following is/are true about stress and gender?

When under stress females often "tend and befriend." When under stress females seek social support.

The bodily presence of another contestant serves to liberate latent energy (Triplett)

With experiments, did find that the presence of other people led people to do simple multiplication problems and cross out designated letters faster. It also improves accuracy on simple motor tasks, like keeping a metal stick in contact with a dime-sized disk on a moving turntable

______ people are more likely to conform.

Working-class

Your friend offers to set you up on a blind date with her friend, George. She tells you that George is stubborn, intelligent, and kind. What is your impression of George likely to be?

You are likely to have a negative impression of George because she listed "stubborn" as the first characteristic.

Which of the following is an example of the primacy effect?

You remember the items at the top of your grocery list.

Messages can also be effective by evoking negative emotions. When persuading people to cut down on smoking, get a tetanus shot, or drive carefully, a fear-arousing message can be potent

Young adults who saw warning labels with black lungs and stained teeth were more likely to remember the messages, experienced more fear, and were less inclined to smoke.

young immigrant children from families who are transplanted into foreign cultures, usually grow up preferring language and norms of peer culture.

Youth may code-switch when they are in homes, but hearts and minds with peer group. Deaf children of hearing parents who attend schools for deaf usually leave parents culture and assimilate into deaf culture

Arousal facilitates dominate responses, whether right or wrong

Zajonc's solution.

What is a co-actor?

a co-participant working individually on a noncompetitive activity

When the participant defers to the professor, it carries with it

a diffusion of responsibility.

Milgram reported that people of lower status accepted commands more than higher status

a divinity school professor plied questions about ethics

pluralistic ignorance

a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding

Muzafer SHerif

a founder of social psychology, studied social norms, conducted Robber's Cave experiment

Dr. Robertson assigned a group project in his social psychology class. Kyle, who is a student in the class, never showed up for any of the group meetings and only turned in a few references to his group the day before the project was due. However, he got the same grade as everyone else in his group. Kyle could be called

a free rider.

Those with _____ generally respond well to central routes of persuasion.

a high need for cognition

In the replication experiment, subjects thought they were going to participate in

a memory test.

On a family vacation to Georgia, everyone called Greta "ma'am." This expression would be an example of

a norm.

Janis believed blunders were bred by tendency of decision-making groups to suppress dissent in interest of group harmony

a phenomenon he called groupthink

In Sherif's autokinetic experiment, subjects described the distance that ______.

a pinpoint of light moved

Most languages have 2 forms of the English pronoun "you"

a respectful form and familiar. People typically use familiar form with intimates and subordinates with close friends and family, but also children and pets.

Asch found that 3/5 people will elicit much more conformity than 1 or 2. In creasing people beyond 5 yields diminishing returns

a small group can have a big effect

If you want to have success in presenting a motion, make sure the vote is ______.

a standing vote

door-in-the-face technique

a strategy for gaining a concession. after someone first turns down a large request, the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request

According to social facilitation theory, there is more likely to be an improvement in performance when

a task is easy and others are observing.

If you agree with a group's behavior and genuinely want to "go along" with the crowd, this would exemplify

acceptance.

According to the informational influence theory, _____ in discussion produces more attitude change than _____.

active participation; passive listening

In Milgram's obedience experiment, participants ______.

administered "shocks" to learners who gave a wrong answer

Biology and culture may interact

advances in genetic science indicate how experience uses genes to change the brain. environmental stimuli can activate genes that produce new brain cell-branching receptors. Visual experience activates genes that develop brain's visual area. parental touch activates genes that help offspring cope with future stressful events

Male ______ has been enhanced due to natural selection.

aggression

David and Tara, a married couple, are having a fight. David tells Tara that if she puts on any more weight she will be fat "just like her mother." David's action is an example of

aggression.

In a study by Asch, when confederates gave an incorrect answer to which of three lines is longer, three-quarters of the participants, at least once tended to ______.

agree with the wrong answer

Several heads critiquing one another can

allow group to avoid forms of cognitive bias and produce higher quality ideas

In Canada, and the US, 8 times as many men as women are arrested for murder

almost all suicide terrorists have been young men. Same with battlefield deaths and death-row inmates

Janis believed groupthink sprouts includes

an amiable cohesive group relative isolation of group from dissenting viewpoints a directive leader who signals what decisions he or she favors

If a communicator is introduced as someone who is knowledgeable on a topic, he/she is viewed as _____ by the audience.

an expert

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

in 2012, judge blocked graphic warnings from being placed on cig packs in US

and as of 2017, US cig packs only have text warnings.

Analytical people enjoy thinking carefully with central routes

and have high need for cognition.

Children acquire many of their values, including political affiliation

and religious faith, at the home.

Many ads designed to reduce sexual risks will aim to both arouse fear

and to offer a protective strategy

In the presence of other species

ants excavate more sand, chickens eat more grain, and sexually active rat pairs mate more often

people who want to please others eat more candy when peer does it and then hands them bowl

apparently conforming to make other feel comfortable.

Generally speaking, people higher in agreeableness (who value getting along with others) and conscientiousness (who follow social norms for neatness and punctuality)

are more likely to conform

Biologists that study genes have found that humans

are similar, like members of one tribe

Second explanation of polarization involves comparison to others

as leon festinger argued in theory of social comparison, humans want to evaluate opinions and abilities by comparing views with others. we are most persuaded by people in reference groups we identify with.

Lindsey Levitan and Brad Verhulst

asked college students to privately state their views on issues like gun control, death penalty and abortion. They later restated views before others who thought differently they were less likely to change position if they had even one ally.

Unification church recruiters would invite people to a dinner then to weekend of warm fellowship and discussions of philosophies of life.

at weekend retreat, encourage attendees to join in songs, activities and discussion. potential converts urged to sign up for longer retreats. Pattern in cults is for activities to become more arduous, culminating in having recruits solicit contributions and attempt to convert others. (used foot in door technique.)

William McGuire was a pioneer in the field of

attitude inoculation.

Janis recommendations for preventing groupthink incorporate effective group procedures

be impartial- do not endorse any position. Don't start group discussion by having people state opinions; doing so suppresses information sharing and degrades quality of decisions. encourage critical evaluation; assign devil's advocate. Welcome input of genuine dissenter which does even more to stimulate original thinking and open a group to opposing views (report Charlan Nemeth) Occasionally subdivide the group, then reunite to air differences Welcome critiques from outside experts and associates before implementing, call for a "second-chance" meeting to air any lingering doubts. When steps taken, group decisions take longer to make, but prove less defective and more effective.

In order to keep from suppressing information sharing and degrading the quality of decisions, groups should

be impartial.

As immigrants learn social norms, their conformity ______.

becomes more "genuine"

"On the social influence battlefield," Brad Sagarin focused more on persuasive attack than defense

being persuaded comes naturally, Gilbert reports it is easier to accept persuasive messages than to doubt them. To understand an assertation is to believe it, at least temporarily, until one actively undoes the initial automatic response.

To understand an assertion is to _____ it.

believe

Everything social and psychological is ultimately

biological

Personal space

bubble/buffer zone we like to maintain between ourselves and others. Bubble varies depending on person. Most americans maintain 4 feet we protect our space

genes and hormones predispose males to be more physically aggressive than females

but culture amplifies difference through norms that expect males to be tough and females to be nurturing.

Moscovici found that if minority of participants consistently judges blue slides as green, members of majority will occasionally agree

but if minority wavers saying blue to one/3 of slides and green to rest, majority will almost never agree.

in mid 1960s, american married women devoted 7 times as many hours to housework as did their husbands

by 2013, gender gap shrunk, yet persisted. 22% of men and 50% of women did housework in an average day, women averaging 2.3 hours on housework days and men 1.3 hours on their. mothers in 2011 still spent twice as much on child care as men did. mothers spent three times as many hours on paid work as they did in 1965, but still worked for pay only about half as many hours as men.

Many experiments explored ways to stimulate people's thinking

by using rhetorical questions presenting multiple speakers for one argument. by making feel people feel responsible for evaluating or passing along message by repeating message or by getting people's undistracted attention.

The most important similarity/ trademark of our species is our

capacity to learn and adapt. Our genes enable an adaptive human brain (cerebral hard drive that receives the culture's software)

***When people are interested and able to think about a message, they are likely to use the _____ route to persuasion.

central

Audiences will use the _____ route when they are paying close attention to the value of the message.

central

The ______ route to persuasion is most likely to produce lasting change.

central

Two lawyers are arguing against each other in court. The first, Ms. Smith, tries to persuade the jury with logical, relevant arguments. The second, Mr. Henderson, tries to persuade the jury by looking attractive and wearing an expensive suit. Ms. Smith is trying to use the __________ route to persuasion, while Mr. Henderson is trying to use the __________ route.

central; peripheral

For persuasion there must be communication, and for communication there must be a

channel: Face-to-face appeal, a written sign or document, a media advertisement

Gender refers to

characteristics people associate with male and female that can be rooted in biology or culture (hair, what they wear, sports, sexual partners, etc)

Full compliance dropped to 30% when teachers required to force learner's hand into contact with shock plate

close relationships mattered too, but in a study conducted but never published only 15% of participants asked to shock a relative, friend, or neighbor complied.

On some other tasks, the presence of others instead hinders their performance

cockroaches, parakeets, green finches, all learn mazes more slowly in the presence of others. Disruptive effect also occurs with people. The others' presence diminishes efficiency at learning nonsense syllables, completing a maze, and performing complex multiplication problems.

People in ______ cultures are more likely to ______.

collectivistic; conform

Peter Hegarty observed across time, men's titles and names

come first.

The _____ is the person delivering a persuasive message.

communicator

Gary evans tested 10-person groups in University of Massachusetts students, in room by 20 by 30 or 8 by 12.

compared with large room, densely packed had higher pulse rates, and blood pressure indicating arousal. On difficult tasks, made more errors, an effect of crowding replicated by Nagar and Pandey with university students in india.

Mandy's friends are picking on a new girl in class. She actually thinks the new girl seems nice, but she is afraid that if she says so, her friends might pick on her, too, so she also makes fun of the new girl. Mandy's behavior is an example of

compliance.

Obedience

complying with instructions or orders from an individual who is in a position of authority

Evaluation apprehension

concern for how others are evaluating us

In a metanalysis of 127 articles and 27,372 people, Melanie Tannenbaum and colleagues

concluded that fear appeals are effective. No identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes"

2 studies found students with strong belief in free will and personal control less likely to

conform to a group. As were people with more liberal and less conservative political beliefs.

Group size, unanimity, and lack of prior commitment are all predictors of

conformity

In the Asch study, ______ was highest when the subjects said their answers out loud.

conformity

What is normative influence?

conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance

Group suffers pressures for uniformity

conformity pressure: group members rebuffed those who raise doubts about groups assumptions and plans at times by personal sarcasm. self-censorship: to avoid uncomfortable disagreements members withheld or discounted misgivings. illusion of unanimity: self censorship and pressure to not puncture consensus create illusion of unanimity Mindguards: some members protect group from information that would call into question the effectiveness or morality of its decisions.

Compliance is a type of

conformity.

Compliance, obedience, and acceptance are all variations of

conformity.

Solomon Asch conducted pioneering studies on the topic of

conformity.

Western culture would describe social influence as ______, while Eastern culture would describe the same type of actions to fit into a group as ______.

conformity; communal sensitivity

Defections from the majority, self-confidence, and _____ allow a minority opinion to influence the majority opinion in a group setting.

consistency

Limits of brainstorming

contrary to popular idea that face-to-face brainstorming generates more creative ideas than do the same people working alone, researchers agree that it isn't so. Encouraging people to debate stimulates ideas and extends creative thinking beyond brainstorming session.

Milgram's participants who were willing to shock "learners" with the greatest voltage did so when the "learners" ______.

could not be seen

One way inoculation can occur is by leading people to consider

counterarguments

Research shows that when a group is brainstorming, if debate and criticism occurs within the group, then

creative thinking is extended and improved

Critics argued that the "teachers" in Milgram's experiment experienced ______, and their self-concepts may have been altered.

cruelty

Friendship and status norms both represent ______.

cultural similarities

The lasting behaviors, ideas, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted to the next generation is called

culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next is known as

culture.

Avery uses assertive influence tactics and is not very satisfied with her life. Avery is most likely demonstrating the social belief of ______.

cynicism

Some critics argued that the Milgram studies were unethical because the participants were

deceived about the experiment's purpose.

In one variation of Stanley Milgram's study of obedience, obedience ___________ when the experimenter was not present and gave instructions by phone.

declined

Minority opinions are most likely to influence the majority with ______.

defections from the majority self-confidence consistency

Several experiments reveal that when someone punctures a group's unanimity

deflates its social power.

Alcohol increases

deindividuation

Self-awareness is the opposite of

deindividuation

Which term best describes the process that goes on when individuals who have no criminal background go on looting sprees during a riot?

deindividuation

According to the text, the bigger the group, the more easily its members lose self-awareness and become willing to commit violence. Individuals feel anonymous in a larger group. This exemplifies

deindividuation.

Social leaders generally have a democratic style

delagates authority, and welcomes input from members. This helps prevent groupthink

Familiarity with the home context

depending on locale could include cold, rain or high altitude.

Case studies followed males porn without penises who are reared as girls

despite dresses and treated as girls, most exhibit male-typical play, and in some cases with emotional distress come to male identity

Deindividuation occurs when _____ and _____ combine and normal inhibitions diminish.

diffused responsibility; arousal

Task leaders generally have a

directive style, one that can work well if leader is bright enough to give good orders

Erin created an advertisement that used both a politically charged message and fast moving images. Erin is making use of ______ as a way of suppressing counterarguments.

distraction

Manuel wants his parents to give him $15 for the movies. However, he starts by asking them to pay for a permanent subscription to HBO. When they refuse this large request, he then says, "Fine! How about just $15 for a single movie, then?" Relieved, his parents give in to the smaller request. What technique has Manuel used to his advantage?

door-in-the-face

For both humans and monkey, gender difference in aggression appears early in life (before culture has much effect) and wanes as testosterone levels declines

during adulthood.

Perhaps because of greater desire for intimacy, report Joyce Benenson

during first college year, women twice as likely as men to change roommates

Evolutionary psychology has been criticized for all of the following except ______.

emphasizing the role of culture

Culture

enduring behaviors ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next

Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969) observed that discussion ______ French students' initially positive attitude toward their president and a negative attitude toward Americans, exhibiting group polarization.

enhanced

In social facilitation, arousal ______ performance on easy tasks and _____ performance on complex tasks.

enhances; hinders

Cross cultural psychologists see an

essential universality. members of one species, processes underlie differing behaviors are much the same everywhere.

Social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

Until recently most cultures delivered strong message

everyone must be assigned a sex

Roy Baumeister observes

evolution made us for culture

Biological variation, such as color vision, is one example of a trait studied by

evolutionary psychology.

People who are self-conscious, or temporarily made so,

exhibit greater consistency between their words outside a situation and their deeds in it.

overal, children exposed to more testosterone in the womb

exhibit the psychological pattern more typical of males including less eye contact, lower language skill and less empathy.

The two routes to persuasion are

explicit, and reflective. Implicit and automatic

What is attitude inoculation?

exposing people to weak attacks on their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will be able to refute them

When the minority consistently disagrees with the majority, the majority members are more likely to ______.

express their own doubts

In the beginning of the video, what behavior did the man feel pressured to conform to do?

face the back of the elevator instead of the front

Group members work less hard when performing such additive tasks

findings parallel everyday situations in which diffused responsibility tempts individual group members to free rid eon group's effort

Which of the following scenarios represent the foot-in-door technique in relation to cult behaviors? The cult has potential members ______. (Select all that apply)

first visit the compound, then later move there first give $200 dollars, then later give their life savings

More than 300 studies began with a surprising finding by James Stoner, then an MIT grad student

for his master's thesis in management, he tested the commonly held belief that groups more cautious than individuals. He posed decision dilemmas in which participant's task was to advise imagined characters how much risk to take.

In America, what is the average amount of personal space that individuals maintain with strangers?

four feet or more

People rebel when social pressure threatens their sense of ______ and self-______.

freedom; efficacy

behavioral changes accompanied attitude shift. in 1965, Harvard Business school had never grated a degree to a woman in its 2016 class, 41% of the students were women

from 1960-2016, women rose from 6% to 47% in the US medical students and from 3% to 51% of law students.

Pat likes to wear dresses, play soccer, and having long hair. These characteristics refer to Pat's _____.

gender

Ethan Zell conducted a review of 106 meta-analyses of gender research. What was the common result for most variables studied?

gender similarity

Little Cindy is being read a story in which all the females are cleaning the house and taking care of the babies. This is an example of ______.

gender socialization

The characteristics that people associate with male and female are also known as

gender.

Research primarily supports the _____ explanation of attitude change.

generational

Hormones important because genes cannot be source of sex differences

genetically males and females differ on only single chromosome out of 46, and the Y (male) chromosome is distinguished primarily by 1 gene. Gene directs formation of testicles (which secretes testosterone)

Fear-arousing communications used to increase breast cancer detection behaviors like

getting mammograms' or doing breast self-exams.

Persuasion is often enhanced by an audience's ______.

good feelings

Two or more individuals who interact with each other meet the definition of a ______.

group

Research on the risky shift pertains to

group decision-making studies where subjects in a group solve a dilemma by giving advice that is cautious or risk taking.

Studies of small groups have produced a principle that helps explain both bad and good outcomes:

group discussion often strengthens members' initial inclinations.

Deindividuation is an example of

group influence.

Social comparison theory is one explanation for

group polarization.

Patrick Laughlin and John Adamopoulos have shown wisdom of

groups with various intellectual tasks

Groups experiencing _____ do not consider alternative ideas, and they desire harmony at the expense of quality decisions.

groupthink

In 1961, President John Kennedy and his advisers tried to overthrow Fidel Castro by invading Cuba with 1,400 CIA-trained Cuban exiles. Nearly all the invaders were soon killed or captured, the United States was humiliated, and Cuba allied itself more closely with the former USSR. This failure is attributed to

groupthink.

Irving Janis coined the term

groupthink.

Mastroianni says the Holocaust is better explained by theories of socialization and interpersonal influence than by obedience.

growing up a certain way in a culture that is steeped in destructive ideologies can produce peoplew ho will commit terrible acts of destruction.

2 sided appeal

have advantages. Can make communicator seem more honest.

Evolutionary psychology predicts that women will prefer men with resources to

help with labor-intensive and expensive process of raising a child to full adulthood.

Agreement with the statement "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" shows a

high need for cognition.

Evolutionary psychologists sometimes start with an effect and then work backward to construct an explanation for it. What problem might arise from this approach?

hindsight bias

Across 75 nations, most valued traits were

honesty, fairness, kindness, judgment. and curiosity, All crucial virtues for friendships and relationships.

testosterone

hormone linked to dominance and aggression (men have higher)

Making individual production identifiable raises the question

how many pickles could a pickle packer pack if pickle packers were only paid for properly packed pickles. (Williams, Harkins, and Latane)

The effects of source credibility diminish after a month or so

if a credible person's message is persuasive, its impact may fade as its source is forgotten or dissociated from the message.

First 2 symptoms of groupthink lead group members to overestimate their group's might and right

illusion of invulnerability: groups janis studied an developed an excessive optimism that blinded them to warnings of danger. Told that his forces lost contact with Japanese carriers, Admiral Kimmel, chief naval officer at Pearl harbor, joked that Japanese were about to round Honolulu's diamond head. They were, but Kimmel's laughing at the idea dismissed the possibility that it was true Unquestioned belief in group's morality: Group members assume the inherent morality of their group and ignore ethical and moral issues. kennedy group knew that adviser Arthur Schlesinger jr and senator J william Fulbright had moral reservations about invading small country, but group never entertained or discussed them.

Antagonism

in 2016, most republicans and democrats for first time acknowledged having very unfavorable views of other party. in 1960, 5% of republicans and 4% of democrats said they would be upset if son or daughter married someone from other political party 2012, 49% of republicans and 33% of democrats said they would be upset.

a 20120 Pew Global attitudes survey asked 25,000 people whether life was more satisfying when both spouses work and share child care or when women stay home and care for the children while husband provides

in 21/22 countries, most chose both spouses working

Cultural differences exist within social classes

in 5 studies, nicole stephens found that working class people tend to prefer similarity to others while middle-class preferred to see themselves as unique.

Miles Patterson and Yuichi Iizuka (2007) found that:

in US and Japan, unwitting participation of more than 1,000 pedestrians, Pedestrians were more likely to look at someone who looked at them and to smile, nod, or greet the other. Especially so when someone was female rather than male. Americans more likely to smile nod or greet.

When facing distress, men tend to respond with fight or flight often response to threat is combat

in nearly all studies by Shelly Taylor, women who are in stress tend and befriend, they turn to friends and family for support. Among first-year college students, 72% of men and 82% women, say its very important to help others who are in difficulty

Officiating bias

in one analysis of 1,530 German soccer football matches, referees awarded an average 1.80 yellow cards to home teams and 2.35 to away teams

Persistent minority punctures illusion of unanimity. when minority consistently doubts majority wisdom, majority members freer to express own doubts and switch over if they want.

in research with UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH students, John Levine found that a person who had defected from majority was even more persuasive than consistent minority voice.

Gender gap in aggression seems influenced by testosterone

in various animal, it heightens aggressiveness, in human, violent male criminals on average have higher than normal levels, same with Football players, and college men involve in sports.

Deindividuation decreases in circumstances that

increase self-awareness (mirrors, cameras, small towns, bright lights, large name tags, undistracted quiet, individual clothes, and houses)

Generally, the effect of others' presence _____ with their number.

increases

When people are less self-aware, deindividuation _____.

increases

In science benefits of diverse minds collaborating led to more team science

increasing proportion of scientific publication, especially highly cited by multi-author teams.

Primacy effect

information presented early is most persuasive. Other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence.

If you want to persuade someone, start with

information, not arguments

Experiments confirm that there are two group influences:

informational and normative.

Of the different explanations for why group polarization occurs, the one that deals with the arguments presented during a discussion being persuasive is called ______.

informational influence

Conformity is greater when participants feel incompetent, when the task is difficult, and when the individuals care about being right. These are all signs of

informational influence.

Being in a crowd _____ positive or negative reactions.

intensifies

Attitude inoculation

involves exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.

Perceived trustworthiness increases when the communicator ______.

is not perceived as trying to persuade

Compared to females, the average male

is slower to enter puberty (by about 2 years) but quicker to die (about 4 years ) 3 times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD, 4 times more likely to commit suicide, and 5 times more likely to be killed by lightning more capable of wiggling ears

Crowding has similar effect to being observed by crowd

it enhances arousal which facilitates dominant responses.

One reason defections from the majority create doubt in the majority opinion is that ______.

it punctures the illusion of unanimity

Higher status people have more impact

junior group members even junior social psychologists acknowledge more conformity to group than senior group members

Conformity is sometimes good, when it

keeps people from cutting in line

Which of the following is NOT typical of situations in which groupthink occurs?

lack of teamwork and productivity

The process by which individuals mobilize and guide groups is ________.

leadership

Ed Diener and Steven Prentice-Dunn and Ronald Rogers revealed that unself-conscious deindividuated people are

less restrained, less self-regulated, and more likely to act without thinking about their own values and more responsive to the situation.

The _____ explanation of attitude change states that attitudes change as we age.

life cycle

Women are more likely to exhibit indirect aggression

like spreading gossip.

Myers and Bishop (1970) set up groups of relatively prejudiced and unprejudiced high school students and asked them to respond—before and after discussion—to issues involving racial attitudes. They found that ______.

like-minded students increased the initial gap between groups

Sabrina is presenting a vegetarian message to cattle ranchers. The audience is _____ to have counterarguments for the message.

likely

Solomon Asch's original study of conformity involved asking subjects to make judgments about

lines.

deindividuated (Festinger, Pepitone, Newcome)

loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad

Studies of jaywalking and Milgram's experiment show that people of ______ status are ______ likely to conform. (Select all answers that apply)

lower; more higher; less

Person Z tends to respond to stress with the fight in a fight-or-flight response. Person Z is most likely a ______.

male

SEx refers to

males and females as two biological categories based on chromosomes, genitals and secondary sex characteristics such as greater male muscle mass and female breasts

Reza tells his friends that he was attacked by wasps and that now he is experiencing strange medical symptoms. A local TV news show runs a story, and in the week after, dozens more people report strange wasp behavior and the same unusual symptoms. This is most closely an example of which phenomenon?

mass hysteria

home-team crowd noise disruption

may disrupt visiting players' hearing plays or shooting free throws

Group polarization occurs when

members in a group interact, but instead of changing their minds about a topic, they keep their original ideas and strengthen those ideas.

Group expert Marvin Shaw argued that all groups have one thing in common

members interact.

Men are half of all jurors but vast majority of elected leaders

men also leaders of most ad hoc lab groups

The _____ is the tendency for people with minority views to express them less quickly than do people in the majority.

minority slowness effect

When a _____ group demonstrates self-confidence, the ______ group begins to self doubt.

minority; majority

Petty and Colleagues note that central route processing can lead to

more enduring change than peripheral route of persuasion. When people think carefully, they rely not only on strength of persuasive appeals, but on their own thoughts in response. It is not so much the arguments that are persuasive as the way they get people thinking. When people think deeply, any changed attitude will more likely persist, resist attack and influence behavior

Minorities that are consistent in their position are _____ to influence the majority.

more likely

Women in individualistic cultures are

more likely than men to describe themselves in relational terms, welcome help, experience relationship-linked emotions, and be attuned to others relationships. Women use more words about relationships (friends, family, sister) men use more words about activities and ideas (political, football, battle)

Role models may be crucial catalyst for shifts, When law in india reserved leadership positions in some villages for women, girls became

more likely to aspire to higher education and careers compared with villages without female role models

People who see ultraviolet photographs of sun damaged face, freckles spots destined to appear as they age

more likely to use sunscreen. Intervention focused on not only sun cancer but looking unnattractive.

When people are in groups, they make decisions about risk differently from when they are alone; that is, they make ______.

more risky decisions

transformational leadership

motivates others to identify with and commit themselves to the group's mission

Heritable traits passed from one generation to the next in order to ensure reproductive capabilities is called ______.

natural selection

People who are more likely to be persuaded by the central route to persuasion are usually

naturally analytical.

Milgram's participants acted with greatest obedience and least compassion when the "learners" could not be seen (and could not see the "teachers")

nearly all obeyed until the end, when when learner was in same room, only 40% obeyed to 450 volts.

Individuals with a high _____ enjoy thinking thoroughly.

need for cognition

Of the surviving theories that describe why group polarization happens, the one that deals with people conforming to the group in order to be accepted is called ______.

normative influence

When you attend a play, you may find yourself applauding when others do even if you did not approve of the performance. If you clapped to avoid the disapproval of the other audience members, it would be because of _____.

normative influence

John F. Kennedy recalled being told, "The way to get along is to go along," when he entered Congress. This quote exemplifies

normative influence.

When a person conforms to gain acceptance, we say they are bowing to

normative influence.

All cultures have their accepted ideas about appropriate behavior, usually referred to as

norms

Conformity is the overall term for acting differently due to the influence of others

not just acting as others act, but also being affected by how others act. Is change in behavior or belief to accord with others.

Nemeth's jury-simulation experiment found that

not unlike the 12 angry men scenario, once defections begin, others often follow initiating a snowball effect.

Jimmy is outside playing with his friends. His mother tells him to come inside for dinner. He doesn't want to come inside. He would rather stay outside and play with his friends, but he is worried about the consequences if he disobeys his mom, so he goes inside. Jimmy's behavior is an example of

obedience.

Milgram Experiment

obedience; electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors. Obedience of subjects disturbed Milgram. Procedures he used disturbed many social psychologists.

Sara Banks, Peter Salovey, and colleagues, had women aged 40-66 years who had not obtained mammograms' view an educated video on mammography.

of those who received positive messages (emphasizing getting a mammogram can save your life through early detection) only half got one within 12 months. Of those who received a fear-framed message (emphasizing that not getting one can cost you your life) 2/3 had one within 12 months.

In view of the research on social reactance, parents are predicted to get the best results from their children when they ______.

offer choices instead of commands

Roles have powerful effects

on first date or job, may act role self-consciously

Congenial views seems more expert phenomenon

on topics ranging from climate change to nuclear waste, to gun laws. It helps to be seen as "Knowledgeable on the topic"

Having just ______ ally(ies) in differing from the majority encourages nonconformity, but the dissenter ______ that the ally influenced him or her.

one; denies

People preferred a product more if the same description came from a consumer protection board rather than a company promoting its product after a recall.

online reviews of products are seen as more trustworthy if they are negative, for products like cameras. We are more willing to believe that negative comments are honest than positive.

it is difficult to be a minority of one; few juries are hung because of one dissenting juror.

only 1/10 US Supreme court decisions during late 20th century had lone dissenter, most have unanimous or a 5-4 split.

When surveyed, women are far more likely to describe themselves as having empathy

or being able to feel what another feels

Social leadership focuses on all of the following EXCEPT

organization.

Task leadership

organizing work, setting standards, and focusing on goal attainment.

What is the hallmark of our species, according to evolutionary psychologists?

our capacity to learn and adapt

Crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not message, but the response it evokes in person's mind.

our minds not sponges that soak up whatever pours over them if message summons favorable thoughts, it persuades us. if it provokes us to think of contrary arguments, we remain unpersuaded.

Persuasion is enhanced by a distraction that keeps people from thinking about counterarguments

participants who read a message while also watching a video (multitasking) less likely to counterargue Political ads often use this technique. Words promote candidate and visual images keep us occupied so we don't analyze the words. Distraction is especially effective when message simple. Sometimes distraction keeps us from processing ads.

Men everywhere tend to be most attracted to women whose age and features suggest

peak fertility.

reactance

people act to protect their sense of freedom

Reciprocity according to Robert Cialdini

people feel obligated to repay in kind what they've received. Be generous with time and resources what goes around comes around.

when arousal and diffused responsibility combine and normal inhibitions diminish, the results may be startling

people may commit acts that range from mild lessening of restraint (throwing food in dining hall, to snarling at ref, screaming during rock concert) to impulsive self-gratification (group vandalism, orgies, thefts) to destructive social explosions (police brutality, riots, lynchings)

In Field experiment milgram had 1,3,5,10 or 15

people pause on a busy NYC sidewalk and look up.

Scarcity according to Robert Cialdini

people prize what is scarce highlight genuinely exclusive information or opportunities.

Liking according to Robert Cialdini

people respond more affirmatively to those they like win friends and influence people. create bonds based on similar interest, praise freely.

Good feelings often enhance persuasion, partly by enhancing positive thinking and partly by linking good feelings with message

people who are in a good mood view the world through rose colored glasses, but they also make faster, more impulsive decisions, and rely on peripheral cues.

Credibility

perceived expertise and trustworthiness

like-minded counties

percent of americans living in landslide counties, 60% or more voted for same pres candidate, rose from 38% in 1992 to 60% in 2016

Minimized middle ground

percent of entering collegians declaring themselves politically middle of road dropped from 60% in 1983 to 42% in 2016. Those identifying as either far right or far left increased

Audiences will use the _____ route when they do not have the time or motivation to listen to a message.

peripheral

The ______ route to persuasion is likely to be used when people are distracted.

peripheral

If we are distracted, or just plain busy, we may not take time to reflect on message's content, rather than analyzing whether the argument is compelling, we might follow the

peripheral route to persuasion: focusing on cues that trigger automatic acceptance without much thinking. In these siituations, easily understood familiar statements are more persuasive than novel statements with the same meaning. For uninvolved or distracted people "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" has more of an impact than "Don't risk everything on a single venture"

A liquor store has too much wine from Spain, so they play Spanish music in the background. This leads to the increased sale of Spanish wine. Customers in this example were persuaded via the

peripheral route.

People who tend to make snap judgments are generally guided by the

peripheral route.

The rate for voting for the same party across successive elections reached an all-time high in 2016. What is this trend known as?

persistent partisanship

In search of conforming, researchers focused on 3 predictors

personality culture social roles

Three predictors of conformity are ______, ______, and ______.

personality; culture; social roles

"The sender of the communication" is considered one of the four elements of

persuasion.

The process aimed at changing a person's attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs is known as

persuasion.

Attractiveness comes in several forms

physical attractiveness, fame similarity

Evolutionary psychology predicts that, during mating, men are the most likely to be attracted to a woman who is

physically attractive.

THe more cohesive a group is, the more

power it gains over members.

Teams have surpassed individuals in

predicting world political events

Once a rating is made, a judge will probably not change his or her rating, even if others disagree, due to ______ commitment.

prior

Leadership

process by which certain group members motivate and guide group

two-step flow of communication

process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders who in turn influence others

Social facilitation theory

proposition that the presence of others increases the dominant response tendency

Unrestrained behaviors have something in common:

provoked by power of being in a group. Generate sense of excitement of being caught up in something bigger than oneself

In experiments, people conform more when they must respond ______.

publicly

Shawn received some bad news, which put him in a bad mood. Mitch wants to convince Shawn to join his new group. To increase his chances of persuasion, Mitch should ______.

put Shawn in a better mood

In 1960s, and 1970s, US books used 4 times as many pronouns as female pronouns, by 2008, the

ratio had shrunk to 2/1

Group members also become closed-minded

rationalization: group discounts challenges by collectively justifying decisions. Pres Johnson's Tuesday Lunch group spent more time rationalizing than reflecting up and rethinking decisions prior to escalation. Each initiative became an action to defend and justify. Stereotyped view of opponent: groupthinkers consider their enemies too evil to negotiate with or too weak and unintelligent to defend themselves against planned initiative.

Which of the following is NOT an example of group influence on an individual?

reactance

Messages also become more persuasive through association with good feelings, like what often accompanies munching food or hearing pleasant music

receiving money or free samples often induces people to donate money or buy something. Charities include address labels, stickers and even coins in mailings.

The ______ effect occurs when information that is presented last has more influence on the audience (compared with information presented earlier).

recency

The ______ effect is less common than the ______ effect.

recency; primacy

We are most persuaded by our _____, groups we identify with.

reference groups

Fear of __________ sometimes compels people to follow along, even when they do not agree with the group.

rejection

In Japan, western observers were struck by absence of looting and lawlessness following 2011 earthquake and tsunami

respect for social norms prevailed

The main critique of groupthink research is that the research was ______.

retrospective

Ina studies and plans for the future. Ina is most likely invested in the social belief of ______.

reward for application

Persuasion varies with who

says what, by what medium, by who. Two audience characteristics: age and thoughtfulness

Those made self-aware by acting in front of a mirror or a tv camera exhibit increased

self-control and actions more clearly reflect attitudes.

In Japan, going along with others not a sign of weakness but of tolerance

self-control, and maturity. Everywhere in Japan, remarks Lance Morrow, one senses and intricate serenity that comes to a people who know exactly what to expect from one another

Gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

Evidence from studies of twins and biological adoptive siblings indicates that genetic influences explain roughly 40% of individual variations in personality traits

shared environmental influences including home, account for only 0-1% of personality differences. According To Vukasovic and Bratko

In work groups, team spirit good for morale and boosts productivity.

shared group identity motivates people to persist on a project. When making group decisions though, close-knit groups may pay a price.

In laboratory settingss

shown pictures or told stories, girls react with more empathy given upsetting experiences in lab or real life, women more than men express empathy for others enduring similar experiences when observing someone receiving supposed painful shocks, women's empathy related brain circuits display elevated activity when men's do not

Carol Werner showed the disarming power of a simple 2 sided message in an experiment on aluminum-can recycling.

signs added to wastebaskets in a University of Utah classroom building said, "NO ALUMINUM CANS PLEASE!!! USE RECYUCLER ON FIRST FLOOR NEAR ENTRANCE" when final persuasive message acknowledged and responded main counterargument "may be inconvenient but it is important" recycling reached 80%

According to Milgram, when he reflected on his famous obedience experiment, the most fundamental lesson in experimental research is that ordinary people are ______.

simply doing their jobs

Social control is the power of the ______, and personal control is the power of the ______.

situation; person

People made self-aware less likely to cheat.

so are those who generally have a strong sense of themselves as distinct and independent.

Norms do restrain and control us

so successfully and subtly that we hardly sense their existence.

A star basketball player performs better when more people are watching her play. This is an example of ______.

social facilitation

The tendency for the presence of others to either enhance or impair an individual's performance is known as

social facilitation.

Conformity, submission, and compliance are all considered negative labels for which one of the following terms?

social influence

The tendency for people to exert less effort when they collaborate on a task than they would have if they had worked alone is called _____.

social loafing

Courtney admits there is a difference in the effort she puts forth during a group project versus the effort she shows when the project is assigned individually. Specifically, she shows less effort during the group project. Courtney's behavior can be attributed to

social loafing.

In Stanley Milgram's original obedience study, the prompts given to subjects who balked at the experiment served as

social pressure.

One way to present yourself as an expert is to ______.

speak confidently

During the 1970s, many scholars worried that studies of gender differences might reinforce

stereotypes.

Consistent findings with each of the techniques:

stimulating thinking makes strong messages more persuasive and (because of counterarguing) weak messages less persuasive.

Discussion typically

strengthens the average inclination of group members

Other primacy effect examples

students who read positive tripadvisoor.com reviews of a hotel before negative liked the hotel more than those who read negative ones In political polls, and in primary election, candidates benefit from being first on ballet super bowl viewers likely to remember brands in first block of commercials. Norman Miller and Donald Campbell gave Northwestern University students condensed transcript from civil trial, placed plaintiffs testimony and arguments in one section and defense in another. Most sided with information they had read first.

Evolutionary psychology

studies how natural selection predisposes psychological traits and social behaviors that enhance the preservation and spread of one's genes

Comparing the extremes of loved children and abused children

suggests that parenting matters

Successful distraction _____ counterarguments.

suppresses

Social loafing

tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

Accentuation effect

tendency to exaggerate differences between members of different categories

Recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

The major male sex hormone is called

testosterone

One finding of the risky shift effect is

that group decisions can encourage more extreme decisions than the person would have made in the first place.

Buss reported feeling astonished

that men and women across the world differ in mate preferences precisely in ways predicted by evolutionists.

If a distracting event prevents the undoing

the acceptand lingers

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

Which persuasive "route" was one of the two proposed by Petty and Cacioppo, who find that it leads to more stable attitude change that is likely to affect behavior?

the central route

Jack is listening to a politician explain why people should vote for her. She presents four arguments for her candidacy. If the recency effect is strong, Jack is most likely to remember

the last argument

Asch's classic experiment assessed whether individuals could overcome the urge to conform when perceiving ______.

the length of lines

Suzanne is excited about a Black Friday sale in which big-screen TVs are advertised for only $400. However, when she gets to the store, they tell her that they ran out of these "special price" TVs and now only have the same TV but for $800 instead. Suzanne is disappointed, but still agrees to the higher priced item. Which persuasion technique is at play in this example?

the lowball technique

What is androgyny?

the mixing of both masculine and feminine characteristics

Researchers have shown that generally ______ fear in a message, the higher the persuasion.

the more

Experiments show that often, the more frightened and vulnerable people feel,

the more they respond.

Which type of persuasion relies more on emotion or cues outside the message to influence?

the peripheral route

Randy is sitting at home watching TV. He just had dinner, but a commercial for a frozen dessert appears on his television. In the commercial, a happy family is eating the dessert. Randy, who had not been hungry moments before, suddenly decides to take his son out to get ice cream. Randy's decision has likely been influenced by

the peripheral route to persuasion.

When Stanley Milgram varied his experimental procedures, which of the following was not mentioned as a factor involved in obedience?

the physical attractiveness of the experimenter

Antismoking ads have re-created the "Marlboro Man" commercial, set in the rugged outdoors, now showing a coughing, decrepit cowboy. Which term does this best exemplify?

the poison parasite defense

In Japan, where people more often imagine how they look to others,

the presence of a mirror had no effect on cheating.

In groups, individuals are likely to make more dangerous decisions. This statement describes _____.

the risky shift

Cultures vary in how much they emphasize the individual self, and

the society of collectivistic cultures

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Women who moved to neighborhood higher in status than one they left more likely to buy

the type of shoes favored in new neighborhood. But those who moved to lower status neighborhood more likely to ignore local norms.

Four factors that determined obedience in Milgram's experiment were the authority's closeness & legitimacy, institutional respectability, whether there was a disobedient fellow participant, and ______.

the victim's emotional distance

The cultural animal

the view that evolution shaped the human psyche so as to enable humans to create and take part in culture

The effect of others' presence increases with

their numbers.

Studies of nearly 80K people across 70 countries show that men more than women rate power and achievement as important

these perceptions and expectations correlate with reality. in essentially every society, men are more socially dominant.

genes not set in stone

they respond adaptively to our experiences

Evolution has prepared us to live creatively in a changing world and to

thrive in environments from equatorial jungles to artic ice fields. Enabled us to to value promptness, welcome frankness, or accept premarital sex depending on culture.

in everyday life, it is easiest to abuse someone who is distant/ depersonalized.

throughout history, executioners have often depersonalized those being executed by placing hoods over their heads.

In Japan, going along with others is a sign of

tolerance, self-control, and maturity.

having friends who text while driving

triples odds that you will start

True or false: A counterargument is an argument against the given message.

true

A group of scientists presents data showing that a certain car company produces more pollution than any other company. If the scientists present their findings as if they are simply trying to inform their audience, but not persuade the audience to act, this will improve their appearance of ______.

trustworthiness

If your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a(n) _______ appeal.

two-sided

Jenny is presenting a message in support of recycling. Since she knows her opponent will present reasons people do not need to recycle, she uses a ______ appeal.

two-sided

Risky shift phenomenon

type of group polarization effect in which a group discussion leads to the adoption of a riskier course of action than the members would have endorsed initially

In individualistic cultures, people assert ______.

uniqueness

Preschoolers will often to refuse to try certain food despite parents urgings

until they are at table of children who like it

High need for cognition individuals prefer to ______.

use the central route think carefully

While the central route to persuasion ______, the peripheral route ______.

uses facts to present the message; appeals to the audience's emotions

4 factors determined obedience

victims emotional distance authority's closeness and legitimacy whether the authority was part of a respected institution liberating effects of a disobedient follow participant

Philospher Daniel Dennet would give the gold medal for the best idea anybody ever had

was that natural selection enables evolutions

All humans rank others by authority and status

we all have ideas about economic justice. Evolutionary psychologists highlight universal characteristics that have evolved through natural selection Culture provides the specific rules for working out elements of social life

Miller and campbell gave group of students a section of testimony to read

week later, they had them read another section and state their opinions, this was a reverse of the rpevious experiment, and the recency effect was discovered.

More important, 50% of those who saw graphic images vs the text only, quit smoking within a month

when Australia added graphic images of sick and dying smokers to cig packages in 2012, smoking rates fell 5%.

In more than 400 studies, women's greater connectedness has been expressed in generally higher rate of smiling.

when Marianne LaFrance examined 9000 college yearbook photos, found females more often smiling. Amy Halbertstadt and Martha Saitta found the same in 1,000 magazine, and newspaper photos and 1,300 people in shopping malls, parks and streets.

Girls exposed to excess testosterone during fetal development tend to exhibit more tomboyish behavior and resemble males in career preferences with greater interest in things than people.

when asked to rotate objects, cognitive tasks processed differently by males and females, genetic males show activity more typical of females.

When Ph.D. students in economics discuss women in online forms, they are more likely to mention physical appearance and persona information

when discussing men, textbook and motivated and professional topics are more common.

sometimes conformity is neutral (inconsequential)

when it directs tennis players to wear white.

Conformity is sometimes bad

when it leads to someone driving drunk or joining in racist behavior.

Prior commitments restrain persuasion

when simulated juries make decisions, hung verdicts are more likely in case when jurors are polled by show of hands than secret ballot. Making a public commitment makes people hesitant to back down

Being in a crowd intensifies positive or negative reactions

when they sit together, friendly people are liked more and unfriendly liked less,.

After watching the behaviors in the video, what do you think it means to conform?

when you change your own behavior because of the behavior of others

Experiment by Media Insight project found that facebook users more willing to believe an article shared by trusted friend than by someone they didn't trust

who shared the article had a bigger difference than whether the news source was established, well-respected or made up.

Study of language of facebook users, positive emotion expressed in similar ways in india and the US

with a few cultural differences such as greater use of thanks

In recent years, distance form victims has further lengthened with the use of unmanned flying drones that drop bombs

with the controller sitting at a console many miles away from the destruction and death on the ground

in britain, men hold 74% of top-100 corporate board positions

women in most countries earn an average of 60-75% of men's wages according to World bank only about 1/5 of wage gap attributable to gender differences in education, work experience or job characteristics.

Over 28 years of major tournaments, professional golfers' cores tend to be

worse in the final round than other days, especially for those close to the lead.

William McGuire found that when participants were immunized (attitude inoculation) by

writing an essay refuting a mild attack on a beleif, they were better able to resist a more powerful attack later