Social Studies: Comprehensive

Medina

"City of the Prophet" Accepted Muhammad. He soon began to win support for Islam

SNCC

(Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee) college kids who participated in the Civil Rights movement, who staged sit-ins, etc.

Herbert Hoover

31st President of the United States. In 1929 the stock market crashed and the economy collapsed. Hoover was defeated for re-election by Franklin Roosevelt (1874-1964).

Committee of Correspondence (1764-1780)

A shadow government organized by the Patriot leaders of the Thirteen Colonies on the eve of the American Revolution. They coordinated responses to Britain and shared their plans; by 1773 they had emerged as shadow governments, superseding the colonial legislature and royal officials.

Umayyad Dynasty

A shift in government led to dynasty. Conquered Spain; Mu'awiyah moved capital to Syria (for trade); defeated at France which halted expansion; the leader took on title of caliph

Head Start

A preschool program for children from low-income families that also provides healthcare, nutrition services, and social services

Neo Colonialism

A process of acculturation or cultural imperialism through which forms of industrial, political and economic organization are often imposed on other cultures under the guise of getting aid in the form of technological and industrial "progress," but it can still lead to good things, like bringing needed infrastructure

Suez Canal

A ship canal in northeastern Egypt linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea

"The Communist Manifesto" (1848)

A short 1848 publication written by the political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms. The book contains Marx and Engels' theories about the nature of society and politics, that in their own words, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles". It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, and then eventually communism.

Temperance Movement

A social movement urging reduced or prohibited use of alcoholic beverages.

Conflict

A state of opposition between persons or ideas or interests, an open clash between two opposing groups (or individuals).

Deviance

A state or condition markedly different from the norm, behavior that departs from societal or group norms

Declaration of Independence (1776)

A statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with Great Britain, regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The Independence Day of the United States of America is celebrated on July 4, the day Congress approved the wording of the Declaration.

Jazz

A style of dance music popular in the 1920s

Ecosystem

A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment

Unitary System

A system in which the is state governed as one single unit and the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions (subnational units) exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate. The great majority of states in the world have this form of government. Examples: United Kingdom, France, and Saudi Arabia

Parliamentary System

A system of democratic government in which the ministers of the Executive Branch get their legitimacy from a Legislature and are accountable to that parliament body, such that the Executive and Legislative branches are intertwined. Examples: The United Kingdom (Bicameral), Canada (Bicameral), and Denmark (Unicameral)

Peace Corps

A program began during the Kennedy Administration where volunteers help third world nations and prevent the spread of communism by getting rid of poverty in Africa, Asia, and Latin America

Price Index

An index that traces the relative changes in the price of an individual good (or a market basket of goods) over time

Price Level

An index that traces the relative changes in the price of an individual good (or a market basket of goods) over time

Caste System

A set of rigid social categories that determined not only a person's occupation and economic potential, but also his or her position in society.

Humanism

An intellectual movement at the heart of the Renaissance that focused on education and the classics. A system of thought based on the study of human ideas and actions.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement concentrated in France during the 1700's developed rational laws to describe social behavior and applied their findings in support of human rights and liberal economic theories.

NATO

An international organization created in 1949 by the North Atlantic Treaty for purposes of collective security

International Monetary Fund

An international organization of 183 countries, established in 1947 with the goal of promoting cooperation and exchange between nations, and to aid the growth of international trade.

European Union

An international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members.

Tribunes

An officer of ancient Rome elected by the plebeians to protect their rights from arbitrary acts of the patrician magistrates.

Vietminh

An organization of Vietnamese Communists and other nationalist groups that between 1946 and 1954 fought for Vietnamese independence from the French

Quasi-War (1798-1800)

An undeclared war fought mostly at sea between the United States and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. In the United States, the conflict was sometimes also referred to as the Undeclared War with France, the Pirate Wars, or the Half-War.

Socrates

Ancient Athenian philosopher who helped bring about Greece's Golden Age

Renewable Resource

Any natural resource (as wood or solar energy) that can be replenished naturally with the passage of time

Group

Any number of entities (members) considered as a unit

Schizophrenia

Any of several psychotic disorders characterized by distortions of reality and disturbances of thought and language and withdrawal from social contact.

Long Run Phillips Curve

Relationship between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate in the long run, looks at long-term natural rate of unemployment.

23rd Amendment

Representation provided for the Electoral College (1961)

Natural Resource

Resources (actual and potential) supplied by nature

Trade Quotas

Restrictions to free trade that put a legal limit on the amount that can be imported, creating shortages which cause prices to rise

North German Confederation

Result of end of Austria-Prussian War, Austria doesn't get involved in German affairs, major step towards German unification. Came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Prussia as the leading state.

12th Amendment

Revises presidential election procedures (1804)

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms (1791)

9th Amendment

Rights retained by the people (1791)

Brahmaputra River

River that begins in Tibet and flows through northeast India and Bangladesh, joining with the Ganges to empty into the Bay of Bengal.

Western Ghats

Rolling mountains west of the Deccan Plateau in Southern India

Cuneiform

Sumerian writing made by pressing a wedge-shaped tool into clay tablets, invented approx. 2400 BCE. Based on earlier form - pictographs

Aggregate Demand

The total demand for goods and services over varying prices within the economy, including componenting such as household consumption, business investment, government spending & net exports., the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be purchased at all possible price levels.

Average Fixed Cost

The total fixed costs (TFC) divided by the number of units produced. It is the only cost that decreases with production

Gross Domestic Product

The total market value of all final goods and services produced annually in an economy

Demobilization

The transition from wartime to production levels, caused social and economic strain

Treaty of Versailles

The treaty imposed on Germany by the Allied powers in 1920 after the end of World War I which demanded exorbitant reparations from the Germans. Terms on which the U.S. would mediate would include the retrocession of Alsace-Lorraine to France and the acquisition of Constantinople by Russia. Created by the leaders victorious allies Nations: France, Britain, US, and signed by Germany to end WWI. The treaty 1) stripped Germany of all Army, Navy, Air force. 2) Germany had to repay war damages ($33 billion) 3) Germany had to acknowledge guilt for causing WWI 4) Germany could not manufacture any weapons.

Nominal Value

The value of something in current dollars without taking into account the effects of inflation.

Empiricism

The view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.

Brinksmanship

The willingness to go to the brink of war to force an opponent to back down

Sahara Desert

The world's largest desert (3,500,000 square miles) in northern Africa

Andes Mountains

The world's longest mountain chain, stretching along the west coast of South America.

Nile River

The world's longest river, which flows northward through East Africa into the Mediterranean Sea

Keynesian Economics

Theory stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms, economics argues that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes and therefore, advocates active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle.

Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775)

They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay. The battles marked the outbreak of open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies in the mainland of British North America.

Ozone depletion

Thinning of Earth's atmosphere layer caused by CFC's leaking into the air.

Terry v. Ohio (1968)

Upheld the police practice of "stop and frisk" when an officer suspects a crime is about to be committed

Marginal Cost

The increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production, the increase or decrease in costs as a result of one more or one less unit of output

Nominal Interest Rate

The interest rate as usually reported without a correction for the effects of inflation.

Real Interest Rate

The interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation.

Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)

The justices ruled that an accused person has a right to have a lawyer present during questioning by police

Hunting and Gathering

The killing of wild animals and fish as well as the gathering of fruits, roots, nuts, and other plants for sustenance. Prehistoric Cave People Moved in Search of Food

Lake Superior

The largest freshwater lake in the world, one of the great lakes hat is the border between US and Canada.

Lake Victoria

The largest lake in Africa and the 2nd largest fresh water lake in the world

John Tyler (1790-1862)

The tenth President of the United States (1841-1845), after being the tenth Vice President of the United States (1841). A native of Virginia, he served as a state legislator, governor, U.S. representative, and U.S. senator before being elected Vice President in 1840. He was the first to succeed to the office of President on the death of the incumbent. His opposition to nationalism and emphatic support of states' rights endeared him to his fellow Virginians but alienated him from most of the political allies that brought him to power in Washington. His presidency was crippled by opposition from both parties.

Acropolis

The religious center of Athens in Ancient Greece; meeting place; site of Parthenon. Large hill in ancient Greece where city residents sought shelter and safety in times of war and met to discuss community affairs

Gentrification

The restoration of run-down urban areas by the middle class (resulting in the displacement of lower-income people).

Law of Diminishing Return

When additional units of a variable input are added to fixed inputs after a certain point, the marginal product of the variable input declines

McCarthyism

The term associated with Senator Joseph McCarthy who led the search for communists in America during the early 1950s through his leadership in the House Un-American Activities Committee.

Aggregate Supply

The total amount of goods and services in the economy available at all possible price levels

French Revolution

The revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799.

Institutions

The rules and procedures that provide incentives for political behavior, thereby shaping politics, organizations or activities that are self-perpetuating and valued for their own sake.

Danube River

The second-longest river of Europe. It flows from southern Germany east into the Black Sea.

Marginal Propensity

The smaller marginal propensity to save, the larger the multiplier; the larger the marginal propensity to consume, the larger the multiplier

Diffusion Theory

The spread of ideas and technology through human contacts.

Cultural Diffusion

The spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another.

Social Solidarity

The state of having shared beliefs and values among members of a social group, along with intense and frequent interaction among group members.

Recession

The state of the economy declines, A period of an economic contraction, sometimes limited in scope or duration.

Steel Strike of 1919

The strikers were demanding recognition of their union and protesting low wages and long working hours

Buddhism

The teaching that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth.

Rock and Roll

music that grew out of rhythm and blues and that became popular in the 1950s

Detente

relaxation of tensions between the United States and its two major Communist rivals, the Soviet Union and China

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Declared that if accused persons have not been informed of their right to remain silent, then any statements they make may not be used as evidence against them

13th Article

Declares that the Articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by all the state legislatures.

9th Article

Defines the sole and exclusive right and power of the United States in Congress assembled to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Held that the clear-and-present danger principle should be used as the test of whether a government may limit free speech

Near v. Minnesota (1931)

Held that the guarantee of a free press does not allow a prior restraint on publication, except in extreme cases, such as during wartime

Himalayan Mountains

Highest mountain range in the world; separates India from China

Julius Caesar

Made dictator for life in 45 BCE, after conquering Gaul, assassinated in 44 BCE by the Senate because they were afraid of his power. Roman general who became the republic's dictator; created the basis for the calendar

The Long March

Mao Zedong and 100,000 of his followers marched away from the Guomundang (national party)...this was a great victory for communists in China.

Dot Map

Maps where one dot represents a certain number of a phenomenon, such as a population.

Monopolistic Competition

Market or industry characterized by numerous buyers and relatively numerous sellers trying to differentiate their products from those of competitors.

Licenses

May be required of importers of foreign goods so that imports can be restricted.

Laissez-faire economics

Means allowing industry to be free from state intervention, especially restrictions in the form of tariffs and government monopolies. The phrase is French and literally means "let do", but it broadly implies "let it be", or "leave it alone."

Unemployment Rate

Measures the number of people who are able to work, but do not have a job during a period of time.

Sit-Ins

Protests by black college students, 1960-1961, who took seats at "whites only" lunch counters and refused to leave until served; in 1960 over 50,000 participated in sit-ins across the South. Their success prompted the formation of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee.

Black Thursday

October 24, 1929. The day the famous stock market crash of 1929 began, when the stock market began its plummet, the stock market was very unstable for the subsequent few days

Black Tuesday

October 29, 1929. The day which experienced the largest percentage decrease in stock prices and is considered to be the start of the Great Depression

Paleolithic Age

Old Stone Age, during the this period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and hunting or scavenging wild animals. This period is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Were nomadic and lived in small groups.

Literature

Omar Khayyam: wrote Rubaiyat

Burning of Washington (1814)

On August 24, 1814, a British force led by Major General Robert Ross occupied Washington, D.C. and set fire to many public buildings, including the White House and U.S. Capitol, were largely destroyed. The British commander's orders to burn only public buildings and strict discipline among the British troops are credited with preserving the city's private buildings.

Intolerable Acts (1774)

On December 16, 1773, a group of colonists destroyed several tons of tea in Boston, Massachusetts, an act that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party. News of the Boston Tea Party reached England in January 1774. Parliament responded with a series of acts that were intended to punish Boston for this destruction of private property, restore British authority in Massachusetts, and otherwise reform colonial government in America.

Social Stratification

One of two components, together with agricultural surplus, which enables the formation of cities; the differentiation of society into classes based on wealth, power, production, and prestige

6th Article

Only the central government is allowed to conduct foreign political or commercial relations and to declare war. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. States are restrained from forming sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may engage in war, without permission of Congress, unless invaded or that is imminent on the frontier; no state may maintain a peace-time standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-regulated (meaning well trained), disciplined, and equipped militia, with sufficient public stores of a due number of field pieces, tents, a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.

Westside Community Schools v. Mergens (1990)

Ordered a school to permit students to meet on campus and discuss religion because it does not amount to a "state sponsorship of a religion"

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Outlawed discrimination in employment on the basis of race, sex, or religion

Clinton v. City of New York (1998)

Overturned the Line-Item Veto Act

25th Amendment

Provides presidential succession (1967)

Trade Winds

Prevailing winds that blow northeast from 30 degrees north latitude to the equator and that blow southeast from 30 degrees south latitude to the equator

27th Amendment

Prevents congress from raising its own pay in the current session (1992)

Embargoes

Prohibit trade with other nations. They bar a foreign nation's imports or ban exports to that nation or both.

18th Amendment

Prohibition (1919)

8th Amendment

Protection from cruel and unjust punishment (1791)

5th Amendment

Protection from self-incrimination (1791)

Cognitive Theory

Psychological perspective that focuses on mental processes: how people perceive and mentally represent the world around them and solve-problems.

Monsoon

Rainy season in southern Asia when the southwestern wind blows, bringing heavy rains. It is a seasonal reversal of wind-direction that brings heavy rainfall to parts of Asia.

Article VII

Ratification

Beat Poetry

Reacting against post-WWII middle-class materialism and conformity, as well as the predominant aesthetic of academic formalism, these 20th century poets sought transcendence by embracing jazz culture, illegal drugs, and Zen Buddhism. Generally meant to be performed and heard, the poetry of this movement sought to shock its audience out of complacency by making liberal use of bold, explicit language and material. The poetry is often characterized by its use of free verse and anaphora as a poetic device.

12th Article

Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the existence of the Articles.

Ho Cho Minh

Rebel leader who demanded independence for Vietnam

Reactionary Groups

Refers to viewpoints that seek to return to a previous state (the status quo ante) in a society. The term is meant to stand in opposition to and as one end of a political spectrum whose opposite pole is "radicalism".

Utopias

Reformers founded these ideal communities to realize their spiritual and moral potential and to escape from competition, communities designed to create perfect societies.

Merger

The combining of two or more companies

10th Article

"The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite."

NASA

An independent agency of the United States government responsible for aviation and spaceflight

SCLC

(Southern Christian Leadership Conference) A group of churches that linked together to inform blacks about changes in the Civil Rights Movement, led by Martin Luther King Jr

Australopithecus Afarensis

(1 of 5 hominid groups). (Discovered by US Donald Johanson). Lucy-Southern ape, found in Afar triangle Africa. Earliest fossil 3-4 million years ago. Remains found in Ethiopia and South Tanzania. Different = 3ft tall, 1/3 human size brain, no tools or language. Similar = bipedal, hands, feet

Franco-Prussian War

(1870 - 1871) A conflict between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia.

Russo-Turkish War

(1877-1878) Had its origins in a rise in nationalism in the Balkans as well as in the Russian goal of recovering territorial losses it had suffered during the Crimean War. As a result of the war, the principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Douglas MacArthur

(1880-1964), United States General who served as Chief of Staff and commanded Allied forces in the South Pacific during World War II, Commander of U.S. (later Allied) forces in the southwestern Pacific during World War II, he accepted Japan's surrender in 1945 and administered the ensuing Allied occupation. He was in charge of UN forces in Korea 1950-51, before being forced to relinquish command by President Truman.

Homo Habilis

(2 of 5 hominid groups). (Discovered by Louis and Mary Leakey. "Handy Man." 1.5-2 million years ago, only found in Africa. 4ft, biped, brain 2x size of Lucy's, ability to make/use simple tools (found with them)

Homo Erectus

(3 of 5 hominid groups). (Discovered by Dutch Eugene Dubois). "Upright Man." Found in Asia & Europe. 1.8 million to 200,000 B.C.E., 1st to migrate from Africa. Some modern human height, complex tools, ability to use fire, built oval huts

Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis

(4 of 5 hominid groups). "Wise Man." From 30,000 to 230,000 years ago, Africa, Near East, Europe Asia. Shorter and stockier than modern humans, but stronger, large brains, skilled tool makers. First to hunt in organized group - community, buried with flowers and tools, cared for injured and sick = caring. Existed side by side with early modern humans for approx. 10,000 yrs.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens

(5 of 5 hominid groups). "Doubly Wise Man." 35,000 to 12,000 B.C.E. Migrated from Africa to Europe, Asia, Australia, N S America across land bridges, spear thrower and bow and arrow. Imagine, dream, communicate, feelings

Song Dynasty

(960 - 1279 AD); this dynasty was started by Tai Zu; by 1000, a million people were living there; started feet binding; had a magnetic compass; had a navy; traded with India and Persia (brought pepper and cotton); first to have paper money, explosive gun powder; *landscape black and white paintings

HUD

(Housing and Urban Development) The United States federal department that administers federal programs dealing with better housing and urban renewal

Kent State Massacre

(May 4, 1970) National Guardsmen fired on and killed students who protested the invasion of Cambodia

El Nino

(Oceanography) a warm ocean current that flows along the equator from the date line and south off the coast of Ecuador at Christmas time.

Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses

-These questions posted on the door of a Church, helped to promote religious reforms within the Roman Catholic Church.-written in 1517, primary catalyst for Protestant Reformation-protests against clerical abuses, especially the sale of indulgences-Posted on the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg Germany

Theodore Roosevelt

26th President of the United States, 26th president, known for: conservationism, trust-busting, Hepburn Act, safe food regulations, "Square Deal," Panama Canal, Great White Fleet, Nobel Peace Prize for negotiation of peace in Russo-Japanese War.

Causes of WWII

1. Treaty of Versailles - Germany not happy with War guilt cause 2. Axis powers: Germany, Italy, Japan. Hitler creates treaty with Stalin (non-aggression pact) 1931-Japan invades Manchuria 1933-Hitler comes to power1939-Hitler invades Poland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, (this causes Britain and France to declare war on Germany) December 7, 1941- Pearl Harbor, US pulled into the war when the Japanese bomb the naval fleet-Germany declares war on US because they are allies with Japan -Pearl Harbor - we had stopped selling oil/metal to Japan, we declared war on them, Germany declared on us

Carl Jung

1875-1961; Field: Neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation

Jean Piaget

1896-1980; Swiss developmental psychologist who proposed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on the concept of mental operations

George Wallace

1919-1998. Four time governor of Alabama. He was famous for his pro-segregation attitude and as a symbol for states' rights.

Interment of Japanese Americans

1941, Wartime policy to evacuate from West Coast and incarcerate all those with Japanese heritage, U.S. citizens included; height of "yellow-peril"

Korematsu v. United States

1944 Supreme Court case where the Supreme Court upheld the order providing for the relocation of Japanese Americans. It was not until 1988 that Congress formally apologized and agreed to pay $20,000 to each survivor.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

1964, US destroyer fired torpedoes and called in an airstrike on a North Vietnamese boat

My Lai Massacre

1968, in which American troops had brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, also led to more opposition to the war.

Stagflation

1975-1982, rising unemployment and double digit inflation in late 70's and early 80's

Camp David Summit

1978, High point in Carter Presidency. Under the terms of the Camp David Accords Israel and Egypt signed peace treaty ending 30 year of hostility

Iran Hostage Crisis

1979, Occurred during the fundamentalist Islamic Revolution; Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew Iran's pro-US Shah. On November 4, 1979, a mob stormed the American Embassy in Tehran and took over 50 American Hostages. Hostage crisis and Stagflation damaged Carter's popularity and led to his defeat in 1980 election to Reagan. They were held for 444 days

Reganonomics

1980-1988, economic program to promote growth by cutting taxes and deregulating business. Reagan's program is also called supply-side economics.

Reagan Doctrine

1983, Name given to presidential administration's strategy to confront and oppose the global influence of the Soviet Union.

Persian Gulf War

1991, Operation Desert Storm successfully crushed Saddam Hussein's Iraqi forces and liberated Kuwait.

North American Free Trade Association

1994, NAFTA: free trade zone with Canada and Mexico.

Woodland Culture

<1000 BCE to 1000> CE A period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term was introduced in the 1930s as a generic header for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the agriculturalist Mississippian cultures. The Eastern Woodlands cultural region covers what is now eastern Canada south of the Subarctic region, the eastern United States, along to the Gulf of Mexico. This period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short time but instead having a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leather crafting, textile manufacture, cultivation, and shelter construction.

Adena Culture

<1000 BCE to 200 BCE> The culture was a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BCE, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system.

Formative Stage

<1000 BCE to 500 CE> Also known as the "Neo-Indian period," it is an archaeological term describing a particular developmental level. This stage from 1000 BCE to 500 CE is the third of five stages defined by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Cultures of the Formative Stage are supposed to possess the technologies of pottery, weaving, and developed food production.

Post-Classic Stage

<1200 CE to 1500s CE> An archaeological term describing a particular developmental level. Cultures of this stage are defined distinctly by possessing developed metallurgy. Social organization is supposed to involve complex urbanism and militarism. Ideologically, cultures are described as showing a tendency towards the secularization of society. Examples of cultures considered to be in this stage include the Aztecs and the late Maya.

Olmec

<1500 BCE to about 400 BCE> The first major civilization in Mexico. They lived in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco and flourished during Mesoamerica's Formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BCE to about 400 BCE. Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished in the area since about 2500 BCE, but by 1600-1500 BCE Early Olmec culture had emerged centered around the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán site near the coast in southeast Veracruz.

Hopewell Tradition

<200 BCE to 500 CE> Describes the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and Midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE. It was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario.

Classic Stage

<500 CE to 1200 CE> An archaeological term describing a particular developmental level dating from 500 to 1200 CE. Cultures are supposed to possess craft specialization and the beginnings of metallurgy. Social organization is supposed to involve the beginnings of urbanism and large ceremonial centers. Ideologically, cultures should have a developed theocracy. It was initially defined as restricted to the complex societies of Mesoamerica and Peru. However, the time period includes other advanced cultures, such as Hopewell, Teotihuacan, and the early Maya.

Totlec

<800 CE to 1000 CE> The culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo, in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca 800-1000 CE). The later Aztec culture saw them as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described their culture emanating from Tollan (Nahuatl for Tula) as the epitome of civilization, indeed in the Nahuatl language the word "Toltec" came to take on the meaning "artisan".

Archaic Stage

<8000 BCE - 2000 BCE> The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally.

Lithic Stage

<8000 BCE> In the sequence of North American prehistoric cultural stages first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in 1958, the stage was the earliest period of human occupation in the Americas, accruing during the Late Pleistocene period, to time before 8,000 B.C. (before 10,000 years ago).

The sale of indulgences

A practice that began during the Crusades that allowed someone to pay the church in order to have their time in Purgatory reduced. It was the most attacked clerical financial abuse.

Taft-Hartley Act

A 1947 law giving the president power to halt major strikes by seeking a court injunction and permitting states to forbid requirements in labor contracts that force workers to join a union.

Oregon Trail

A 2,000-mile (3,200 km) historic east-west wagon route and emigrant trail that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon and locations in between.

Bay of Bengal

A Bay that the Ganges River flows into, North of the Indian Ocean, On the eastern side of India, South of Tibet, West of China

General Lord Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805)

A British Army officer and colonial administrator. In the United States and the United Kingdom he is best remembered as one of the leading British generals in the American War of Independence. His surrender in 1781 to a combined American and French force at the Siege of Yorktown ended significant hostilities in North America.

Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804)

A Founding Father, soldier, economist, political philosopher, one of America's first constitutional lawyers and the first United States Secretary of the Treasury.

Treaty of Easton (1758)

A colonial agreement in North America signed in October 1758 during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). Briefly, chiefs of 13 Native American nations, representing tribes of the Iroquois, Lenape-Delaware, Shawnee and others, agreed to be allies of the British colonies during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War), already underway. In return the governments of Pennsylvania and New Jersey recognized Native rights to hunting grounds in the Ohio Valley and settlements in the Ohio Country. They promised not to establish additional settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains.

National Security Council

A committee in the executive branch of government that advises the president on foreign and military and national security

Karl Marx

A German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867-1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels theories about society, economics and politics—collectively known as Marxism—hold that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class which controls production and a lower class which produces the labor for goods. Heavily critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, he called it the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes purely for their own benefit, and predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, it would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. He argued that under socialism society would be governed by the working class in what he called the "dictatorship of the proletariat", the "workers state" or "workers' democracy". He believed that socialism would, in its turn, eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called communism. Along with believing in the inevitability of socialism and communism, Marx actively fought for the former's implementation, arguing that both social theorists and underprivileged people should carry out organized revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic change.

Maya

A Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. Their area extended throughout the northern Central American region, including the present-day nations of Guatemala, Belize, northern El Salvador and western Honduras.

Second Great Awakening

A Protestant revival movement during the early 19th century in the United States. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. It expressed Arminian theology, by which every person could be saved through revivals. It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) who discovered classical conditioning.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

A Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, and the author of The Principles Which Lead and Direct Philosophical Enquiries, Illustrated by the History of Astronomy, prior to 1758, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759, and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. He is widely cited as the father of modern economics and capitalism and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today.

Hernan Cortes (1485-1547)

A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire.

Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541)

A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (1510-1554)

A Spanish conquistador, who visited New Mexico and other parts of what are now the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542. He had hoped to conquer the mythical Seven Cities of Gold. He traversed parts of Arizona, New Mexico, the Texas panhandle, the Oklahoma panhandle, and Kansas.

Hernando de Soto (1496-1542)

A Spanish explorer and conquistador who, while leading the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States, was the first European documented to have crossed the Mississippi River. A vast undertaking, de Soto's North American expedition ranged throughout the southeastern United States searching for gold and a passage to China. He died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River in Arkansas or Louisiana.

Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521)

A Spanish explorer and conquistador. He became the first Governor of Puerto Rico by appointment of the Spanish crown. He led the first European expedition to Florida in 1513, which he named.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519)

A Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador. He is best known for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World.

Marshall Plan

A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe (1948-1952)

Battle of Princeton (1777)

A battle in which General George Washington's revolutionary forces defeated British forces near Princeton, New Jersey. After the battle, Washington moved his army to Morristown, and with their third defeat in 10 days, the British evacuated southern New Jersey. The battle was the last major action of Washington's winter New Jersey campaign.

Battle of Trenton (1776)

A battle which took place on December 26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, after General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey. The hazardous crossing in adverse weather made it possible for Washington to lead the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian soldiers garrisoned at Trenton. After a brief battle, nearly the entire Hessian force was captured, with negligible losses to the Americans.

Behavioral Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on observable actions, particularly stimulus-response methods.

Bonds

A certificate issued by a government or private company which promises to pay back with interest the money borrowed from the buyer of the certificate.

Paleo-Indians

A classification term given to the first peoples who entered, and subsequently inhabited, the American continents during the final glacial episodes of the late Pleistocene period. Evidence suggests big-game hunters crossed the Bering Strait from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land and ice bridge (Beringia), that existed between 45,000 BCE-12,000 BCE (47,000 - 14,000 years ago).

Consumer Price Index

An index of the cost of all goods and services to a typical consumer

Three-Fifths Compromise

A compromise between Southern and Northern states reached during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in which three-fifths of the enumerated population of slaves would be counted for representation purposes regarding both the distribution of taxes and the apportionment of the members of the United States House of Representatives. It was proposed by delegates James Wilson and Roger Sherman.

Proportional Representation

A concept in voting systems used to elect an assembly or council in which the number of seats won by a party or group of candidates is proportionate to the number of votes received. For example, under this system if 30% of voters support a particular party then roughly 30% of seats will be won by that party, which tends to produce a proliferation of political parties, while single member districts encourage a two-party system. Examples: Costa Rica, Germany, and Norway

Split Brain

A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. Research states that the left hemisphere is responsible for spoken language.

Cartel

A consortium of independent organizations formed to limit competition by controlling the production and distribution of a product or service. ex/ OPEC

Byzantine Empire

A continuation of the Roman Empire in the Middle East after its division in 395, rose out of the split of East and Western Roman Empire; lasted another 1000 years; kept Hellenism alive; fell in 1453 by the Ottomans

Second Continental Congress (1775-1789)

A convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774, also in Philadelphia. The second Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. By raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties, the Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States.

First Continental Congress (1774-1775)

A convention of delegates from twelve British North American colonies that met on September 5, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American Revolution. It was called in response to the passage of the Coercive Acts (also known as Intolerable Acts by the Colonial Americans) by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished Boston for the Boston Tea Party. The Congress was attended by 56 members appointed by the legislatures of twelve of the Thirteen Colonies, the exception being the Province of Georgia, which was hoping for British assistance with Indian problems on its frontier. The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade; rights and grievances; and petitioning King George III for redress of those grievances. The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts.

Roman Senate

A council whose members were the heads of wealthy, landowning families. Originally an advisory body to the early kings, in the era of the Roman Republic they effectively governed the Roman state and the growing empire. Formed by Romulus; served for life; administered laws and decrees; controlled treasury and collected taxes; appointed military commanders; received foreign ambassadors and ratified treaties with foreign powers.

Business Cycle

A cycle or series of cycles of economic expansion and contraction

Siege of Yorktown (1781)

A decisive victory by a combined force of American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and French Army troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis. The surrender by Cornwallis of his army prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict

Shantytown

A deprived area on the outskirts of a town consisting of large numbers of crude dwellings

Kalahari Desert

A desert in southwestern Africa - largely Botswana

Arabian Desert

A desert on the Arabian Peninsula in southwestern Asia

Takla Makan

A desert whose name means "those who enter do not come out", located in north western China.

Stamp Act (1765)

A direct tax imposed by British Parliament specifically on the colonies which required that printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper made in London in order to pay for the costly Seven Years' War (French & Indian War)(1756-1763). The tax was very unpopular in the colonies due to a lack of direct representation in Parliament. It was repealed in 1766. It was the first major event of colonial resistance which helped define overall grievances against Parliament and the crown.

Pluralistic Ignorance

A false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding

Uncle Tom's Cabin

A fiction novel written by Harriett Beecher Stowe that was widely read and encouraged people to join the abolitionist cause.

Panic of 1837

A financial crisis or market correction in the United States built on a speculative fever. The end of the Second Bank of the United States had produced a period of runaway inflation, but on May 10, 1837, in New York City, every bank began to accept payment only in specie (gold and silver coinage), forcing a dramatic, deflationary backlash. This was based on the assumption by former president, Andrew Jackson, that the government was selling land for state bank notes of questionable value. The Panic was followed by a five-year depression, with the failure of banks and then-record-high unemployment levels.

Pure Competition

A firm produces a homogeneous product and is a small part of the total supply such that it cannot influence market price and total output.

Direct Democracy

A form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly, as opposed to a representative democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives; Also known as pure democracy; Example: In the United States: referendums, recall elections, states elections, and initiatives

Democracy

A form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives —either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. Examples: Norway, Australia, and the United States

Theocracy

A form of government in which official policy is governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as (or claim to be) divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group. Examples: Vatican City (Roman Catholic) and Iran (Shia Muslim)

Dictatorship

A form of government in which one individual or few individuals rule without the will or consent of the people. Authoritarian types are those where there is little political mobilization and "a small group exercises power within formally ill-defined limits but actually quite predictable ones". Totalitarian types involve a "single party led by a single powerful individual with a powerful secret police and a highly developed ideology." There can be military, single-party state, personality, and hybrids. Examples: Pinochet (Chile) and Stalin (USSR)

Oligarchy

A form of government in which power effectively rests with a small elite segment of society distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, military might, or religious hegemony.

Absolutism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)

Alger Hiss

A former State Department official who was accused of being a Communist spy and was convicted of perjury. The case was prosecuted by Richard Nixon.

Habituation

A general accommodation to unchanging environmental conditions, decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

Embargo Act of 1807

A general embargo that was enacted by the United States Congress against Great Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars. The embargo was imposed in response to violations of U.S. neutrality, in which American merchantmen and their cargo were seized as contraband of war by the belligerent European navies.

Stereotypes

A generalization, oversimplified view or opinion that members of a group rigidly apply to a thing, an idea, or another group.

Blues

A genre of African American music that often expresses frustration, sadness, or longing

Central-Place Hierarchy

A geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and location of human settlements in an urban system. The theory was created by the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to surrounding areas.

Production Possibilities Curve

A graph that describes the maximum amount of one good that can be produced for every possible level of production of the other good

Sons of Liberty (1766-1776)

A group made up of American patriots that originated in the pre-independence North American British colonies. The group was formed to protect the rights of the colonists from the usurpations by the British government after 1766. They are best known for undertaking the Boston Tea Party in 1773, which led to the Intolerable Acts (an intense crackdown by the British government), and a counter-mobilization by the Patriots that led directly to the American Revolutionary War in 1775.

Freedom Riders

A group of civil rights workers who took bus trips through southern states in 1961 to protest illegal bus segregation

Conglomerate

A group of diverse companies under common ownership and run as a single organization.

Nation of Islam

A group of militant Black Americans who profess Islamic religious beliefs and advocate independence for Black Americans

Deccan Plateau

A high area of land at the center of the Indian subcontinent. It lies between the Adrian Sea and the Bay of Bengal and it is made of lava, which produces a rich black soil; it's bordered on the west and east by the East and Western Ghats Mts.

Dead Sea

A landlocked salt lake between Israel and Jordan that is so salty that almost nothing can live in its waters; it is 1,349 feet below sea level, making it the lowest place on the exposed crust of the earth.

Judiciary Act of 1789

A landmark statute adopted on September 24, 1789 in the first session of the First United States Congress establishing the U.S. federal judiciary. Article III, section 1 of the Constitution prescribed that the "judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress saw fit to establish.

Caspian Sea

A large saltwater lake between Iran and Russia fed by the Volga River, world's largest inland body of water located between Europe and Asia

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African American suffrage. Under the law, hundreds of thousands of African Americans were registered and the number of African American elected officials increased dramatically.

Lend-Lease Act

A law passed in 1941 that allowed the United States to lease arms and supplies to all nations fighting the Axis powers.

War Powers Act

A law passed in 1973 spelling out the conditions under which the president can commit troops without congressional approval.

Daniel Webster (1782-1852)

A leading American statesman and senator from Massachusetts during the period leading up to the Civil War. He first rose to regional prominence through his defense of New England shipping interests. During his 40 years in national politics, Webster served in the House of Representatives for 10 years (representing New Hampshire), in the Senate for 19 years (representing Massachusetts), and was appointed the Secretary of State under three presidents.

John C. Calhoun (1782-1850)

A leading politician and political theorist from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century. He eloquently spoke out on every issue of his day, but often changed positions. He began his political career as a nationalist, modernizer, and proponent of a strong national government and protective tariffs. After 1830 he switched to states' rights, limited government, nullification and free trade. He is best known for his intense and original defense of slavery as something positive, his distrust of majoritarianism, and for pointing the South toward secession from the Union.

Classical Conditioning

A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.

Hammurabi's Code

A legal code developed by King Hammurabi of Mesopotamia. The code was influential in the establishment of Hebrew and Islamic law and in the U.S. judiciary system. It specified crimes and punishments to help judges impose penalties.

Tropic of Capricorn

A line of latitude about 23 degrees south of the equator

Breadlines

A line of people waiting to receive free food

Great Depression

A long and severe recession in an economy or market, the financial and industrial slump of 1929 and lasted essentially from 1929 until the start of WWII.

Red Sea

A long arm of the Indian Ocean between northeast Africa and Arabia

Mississippi River

A major North American river and the chief river of the United States, longest river in the U.S.

Ring of Fire

A major belt of volcanoes that rims the Pacific Ocean; also a Johnny Cash song

Ming Dynasty

A major dynasty that ruled China from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. It was marked by a great expansion of Chinese commerce into East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia

Rocky Mountains

A major mountain system of the United States and Canada, extending 3,000 miles from Alaska south to New Mexico

Mekong River

A major river that runs from southern China through Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Oligopoly

A market in which control over the supply of a commodity is in the hands of a small number of producers and each one can influence prices and affect competitors; A market structure in which a few large firms dominate a market

Bear Market

A market in which prices are falling, encouraging selling

Bull Market

A market in which share prices are rising, encouraging buying

Perfect Competition

A market structure in which a large number of firms all produce the same product. The market situation in which there are many sellers in a market and no seller is large enough to dictate the price of a product

Tet Offensive

A massive surprise attack by the Vietcong on South Vietnamese towns and cities in early 1968.

Map Projection

A mathematical method that involves transferring the earth's sphere onto a flat surface. This term can also be used to describe the type of map that results from the process of projecting. All map projections have distortions in area, direction, distance, or shape.

Scholasticism

A medieval philosophical and theological system that tried to reconcile faith and reason

Stamp Act Congress (1765)

A meeting held between October 7 and 25, 1765 in New York City, consisting of representatives from some of the British colonies in North America; it was the first gathering of elected representatives from several of the American colonies to devise a unified protest against new British taxation.

War of 1812 (1812-1815)

A military conflict fought between the forces of the United States and those of the British Empire. The United States declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions brought about by Britain's ongoing war with France, the impressment of American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy, British support of American Indian tribes against American expansion, outrage over insults to national honor after humiliations on the high seas, and possible American desire to annex Canada. Both sides invaded each other's territory, but these invasions were unsuccessful or temporary. At the end of the war, both sides occupied parts of the other's land, but these areas were restored by the Treaty of Ghent.

Population Pyramid

A model used in population geography to show the age and sex distribution of a particular population.

Major Depressive Disorder

A mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminishes interest or pleasure in most activities (Most common psychological disorder in the United States).

Karakoram Mountains

A mountain range in northern Kashmir the mountain region that includes many mountains like K2 and many villages like Kopje

Cascade Mountains

A mountain range in the northwestern United States extending through Washington and Oregon and northern California.

Feudalism

A political system in which nobles are granted the use of lands that legally belong to the king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service and protection of the people who live on the land. Socioeconomics predominated in both Europe and Japan between 700 and 1300 BCE.

Stationary Pyramid

A population pyramid in which all cohorts (except the oldest) are roughly the same size.

"Common Sense" (1776 pamphlet)

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine, published anonymously on January 10, 1776, at the beginning of the American Revolution. Common Sense, was signed, "Written by an Englishman", and it became an immediate success. It presented the American colonists with an argument for freedom from British rule at a time when the question of seeking independence was still undecided. Paine wrote and reasoned in a style that common people understood. Forgoing the philosophical and Latin references used by Enlightenment era writers, he structured it as if it were a sermon, and relied on Biblical references to make his case to the people.

Vote of No Confidence

A parliamentary motion which when passed would demonstrate to the head of state that the elected parliament no longer has confidence in (one or more members of) the appointed government. The head of state must respond in one of two ways: ask another individual, whom he or she believes will command the confidence of parliament, to try to form a government, or dissolve the elected parliament and call a general election to elect a new parliament.

Prejudice

A partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation, an opinion or strong feeling formed without careful thought or regard to the facts.

Qin dynasty

A people and state in the Wei Valley of eastern China that conquered rival states and created the first Chinese empire (221-206 B.C.E.). Their ruler, Shi Huangdi, standardized many features of Chinese society and enslaved subjects.

Mongols

A people group mentioned as early as the records of the Tang Empire, living as nomads in northern Eurasia. After 1206 they established an enormous empire under Genghis Khan, linking western and eastern Eurasia. >(p. 325)

Red Scare

A period of anti-communist hysteria during 1919 and 1920

Pax Romana

A period of peace and prosperity throughout the Roman Empire, lasting from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180.

Stagflation

A period of slow economic growth and high unemployment while prices rise (inflation)

Status

A person's condition or position in the eyes of the law; relative rank or standing, especially in society; prestige

Mohandas Gandhi

A philosopher from India, this man was a spiritual and moral leader favoring India's independence from Great Britain. He practiced passive resistance, civil disobedience and boycotts to generate social and political change.

Confucianism

A philosophy that most emphasizes proper relationships as the basis for social and political order. It shows the way to ensure a stable government and an orderly society in the present world and stresses a moral code of conduct.

Battle of the Alamo (1836)

A pivotal event in the Texas Revolution. Following a 13-day siege, Mexican troops under President General Antonio López de Santa Anna launched an assault on the Alamo Mission near San Antonio de Béxar (modern-day San Antonio, Texas, USA). All but two of the Texan defenders were killed. Santa Anna's perceived cruelty during the battle inspired many Texans—both Texas settlers and adventurers from the United States—to join the Texan Army. Buoyed by a desire for revenge, the Texans defeated the Mexican Army at the Battle of San Jacinto, on April 21, 1836, ending the revolution.

Imperialism

A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, socially, and economically.

Nativism

A policy of favoring native-born individuals over foreign-born ones. Nativist movements and parties picked up steam in the mid-19th century with the Know-Nothing Party.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention.

XYZ Affair (1797-1798)

A political and diplomatic episode in 1797 and 1798, during the administration of John Adams, which Americans interpreted as an insult from France. It led to an undeclared naval war called the Quasi-War, which raged at sea from 1798 to 1800.

Communism

A political and economic system where factors of production are collectively owned and directed by the state.

Nationalism

A political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a nation. Varieties include civic nationalism, fascism, ethnocentrism, national purity, left-wing nationalism, territorial nationalism, pan-nationalism, proto-nationalism, ultra-nationalism, and anti-colonial nationalism. Examples: Hugo Chavez (Venezuela) and Nelson Mandela (South Africa)

Liberalism

A political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties.

The Republic

A political order in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who are entitled to vote for officers and representatives responsible to them

Boston Tea Party (1773)

A political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, a city in the British colony of Massachusetts, against the tax policy of the British government and the East India Company that controlled all the tea imported into the colonies. On December 16, 1773, after officials in Boston refused to return three shiploads of taxed tea to Britain, a group of colonists boarded the ships and destroyed the tea by throwing it into Boston Harbor.

Chinese Revolution

A political revolution in China led by Mao Zedong. The struggle between Nationalists and Communists forces in China began in the 1920's; After several years of fighting the Kuomintang, it ended in 1949 with a Communist victory

Fascism

A political system headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and has no tolerance for opposition

Constrictive Pyramid

A population pyramid showing lower numbers or percentages of younger people. The country will have a greying population which means that people are generally older.

The Virginia Plan

A proposal drafted by James Madison with a legislative branch consisting of two chambers (bicameral legislature), with the dual principles of rotation in office and recall applied to the lower house of the national legislature. Each of the states would be represented in proportion to their "Quotas of contribution, or to the number of free inhabitants." States with a large population, like Virginia (which was the most populous state at the time), would thus have more representatives than smaller states. Large states supported this plan, and smaller states generally opposed it.

The New Jersey Plan

A proposal for the structure of the United States Government presented by William Paterson at the Constitutional Convention on June 15, 1787 which would have kept the one-vote-per-state representation under one legislative body from the Articles of Confederation.

Fundamentalism

A protestant movement; they believe that every word of the Bible should be regarded as literally true

Fascism

A radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology which seeks elevation of the nation based on commitment to an organic national community where its individuals are united together as one people in national identity. It is united by supra-personal connections of ancestry and culture through a totalitarian state that seeks the mass mobilization of a nation through discipline, indoctrination, physical training, and eugenics. The policy seeks to eradicate perceived foreign influences that are deemed to be causing degeneration of the nation or of not fitting into the national culture. Examples: Hitler (Germany) and Mussolini (Italy)

Cultural Revolution

A radical sociopolitical movement in China c1966-71, led by Mao Zedong and characterized by military rule, terrorism, purges, restructuring of the educational system, etc.

Dissociative Identity Disorder

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities; also called multiple personality disorder.

"Wealth of Nations" (1776)

A reflection on economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and argues that free market economies are more productive and beneficial to their societies. The book is a fundamental work in classical economics.

Money Demand

A relationship between the interest rate and the quantity of money that people are willing to hold at any given interest rate.

Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. Beginning in 1517, Martin Luther challenged some of the basic practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church, gave the English people religious motives for colonization in the Americas.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. The translation of the Bible into vernacular languages was part of its endeavor.

Correlational Research

A research strategy that identifies the relationships between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables change together. One advantage is that it helps psychologists make predictions.

Non-Renewable Resource

A resource that cannot be reused or replaced easily (ex. gems, iron, copper, fossil fuels)

Niger River

A river flowing from western Africa into the Gulf of Guinea

Congo River

A river in Central Africa that flows into the Atlantic Ocean

Indus River

A river in South Asia that flows from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea, primarily in Pakistan, Fertile Crescent.

Euphrates River

A river in southwestern Asia that flows through the southern part of the Fertile Crescent, a river running through Sumer, Mesopotamia, provided resources for the Mesopotamians.

Ganges River

A river of South Asia that flows southeast from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal., India's most important river, flows across northern India into Bangladesh, Hindus sacred river, they believe it is the "liquid form of God".

Aegean Sea

A sea that separates Greece from Asia Minor

Nullification Crisis (1828-1833)

A sectional crisis during the presidency of Andrew Jackson created by South Carolina's 1832 Ordinance of Nullification. This ordinance declared by the power of the State that the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and therefore null and void within the sovereign boundaries of South Carolina. Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832. This compromise tariff received the support of most northerners and half of the southerners in Congress. The reductions were too little for South Carolina, and in November 1832 a state convention declared that the tariffs of both 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina after February 1, 1833. Military preparations to resist anticipated federal enforcement were initiated by the state. In late February both a Force Bill, authorizing the President to use military forces against South Carolina, and a new negotiated tariff satisfactory to South Carolina were passed by Congress. The South Carolina convention reconvened and repealed its Nullification Ordinance on March 11, 1833.

"The Federalist Papers" (1787-1788 essays)

A series of 85 articles or essays promoting the ratification of the United States Constitution written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The authors of The Federalist Papers wanted to influence the vote in favor of ratifying the Constitution. The authors used the pseudonym "Publius", in honor of Roman consul Publius Valerius Publicola.

Crusades

A series of military expeditions in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries by Western European Christians to reclaim control of the Holy Lands from the Muslims. A result were new products and technologies brought back to Europe.

Networks

A set of informal and formal social ties that links people to each other.

Autocracy

A system of government in which a supreme political power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control. Examples: Fidel Castro (Cuba) and Kim Jong Il (N. Korea)

Federalism

A system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called a federation. Examples: United States, Austria, and Belgium

Radar and WWII

A system that uses reflected radio waves to detect objects and measure their distance and speed. It was used to detect incoming aircraft in World War Two.

Whiskey Rebellion (1791-1794)

A tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791, during the presidency of George Washington. Farmers who sold their grain in the form of whiskey had to pay a new tax which they strongly resented. The tax was a part of treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton's program to pay off the national debt. On the western frontier, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the tax. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway. The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party, which opposed Hamilton's Federalist Party, came to power in 1800.

Serial-Position Effect

A term coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus, refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best (the regency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).

Proletariat

A term used to identify a lower social class, usually the working class; a member of such a class is proletarian. Originally it was identified as those people who had no wealth other than their children.

Yukon

A territory in northwestern Canada

Choropleth Map

A thematic map that uses tones or colors to represent data as average values per unit area; Makes quantity distinctions between items through color; Example: Number of hospital beds per 1,000 people by county in a state.

Jay's Treaty (1794)

A treaty between the United States and Great Britain that is credited with averting war, resolving issues remaining since the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which ended the American Revolution, and facilitating ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain in the midst of the French Revolution.

Pinckney's Treaty (1795)

A treaty which was signed in San Lorenzo de El Escorial on October 27, 1795 and established intentions of friendship between the United States and Spain. It also defined the boundaries of the United States with the Spanish colonies and guaranteed the United States navigation rights on the Mississippi River.

Expansive Pyramid

A triangular population pyramid that is broadest at the base, with each successive cohort smaller than the one below it. The pyramid shows that the population consists disproportionately of young people.

Athenian democracy

A type of government used in Athens which is sort of a combine of majority rule and democracy. It remains a unique and intriguing experiment in direct democracy where the people do not elect representatives to vote on their behalf but vote on legislation and executive bills in their own right. Greek democracy created at Athens was a direct, not a representative democracy: any adult male citizen of age could take part, and it was a duty to do so.

Thematic Map

A type of map that displays one or more variables-such as population, or income level-within a specific area., shows climate, vegetation, natural resources, population density, economic activity, historical trends, movement, etc...

Representative Democracy

A variety of democracy founded on the principle of elected people representing a group of people. Examples: Germany, the United States, and the United Kingdom

Berlin Wall

A wall separating East and West Berlin built by East Germany in 1961 to keep citizens from escaping to the West

Peloponnesian War

A war fought between Athens and Sparta; won by Sparta because it was able to cut off Athens' grain supply.

Pontiac's War (1763)

A war that was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of elements of Native American tribes primarily from the Great Lakes region, the Illinois Country, and Ohio Country who were dissatisfied with British postwar policies in the Great Lakes region after the British victory in the French and Indian War (1754-1763). Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region. The war is named after the Ottawa leader Pontiac, the most prominent of many native leaders in the conflict.

Gulf Stream

A warm ocean current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico northward through the Atlantic Ocean

Erie Canal

A waterway in New York that travels about 363 miles from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of approximately 565 ft. First proposed in 1807, it was under construction from 1817 to 1825 and officially opened on October 26, 1825.

Protectionist Policy

A way to "protect" or insulate a domestic industry from competition by foreign producers of the same good. Import tariff allows domestic producers to both capture a larger share of the domestic market and charge a higher price than would otherwise be possible

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)

Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty or the Purchase of Florida, was a treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 that gave Florida to the U.S. and set out a boundary between the U.S. and New Spain (now Mexico). It settled a standing border dispute between the two countries and was considered a triumph of American diplomacy.

De-individualism

Abandoning normal restraints to the power of the group, doing together what we would not do alone

Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258)

Abu al-Abbas overthrew Umayyad in 750AD (Shi'ia); Moved capital to Baghdad; Increased Persian influence; Became center of enormous trade empire; Harun Al-Rashid. Golden age of Islamic learning; Began breaking away over time

Suez Crisis, 1956

Also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, was a military attack on Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel beginning on 29 October 1956. A consequence from this crisis was that president Nasser of Egypt gained prestige as the leader of Arab opposition to Western Colonialism.

Conformity

Acting according to certain accepted standards, adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Sedition Act of 1918

Added to Espionage Act to cover "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the American form of government, the Constitution, the flag, or the armed forces.

Mathematics

Adopted numerical system of India. Adopted use of 0; Invented Algebra

United States Constitution (1789)

Adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and ratified by conventions in eleven states. It went into effect on March 4, 1789. The first ten constitutional amendments ratified by three-fourths of the states in 1791 are known as the Bill of Rights. The Constitution has been amended seventeen additional times (for a total of 27 amendments) and its principles are applied in courts of law by judicial review.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

Affirmed the 1st amendment guarantee of a free press and limited "prior restraint" of the press

Marcus Garvey

African American leader during the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. He was deported to Jamaica in 1927.

Malcom X

African-American civil rights leader who encouraged violent responses to racial discrimination

Return to Normalcy

After World War I (1919-20's); Harding was President, the US and Britain returned to isolationism. The US economy "boomed", but Europe continued to struggle. It was the calm before the bigger storm hit: World War II

Atlantic Charter

Agreement signed by President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1941 outlining the two nations' war aims

Geneva Accords

Agreement that divided Vietnam into North and South

AAA

Agricultural Adjustment Administration, it paid farmers to reduce their output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice tobacco, wheat, and other commodities, the money for these subsidies came from taxes levied on food processors, including canners, flour millers, and meat packers

Implicit Costs

All the firm's opportunity costs of the resources supplied by the firm's owners for which the owners do not make an explicit charge

Total Product

All the goods and services produced by a business during a given period of time with a given amount of input

5th Article

Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are appointed by state legislatures. Also, individuals may not serve more than three out of any six years.

Boston Massacre (1770)

Also called the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5, 1770, in which British Army soldiers killed five civilian men and injured six others. British troops had been stationed in Boston, capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, since 1768 in order to protect and support crown-appointed colonial officials attempting to enforce unpopular Parliamentary legislation. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and harassment. He was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and thrown objects. They fired into the crowd, without orders, instantly killing three people and wounding others. Two more people died later of wounds sustained in the incident.

Mixed government

Also known as a mixed constitution is a form of government that integrated facets of government by democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy. It means there are some issues (often defined in a constitution) where the state is governed by the majority of the people, in some other issues the state is governed by few, in some other issues by a single person (also often defined in a constitution). The idea is commonly treated as an antecedent of separation of powers.

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806)

Also known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition (1804-1806), was the first transcontinental expedition to the Pacific coast undertaken by the United States. Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, it was led by two Virginia-born veterans of Indian wars in the Ohio Valley, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Their objectives were both scientific and commercial - to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to learn how the region could be exploited economically.

Texas Revolution (1835-1836)

Also known as the Texas War of Independence, was the military conflict between the government of Mexico and Texas colonists that began 2 October 1835 and resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Texas after the final battle on April 21, 1836.

Article V

Amendment Process

Loyalists

American colonists who remained loyal to the Kingdom of Great Britain (and the British monarchy) during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men. They were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution.

Containment

American policy of resisting further expansion of communism around the world

Declaratory Act (1766)

An Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, which accompanied the repeal of the Stamp Act 1765. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act because boycotts were hurting British trade and used the declaration to justify the repeal and save face. The declaration stated that Parliament's authority was the same in America as in Britain and asserted Parliament's authority to pass laws that were binding on the American colonies.

Robert Fulton (1765-1815)

An American engineer and inventor who is widely credited with developing the first commercially successful steamboat.

Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884)

An American inventor and founder of the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, which became part of International Harvester Company in 1902. Although he is credited as the "inventor" of the mechanical reaper, he based his work on that of many others, including Scottish and American men, more than two decades of work by his father, and the aid of Jo Anderson, a slave held by his family. Cyrus McCormick filed patents for the invention in 1834, and his achievements were chiefly in the development of a company, marketing and sales force to market his products.

Eli Whitney (1765-1825)

An American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin in 1794.

Edward R. Murrow

An American journalist who criticized McCarthyism and helped bring about the eventual censure of Joseph McCarthy by the U.S. government.

James Madison (1751-1836)

An American statesman and political theorist, the fourth President of the United States (1809-1817). He is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for being instrumental in the drafting of the United States Constitution and as the key champion and author of the United States Bill of Rights.

Nunavut

An Arctic territory in northern Canada created in 1999 and governed solely by the Inuit

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

An English-American political activist, author, political theorist and revolutionary. As the author of two highly influential pamphlets at the start of the American Revolution, he became one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. His ideas reflected Enlightenment era rhetoric of transnational human rights. He has been called "a corset maker by trade, a journalist by profession, and a propagandist by inclination." Paine lived in France for most of the 1790s, becoming deeply involved in the French Revolution. He wrote the Rights of Man (1791), in part a defense of the French Revolution against its critics. He became notorious because of The Age of Reason (1793-94), his book that advocates deism, promotes reason and freethinking, and argues against institutionalized religion in general and Christian doctrine in particular.

"The Liberator"

An abolitionist newspaper founded by William Lloyd Garrison in 1831. Garrison published weekly issues of The Liberator from Boston continuously for 35 years, from January 1, 1831, to the final issue of January 1, 1866. Although its circulation was only about 3,000, and three-quarters of subscribers were African Americans in 1834, the newspaper earned nationwide notoriety for its uncompromising advocacy of "immediate and complete emancipation of all slaves" in the United States.

Quartering Act (1765)

An act that provided that Great Britain would house its soldiers in American barracks and public houses, as by the Mutiny Act of 1765, but if its soldiers outnumbered the housing available, would quarter them "in inns, livery stables, ale houses, victualing houses, and the houses of sellers of wine and houses of persons selling of rum, brandy, strong water, cider or metheglin", and if numbers required in "uninhabited houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings." Colonial authorities were required to pay the cost of housing and feeding these troops.

Kellogg Briand Pact

An agreement between 15 nations outlawing war; eventually 48 other nations joined the pact; had no way of enforcing peace

Missouri Compromise (1820)

An agreement passed in 1820 between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States Congress, involving primarily the regulation of slavery in the western territories. It prohibited slavery in the former Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north except within the boundaries of the proposed state of Missouri.

The Connecticut Compromise

An agreement that large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have under the United States Constitution. It retained the bicameral legislature as proposed by James Madison, along with proportional representation in the lower house, but required the upper house to be weighted equally between the states.

Animal husbandry

An agricultural activity associated with the raising of domesticated animals, such as cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.

Ancient Pueblo

An ancient Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the United States, comprising southern Utah, northern Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and southern Colorado. They lived in a range of structures, including pit houses, cliff dwellings, and pueblos, designed so that they could lift entry ladders during enemy attacks, which provided security.

Macedonia

An ancient kingdom ruled by Alexander the Great that conquered most of Greece and the Persian Empire in the 300s B.C.

International Date Line

An arc that for the most part follows 180° longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross this heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day.

Inflation

An increase in the overall level of prices in the economy

Mexican-American War (1846-1848)

An armed conflict between the United States of America and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution. Combat operations lasted a year and a half, from spring 1846 to fall 1847. American forces quickly occupied New Mexico and California, then invaded parts of Northeastern Mexico and Northwest Mexico; meanwhile, the Pacific Squadron conducted a blockade, and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast further south in Baja California. Another American army captured Mexico City, and the war ended in victory of the U.S. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo specified the major consequence of the war: the forced Mexican Cession of the territories of Alta California and New Mexico to the U.S. in exchange for $18 million. In addition, the United States forgave debt owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico accepted the loss of Texas and thereafter cited the Rio Grande as its national border.

Hinduism

An eastern religion which evolved from an ancient Aryan religion in which followers strive to free their soul from reincarnation until the soul is finally freed. This religion is practiced primarily in India.

European Union

An economic and political union between 27 member countries, located primarily in Europe. Committed to regional integration, it has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all member states, ensuring the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital. It maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development.

Diseconomies of Scale

An economic concept referring to a situation in which economies of scale no longer function for a firm. Rather than experiencing continued decreasing costs per increase in output, firms see an increase in marginal cost when output is increased.

Laissez Faire Policy

An economic environment in which transactions between private parties are free from tariffs, government subsidies, and enforced monopolies, with only enough government regulations sufficient to protect property rights against theft and aggression. The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let [them] do", but it broadly implies "let it be," "let them do as they will," or "leave it alone." Scholars generally believe a laissez-faire state or a completely free market has never existed.

Perestroika

An economic policy adopted in the former Soviet Union, a policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society.

Socialism

An economic system characterized by social ownership and cooperative management of the means of production, and a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to cooperative enterprises, common ownership, direct public ownership or autonomous state enterprises. There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. They differ in the type of social ownership they advocate, the degree to which they rely on markets versus planning, how management is to be organized within economic enterprises, and the role of the state in constructing socialism. This economic system would consist of an organization of production to directly satisfy economic demands and human needs, so that goods and services would be produced directly for use instead of for private profit driven by the accumulation of capital, and accounting would be based on physical quantities, a common physical magnitude, or a direct measure of labor-time. Distribution of output would be based on the principle of individual contribution.

Mixed Economic System

An economic system in which both the state and private sector direct the economy, reflecting characteristics of both market economies and planned economies; Most can be described as market economies with strong regulatory oversight, in addition to having a variety of government-sponsored aspects.

Capitalism

An economic system that is based on private ownership of the means of production and the creation of goods or services for profit. Competitive markets, wage labor, capital accumulation, voluntary exchange, and personal finance are also considered capitalistic. Competitive markets, capital accumulation, voluntary exchange, and personal finance may be parts of capitalism, however in practice there are never pure capitalist economies. Often, other non-capitalist systems such as market socialism and worker cooperatives retain aspects of capitalism. There are multiple variants of capitalism, including laissez-faire and state capitalism. Capitalism is considered to have been applied in a variety of historical cases, varying in time, geography, politics, and culture. There is general agreement that capitalism became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism.

Council of Trent

An ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church convened in Trento in three sessions between 1545 and 1563 in response to the Reformation

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

An explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Republic of Genoa, in what is today northwestern Italy. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents.

Biases

An inclination for or against a person, place, idea or thing that inhibits impartial judgment., a prejudice towards one particular point of view or ideology.

Expansionary Fiscal Policy

An increase in government purchases of goods and services, a decrease in net taxes, or some combination of the two for the purpose of increasing aggregate demand and expanding real output

Global Warming

An increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)

Berlin Blockade

April 1, 1948 - Russia under Stalin blockaded Berlin completely in the hopes that the West would give the entire city to the Soviets to administer. To bring in food and supplies, the U.S. and Great Britain mounted air lifts which became so intense that, at their height, an airplane was landing in West Berlin every few minutes. West Germany was a republic under France, the U.S. and Great Britain. Berlin was located entirely within Soviet-controlled East Germany.

Trade Standards

Are laws or regulations establishing health and safety standards for imported goods, frequently much stricter than those applied to domestically produced goods.

Price Ceilings

Are maximum prices set by the government for particular goods and services that they believe are being sold at too high of a price and thus consumers need some help purchasing them.

Price Floor

Are minimum prices set by the government for certain commodities and services that it believes are being sold in an unfair market, with too low of a price and thus their producers deserve some assistance.

Group Norms

Are rules that are designed to govern the behavior of the members; Are intended to integrate the actions of the group members; Are to reflect the appropriate behavior, attitudes, and perceptions of the members; "Conformity and compliance are two intended purposes of instituting this in groups; guidelines that regulate how members act as well as how they interact with each other.

Samuel Adams (1722-1803)

As an influential official of the Massachusetts House of Representatives and the Boston Town Meeting in the 1760s, he was a part of a movement opposed to the British Parliament's efforts to tax the British American colonies without their consent. His 1768 circular letter calling for colonial cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, eventually resulting in the Boston Massacre of 1770. After Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, he attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which was convened to coordinate a colonial response. He helped guide Congress towards issuing the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and helped draft the Articles of Confederation and the Massachusetts Constitution. He returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor.

Settled Agriculture

As opposed to slash-and-burn varieties, usually implied some forms of property so that land could be identified as belonging to a family, a village, or a landlord. Only with property was there incentive to introduce improvements, such as wells or irrigation measures, that could be monopolized by those who created them or left to their heirs.

2nd Article

Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government, i.e. "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated."

Pericles

Athenian statesman whose leadership contributed to Athens's political and cultural supremacy in Greece. He was a prominent and influential statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the city's Golden Age—specifically, the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. Also, he led Athens in the war against Sparta.

Miller v. California (1973)

Attempted to clarify 1st amendment rights by defining obscenity

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis, 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms, psychoanalysis, transference.

Battles of Saratoga (1777)

Battles which conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American War of Independence and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war. The battles were fought eighteen days apart on the same ground, 9 miles south of Saratoga, New York. News of Burgoyne's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally. Formal participation by France changed the war to a global conflict. This battle also resulted in Spain contributing to the war on the American side.

Perception

Becoming aware of something via the senses

Interstate Highway System

Began during the Eisenhower Administration with the Interstate Highway Act of 1956, it was a $27 billion plan to build forty-two thousand miles of sleek, fast motorways.

California Gold Rush

Began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. The first to hear confirmed information of the Gold Rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), and Latin America, who were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848. All told, the news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad.

The 5 Pillars of Islam

Belief, Prayer, Charity, Fasting, Pilgrimage

Ideals

Beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something), a principle or a way of behaving that is of a very high standard.

Values

Beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something).

14th Amendment

Blacks got citizenship (1868)

15th Amendment

Blacks got the right to vote (1870)

Art and Architecture

Blend or Arab, Persian, and Turkish tradition; Seen in mosques geometric patterns, vibrant colors, use of Arabic, vine leaf art

"A Century of Dishonor"

Book by Helen Hunt Jackson that chronicles the experiences of Native Americans in the U.S. focusing on examples of injustices.

Nelson Mandela

Born 1918. He was the 11th President of South Africa. He spent 27 years in prison after conviction of charges while he helped spearhead the struggle against apartheid. He received Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.

Watergate

Break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate building in 1972 that resulted in a cover-up and the subsequent resignation of Nixon

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Broadened the definition of commerce and established that a state cannot interfere with Congress's right to regulate interstate commerce.

Minoan Age

Bronze Age civilization, centering on the island of Crete. Built huge palaces, writing, artisans, traded w/Egypt, Phoenicia and Mesopotamia

Helladic Period

Bronze Age in Greece, started around 2800 BC and lasted till 1050 BC in Crete while in the Aegean islands it started in 3000 BC. The economy of the villages depended on production of tools, weapons, agriculture and art and architecture. The need for more metals and goods lead to introduction of different colonies and barter creating set-up for trade.

4th Article

But to instill a national feeling, "[t]he better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," it establishes equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which he travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.

The Black Death

By 1348, this disease ravaged from Italy, Spain, and France to the rest of Europe; transmitted by fleas on rats; considered an epidemic; one in three people died; spread from Asia to middle east; people turned to witchcraft for cures; some beat themselves because they considered the disease God's punishment; Christians blamed Jews; production declined; higher wages; inflation

Kush (1000bc)

Called Nubia, ruled by Egypt. freed itself and became Kush. Major trading states (Gold, ebony, iron, and slaves to Roman Empire, India, Arabia); Declined when Axum rose

Bank Holiday

Called by President Roosevelt in order to stop massive withdrawals by closing every bank for a few days

Muhammad

Caravan manager in Mecca; received revelations from God while meditating

Ottoman Empire

Centered in Constantinople, the Turkish imperial state that conquered large amounts of land in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans, and fell after World War I.

Kaaba

Central shrine in Mecca. Holds the black stone

Aztec

Certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to 16th centuries.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Christian followers in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire); split from Roman Catholic Church and shaped life in eastern Europe and western Asia.

Population Push Movement

Circumstances or factors encouraging a person to leave their country or region. For example: War or other armed conflict, Famine or drought, Disease.

Alexandria

City in Egypt founded by Alexander the Great, center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization.

Carthage

City located in present-day Tunisia, founded by Phoenicians ca. 800 B.C.E. It became a major commercial center and naval power in the western Mediterranean until defeated by Rome in the third century B.C.E.

CCC

Civilian Conservation Corps; aided many unemployed young man between the ages of 18 and 25; they planted millions of trees, mostly in the South and the Southwest, CCC employed more than 2.5 million young men

Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health (1990)

Clarified the need to have "clear and convincing" evidence that an individual would have wanted to die before intravenous feeding could be terminated

Counterculture

Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society

Crimean War

Conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires. To prevent Russian expansion, Britain and France sent troops to support the Ottomans. The war arose from the conflict of Russian demands to exercise protection over the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan.

CIO

Congress of Industrial Organizations, tried to unite workers in various industries

Slash-and-burn agriculture

Consists of cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock, or for a variety of other purposes. It is sometimes part of shifting cultivation agriculture, and of transhumance livestock herding.

Equal Rights Amendment

Constitutional amendment passed by Congress but was never ratified by the states that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender

Hippocrates

Contributed to the knowledge of the ancient Greeks by proposing new methods for treating diseases.

Opportunity Cost

Cost of the next best alternative use of money, time, or resources when one choice is made rather than another, the most desirable alternative given up as the result of a decision

Fixed Costs

Costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced

Variable Costs

Costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced

Sensitive Development Period

Critical Period in development is a period of time which an organism typically needs to be exposed to a particular stimulus in order for proper development to occur.

Fidel Castro

Cuban socialist leader who overthrew a dictator in 1959 and established a Marxist socialist state in Cuba (born in 1927)

Derived Demand

Demand for business or organizational products (tires) caused by demand for consumer goods of services (autos)

Infant Industries

Developing industries that require protection to get started.

Erik Erickson

Developmental Psychology: Psychosocial stage theory of development (eight stages)

17th Amendment

Direct election of US senators (1913)

Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983)

Disallowed the legislative veto

Longitude

Distance east or west on the earth's surface, measured in degrees from a certain meridian (line from the North to the South Pole).

Latitude

Distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees. Has the greatest influence on climate.

Identity Crisis

Distress and disorientation (especially in adolescence) resulting from conflicting pressures and uncertainty about and one's self and one's role in society.

Equal Rights Amendment

Divisions in the women's movement emerged in the debate over the amendment

Philosophes

French thinkers who popularized Enlightenment ideas through their writings were known as this. Social critics of the eighteenth century who subjected social institutions and practices to the test of reason.

The factory system

Each worker created a separate part of the total assembly of a product, thus increasing the efficiency of factories. Factories spread wildly as well in the 1820s. Many of these factories were also built alongside water to take advantage of water power. Many also had massive smokestacks. Factories polluted both water and air.

Bantu Peoples

East Africa. Family of languages began to move from Niger into East Africa. Spread Iron smelting techniques

"Trickle-Down" Economics

Economic policies should benefit big business; the money will trickle down to the lower classes

Fatimid Dynasty (973)

Egypt, N. Africa; Group of Sunni's broke away from Abbasid. Center of Islamic civilization; Major role in trade; Created strong army by hiring non-native soldiers

Massive Retaliation

Eisenhower's policy; it advocated the full use of American nuclear weapons to counteract even a Soviet ground attack in Europe

Guild System

Eliminated competition, set regulations for size, price, standard, etc...and created a training program for people to become members (apprentice, journey man, master).

Constantine

Emperor of Rome who adopted the Christian faith and stopped the persecution of Christians (280-337). Roman Emperor who founded Constantinople as the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire; reunited the Roman Empire

13th Amendment

Ended slavery (1865)

Laws

Enforceable rules of conduct in a society.

Thucydides

Greek historian. Considered the greatest historian of antiquity, he wrote a critical history of the Peloponnesian War that contains the funeral oration of Pericles

National Organization for Women

Founded in 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) called for equal employment opportunity and equal pay for women; NOW also championed the legalization of abortion and the passage of an equal rights amendment to the Constitution.

Labor Demand

The relationship between the quantity of labor demanded by firms and the wage.

Vladimir Lenin

Founded the Communist Party in Russia and set up the world's first Communist Party dictatorship. He led the October Revolution of 1917, in which the Communists seized power in Russia. He then ruled the country until his death in 1924.

Kwame Nkrumah

Founder of Ghana's independence movement and Ghana's first president

EEOC

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Identity Formation

Erikson; stage of adolescence where teens are to develop a stable sense of self necessary to make the transition from dependence on other to dependence on oneself

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1986)

Established a "reasonable suspicion" rule for school searches

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Established a woman's legal right to an abortion under certain circumstances

Mali (1200s)

Established by Sundiata Keita; Defeated Ghanaians; United people of Mali; Strong capitol. Wealth of salt and gold; Mansa Munsa- Powerful king who doubled size of kingdom; Made Timbuktu a center of Islamic learning and culture

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

Established that states may regulate privately owned businesses in the public's interest

Gregg v. Georgia (1976)

Established that the death penalty does not necessarily violate the Constitution

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established the power of the Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress or of the executive branch unconstitutional (judicial review)

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Established the precedent by which the federal government would be sovereign and expand westward across North America with the admission of new states, rather than with the expansion of existing states and their established sovereignty under the Articles of Confederation. The prohibition of slavery in the territory had the practical effect of establishing the Ohio River as the boundary between free and slave territory in the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. This division helped set the stage for national competition over admitting free and slave states, the basis of a critical question in American politics in the 19th century until the Civil War.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established the principle of "one person, one vote" and made such patterns of representation illegal. The Court asserted that the federal courts had the right to tell states to reapportion their districts for more equal representation.

1st Article

Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The Style of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'"

Axum

Ethiopia; Founded by Arabs; Positioned on Red Sea trade route. Competed with Kush for control of Ivory trade; King Enzana conquered Kush. Made Christianity official religion; Islam rose from Arabian peninsulas by 641 and took control of Egypt. Eventually fought Axum over control of trade

Voltaire

French, perhaps greatest Enlightenment thinker. He was a Deist. Mixed glorification and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. He wrote Candide. Believed enlightened despot best form of government.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Held that defendants have the right to be represented by counsel in state trails and that lawyers must be provided to defendants who cannot afford to pay for them.

Engle v. Vitale (1962)

Held that public schools cannot require students to say prayers

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

Four bills passed in 1798 by the Federalists in the 5th United States Congress in the aftermath of the French Revolution and during an undeclared naval war with Britain and France, later known as the Quasi-War. They were signed into law by President John Adams. The acts were thus meant to guard against this real threat of anarchy. Democratic-Republicans denounced them, though they did use them after the 1800 election against Federalists. They became a major political issue in the elections of 1798 and 1800. They were very controversial in their own day, as they remain to the present day. Opposition to them resulted in the highly controversial Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, authored by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson.

1st Amendment

Freedom of press, religion, and speech (1791)

Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

Held that the Constitution protects private charters

Humanists

European scholars, writers, and teachers associated with the study of the humanities (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, languages, and moral philosophy), influential in the fifteenth century and later. Explored human endeavors in their art, literature, and poetry.

Equilibrium Exchange Rate

Exchange rate at which demand for a currency is equal to the supply of the currency in the economy.

Monopoly

Exclusive control of a commodity or service in a particular market, or a control that makes possible the manipulation of prices

Article II

Executive Branch - Presidency

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Expanded Congress's ability to use its implied powers

Katz v. United States (1967)

Expanded the 4th amendment protection against illegal searches to cover electronic surveillance

8th Article

Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each.

Scopes Trial

Exposed a deep division in American society between traditional religious values and new values based on scientific ways of thought, specifically the teaching of evolutionary theory in schools

Good Neighbor Policy

FDR's foreign policy of promoting better relations w/Latin America by using economic influence rather than military force in the region

6th Amendment

Fair and speedy trial (1791)

Sedentary Agriculture

Farming system in which the farmer remains settled in one place

Nomadic pastoralism

Farming system where animals (cattle, goats, camels) are taken to different locations in order to find fresh pastures.

Shifting cultivation

Farming system where farmers move on from one place to another when the land becomes exhausted. The most common form is slash-and-burn agriculture: land is cleared by burning, so that crops can be grown. Slash-and-burn is practiced in many tropical forest areas, such as the Amazon region, where yams, cassava, and sweet potatoes can be grown

Yalta Conference

February 4-11, 1945 wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, for the purpose of discussing Europe&#039;s postwar reorganization. Mainly, it was intended to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe and established new boundaries for Poland.

FDIC

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, this organization insured each bank deposit up to $100,000

Expansionary Monetary Policy

Federal Reserve system actions to increase the money supply, lower interest rates, and expand real GDP; an easy money policy.

Palmer Raids

Federal officials arrested thousands of suspected radicals in 33 cities nationwide

W.E.B. DuBois

First black to earn Ph.D. from Harvard, encouraged blacks to resist systems of segregation and discrimination, helped create NAACP in 1910.

Truman Doctrine

First established in 1947 after Britain no longer could afford to provide anti-communist aid to Greece and Turkey, it pledged to provide U.S. military and economic aid to any nation threatened by communism.

Kingdom of Ghana

First of the great medieval trading empires of western Africa (7th - 13th century). Located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and part of Mali, it acted as intermediary between Arab and Berber salt traders to the north and gold and ivory producers to the south.

Arab Empire

Formed after Muhammad's death; known as Arabia; led by Abu Bakr (Sunni); Muslims expanded over Arabia and took control of Syria; Large dedicated army; prosperous; extensive trade

Social Security

Funds set aside by the Federal Government for retirement-age individuals

Gupta Empire

Golden Age of India; ruled through central government but allowed village power; restored Hinduism.

Subsidies

Government loans, grants, and tax deferments given to domestic companies to protect them from foreign competition.

Byzantine culture

Greco-Roman culture continued to flourish, language was Greek, Orthodox Christianity, Greek and Roman knowledge was preserved in libraries

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry.

Polis

Greek word for city-state. Is a city, a city-state and also citizenship and body of citizens. When used to describe Classical Athens and its contemporaries, it is often translated as "city-state."

Seljuk Turks (900-1055)

Group of Sunni's broke away from Central Asia; Nomads from Asia; Converted to Islam; Prospered as hired soldiers; Took over eastern Abbasid provinces; Captured/ held all power in Baghdad

Secondary Groups

Groups marked by impersonal, instrumental relationships (those existing as a means to an end)., groups that meet principally to solve problems

Subcultures

Groups that share in some parts of the dominant culture but have their own distinctive values, norms, language, and/or material culture.

Vedic

Having to do with or pertaining to the Vedas-the oldest scriptures in India and the world, passed through oral tradition.

Charlemagne

He attempted to unify his lands in Western Europe after his death in 814 C.E. because regional loyalties that outweighed allegiance to his son.

Julius Andrassy

He became Austria-Hungary's last imperial Foreign Minister, serving for just nine days before resigning on 1 November 1918. With war underway He came out in opposition to Foreign Minister Burian's initiatives in Italy and Poland.

John Adams (1735-1826)

He served two terms as George Washington's vice president and was elected in 1796 as the Second President of the U.S. During his one term, he encountered ferocious attacks by the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party led by his bitter enemy Alexander Hamilton. He signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army and navy especially in the face of an undeclared naval war (called the "Quasi-War") with France, 1798-1800. The major accomplishment of his presidency was his peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton's opposition.

Henry Knox (1750-1806)

He was President Washington's Secretary of War.

Frederick North, Lord North (1732-1792)

He was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence. He also held a number of other cabinet posts, including Home Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Henry Clay (1777-1852)

He was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives. He served three different terms as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and was also Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829. He was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Compromise of 1850.

Patton v. United States (1930)

Upheld the 6th amendment's requirements for a jury trial in federal courts

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

He was an American Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the third President of the United States (1801-1809). He oversaw the purchase of the vast Louisiana Territory from France (1803), and sent the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) to explore the new west. His second term was beset with troubles at home, such as the failed treason trial of his former Vice President Aaron Burr, and escalating trouble with Britain.

John Brown

He was an abolitionist who practiced armed insurrection as a mean to abolish slavery. He led the Pottawatomie Massacre, and tried in 1859 an attempt to start a liberation movement among enslaved African Americans in Harpers Ferry, VA.

Richard Nixon

He was elected President after Lyndon Johnson decided to not to run for US President again. He promised peace with honor in Vietnam, which meant withdrawing American soldiers from South Vietnam

James K. Polk (1795-1849)

He was the 11th President of the United States (1845-1849). A Democrat, he served as the 17th Speaker of the House of Representatives (1835-1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839-1841). Polk was the surprise (dark horse) candidate for president in 1844, defeating Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party by promising to annex Texas. He was a leader of Jacksonian Democracy during the Second Party System. He was the last strong pre-Civil War president, and he is the earliest of whom there are surviving photographs taken during a term in office. He promised to serve only one term and did not run for reelection. He died of cholera three months after his term ended. Scholars have ranked him favorably on the list of greatest presidents for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it. He has been called the "least known consequential president" of the United States.

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850)

He was the 12th President of the United States (1849-1850) and an American military leader. Initially uninterested in politics, he ran as a Whig in the 1848 presidential election, defeating Lewis Cass. He was a planter and slaveholder based in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Known as "Old Rough and Ready," he had a 40-year military career in the United States Army. As president, he angered many Southerners by taking a moderate stance on the issue of slavery. He urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850. He died July 9, 1850, 16 months after his inauguration; the third-shortest tenure of any President. He is thought to have died of gastroenteritis. He was succeeded by his Vice President, Millard Fillmore. Taylor was the last President to own slaves while in office. He was the second of three Whig presidents, the last being Fillmore. Taylor was also the second president to die in office, preceded by William Henry Harrison who died while serving as President nine years earlier, as well as the only President elected from Louisiana.

Abraham Lincoln

He was the 16th President of the United States, and was largely responsible for ending slavery and preserving the United States as one nation. He was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater on April 14, 1865 during a production of the popular play "Our American Cousin"

Robert Kennedy

He was the brother of John F Kennedy, and a Democrat who ran for president in 1968, promoting civil rights and other equality based ideals. He was assassinated in 1968, leaving Nixon to take the presidency but instilling hope in many Americans.

George Washington (1732-1799)

He was the commanding General during the American Revolution and the First President of the United States under the Constitution.

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862)

He was the eighth President of the United States (1837-1841). Before his presidency, he was the eighth Vice President (1833-1837) and the tenth Secretary of State, under Andrew Jackson (1829-1831). He was a key organizer of the Democratic Party, a dominant figure in the Second Party System, and the first president not of British or Irish descent—his family was Dutch. He was the first president to be born a United States citizen and the only president not to have spoken English as his first language, having grown up speaking Dutch, and the first president from New York.

James Monroe (1758-1831)

He was the fifth President of the United States (1817-1825). He was the last president who was a Founding Father of the United States, the third of them to die on Independence Day, and the last president from the Virginia dynasty and the Republican Generation. His presidency was marked both by an "Era of Good Feelings" - a period of relatively little partisan strife - and later by the Panic of 1819 and a fierce national debate over conditions of the admission of the Missouri Territory. Monroe is most noted for his foreign policy proclamation in the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further European intervention in the Americas.

Magellan

He was the first to prove that the new world really was a distinct landmass, separate from Asia. After sailing around the southern tip of South America he sailed westward across the Pacific and reached the Philippine Islands, claiming them for Spain; Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845)

He was the seventh President of the United States (1829-1837). Based in frontier Tennessee, he was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814), and the British at the Battle of New Orleans (1815). A polarizing figure who dominated the Second Party System in the 1820s and 1830s, as president he dismantled the Second Bank of the United States and initiated ethnic cleansing and forced relocation of Native American tribes from the Southeast to west of the Mississippi River. His enthusiastic followers created the modern Democratic Party. The 1830-1850 period later became known as the era of Jacksonian democracy. He was nicknamed "Old Hickory" because of his toughness and aggressive personality.

Martin Luther King Jr

He was the young minister that organized the Montgomery bus boycotts and later the SCLC. His "I have a dream speech" is one of the most famous speeches in American history. He was gunned down in 1968 in Memphis, TN.

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Held that 1st amendment rights to freedom of speech applied to states as well as the federal government

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

Held that colleges and universities may consider a person's race as one factor in admission policies

Alexander the Great

King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Persia, Egypt and the Indus Valley; spread Greek culture across three continents

King George III (1738-1820)

His life and reign, which were longer than those of any previous British monarch, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Last of the Mohicans (1826)

Historical novel by James Fenimore Cooper, first published in February 1826. The story takes place in 1757, during the French and Indian War (the Seven Years' War), when France and Great Britain battled for control of the North American colonies.

Humanistic Psychology

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth

Mecca

Holy City of Islam. Where Muhammad was born

Quran

Holy book of Islam. Written account of Muhammad's revelations

Muslim Philosophy

Ibn-Rushd- Added commentary to translations; Learned to make paper from China; Translated works into Arabic and Latin

Medicine

Ibn-Sina: Wrote medical encyclopedia; stressed contagious nature of disease

11th Article

If "Canada" (as the British-held Province of Quebec was also known) accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted.

Han dynasty

Imperial dynasty that ruled China (most of the time) from 206 BC to 221 and expanded its boundaries and developed its bureaucracy; was an age of economic prosperity, and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050-256 BCE).

Texas Annexation (1845)

In 1845, the United States of America annexed the Republic of Texas and admitted it to the Union as the 28th state. The U.S. thus inherited Texas's border dispute with Mexico; this quickly led to the Mexican-American War, during which the U.S. captured additional territory (known as the Mexican Cession of 1848), extending the nation's borders all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

The Great Leap Forward

In 1958 Zedong launched a program; he urged people to make a superhuman effort to increase farm and industrial output and created communes; Rural communes set up "backyard" industries to produce steel; this program failed b/c "backyards" produced low-quality, communes had slow food output, bad weather, and a famine. What is this program called?

Gilded Age

In American history, the Gilded Age refers to the era of rapid economic growth in the U.S. during the post-Civil War and post reconstruction era of the late 19th century.

The Korean War

In June 1950 the N. Korean army invaded S. Korea, quickly taking Seoul. The UN Security Council met in emergency session and declared the invasion an unwarranted aggression. After three years of fighting, the war ended in stalemate.

Bourgeoisie

In contemporary academic theories, the term usually refers to the ruling class in capitalist societies. In Marxist theory, the abiding characteristics of this class are their ownership of the means of production.

Neolithic Period

In the Middle East, the sedentary agriculture was based on barley, wheat, and pigs. New Stone Age (following the Mesolithic)

16th Amendment

Income tax established (1913)

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs. This technique is used to increase the frequency of behavior.

Thar Desert

India's longest desert that runs along India/Pakistan border

Proclamation of 1763

It issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britain's new North American empire and to stabilize relations with Native North Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier.

Demand Pull Inflation

Inflation resulting from an increase in aggregate demand. Increases in the following factors: money supply, government purchases, and price level in the rest of the world can impact this.

Folkways

Informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated without serious consequences within a particular culture, norms for routine or casual interaction.

League of Nations

International organization founded in 1919 to promote world peace and cooperation but greatly weakened by the refusal of the United States to join. It proved ineffectual in stopping aggression by Italy, Japan, and Germany in the 1930s.

United Nations

International organization founded in 1945 to promote world peace and cooperation. It replaced the League of Nations.

Teapot Dome Scandal

Investigators discovered that in the early months of the Harding administration, Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall had persuaded Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby to transfer control of naval oil reserves to is department

Capital Flows

Investment flows per period of time, into and out of a country. EX: Portfolio/FDI

Iranian Revolution 1979

Iran was an overly centralized royal power structure state, which was heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services. The revolution was in part a conservative backlash against the Westernizing and secularizing efforts of the Western-backed Shah

Jet Stream

Is a high-velocity wind in the lower levels of the atmosphere that attains speeds of over 250 miles per hour as it moves in a westerly direction, carrying weather patterns with it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

Strait of Bosporus

Is a strait that forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia.

Nomadic Herding

Is a way of life where families move along with their herds according to the seasons and rely on their animals for food, shelter and clothing. They can tend to cattle, camels, goats, horses, reindeer, or sheep.

The Silk Road

Is an extensive interconnected network of trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean world, as well as North and Northeast Africa and Europe. It spread Buddhism from India to China.

Culture Clash

Is experienced when an individual experiences conflict between the beliefs, values and expectations of their primary culture and a new culture in which they must function.

Human migration

Is physical movement by humans from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. The movement of populations in modern times has continued under the form of both voluntary migration within one's region, country, or beyond.

Trade Balance

Is the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports of output in an economy over a certain period. It is the relationship between a nation's imports and exports.

Growth Rate

Is the percentage increase or decrease of GDP from the previous measurement cycle. It is annualized so it can be compared to the previous year.

The Golden Age

Is the term used to denote the historical period in Classical Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars in 448 BCE to either the death of Pericles 429 BCE or the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE.

Frictional Unemployment

Is unemployment that comes from people moving between jobs, careers, and locations

American Revolutionary War

It began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United States of America, but gradually grew into a world war between Britain on one side and the United States, France, Netherlands and Spain on the other. The main result was an American victory, with mixed results for the other powers.

Cultural Anthropology

It is the branch of anthropology that examines culture as a meaningful scientific concept.

"Era of Good Feelings "

It marked a period in the political history of the United States that reflected a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity among Americans in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. The era saw a brief lull in the bitter partisan disputes that had plagued the Democratic-Republican and Federalist parties during the First Party System. President James Monroe endeavored to consolidate the Republican and Federalist parties through "amalgamation" with the ultimate goal of eliminating parties altogether from national politics. The period is so closely associated with Monroe's presidency (1817-1825) and his administrative goals that his name and the era are virtually synonymous.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

It signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830. The act authorized him to negotiate with the Indians in the Southern United States for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their homelands.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

It took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to address problems in governing the United States of America, which had been operating under the Articles of Confederation following independence from Great Britain. Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, it ended up creating a new government rather than fixing the existing one. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States.

Battle of New Orleans (1815)

It took place on January 8, 1815 and was the final major battle of the War of 1812. American forces, commanded by Major General Andrew Jackson, defeated an invading British Army intent on seizing New Orleans and the vast territory the United States had acquired with the Louisiana Purchase. The Treaty of Ghent, having been signed on December 24, 1814, was ratified by the Prince Regent on December 30 and the United States Senate on February 16, 1815. Hostilities continued until late February when official dispatches announcing the peace reached the combatants in Louisiana, finally putting an end to the war. The Battle of New Orleans is widely regarded as the greatest American land victory of the war.

Compromise of 1850

It was a package of five bills, passed in September 1850, which defused a four-year confrontation between the slave states of the South and the free states of the North regarding the status of territories acquired during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The compromise was drafted by Whig Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, and brokered by Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas, which avoided secession or civil war and reduced sectional conflict for four years. The Compromise was greeted with relief, although each side disliked specific provisions. Texas surrendered its claim to New Mexico. California's application for admission as a free state with its current boundaries was approved The New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory could in principle decide in the future to become slave states (popular sovereignty. The most concrete Southern gains were a stronger Fugitive Slave Act, the enforcement of which outraged Northern public opinion, and preservation of slavery in the national capital. The slave trade was banned in Washington D.C.

New Spain (1521-1821)

It was a viceroyalty of the crown of Castile, under Spanish empire, comprising territories in the north overseas 'Septentrion' (North America and Philippines). The Spanish governed and controlled New Spain from Mexico City, formerly conquered Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, and at its greatest extent included much of North America south of Canada: all of present-day Mexico and Central America (except Panama), most of the United States west of the Mississippi River, and Florida.

Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)

It was an agreement among the 13 founding states that established the United States of America as a confederation of sovereign states and served as its first constitution. Its drafting by the Continental Congress began in mid-1776, and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification in late 1777. The formal ratification by all 13 states was completed in early 1781. On March 4, 1789, the Articles were replaced with the U.S. Constitution.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

It was signed on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. It ended the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in the North American theatre.

Siege of Boston (Apr 1775- Mar 1776)

It was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within. After eleven months of siege, the American colonists, led by George Washington, forced the British to withdraw by sea.

Galileo

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars; demonstrated that different weights descend at the same rate; perfected the refracting telescope that enabled him to make many discoveries (1564-1642)

20th Amendment

Jan 20th is the beginning of the presidential term (1933)

Article III

Judiciary

D-day

June 6, 1944 - Led by Eisenhower, over a million troops (the largest invasion force in history) stormed the beaches at Normandy and began the process of re-taking France. It was the turning point of World War II.

Bay of Pigs

Landing area on Cuba's south coast where an American-organized invasion by Cuban exiles was defeated by Fidel Castro's government forces April 17-20, 1961

Black Sea

Large body of water separating Ukraine from Turkey

Marcus Aurelius

Last of the "Good Emperors", Wrote "Meditations" personal reflections of his beliefs, End of the Pax Romana

Mycenaean Age

Lasted from about 2000 B.C.E to the conquest of the Greek peninsula by invaders in the 1100s. Were bold traders and maintained contact with other countries from the Mediterranean and Europe. They were excellent engineers and built outstanding bridges, tombs, residences and palaces. Civilization is dedicated to King Agamemnon who led the Greeks in the Trojan War.

GI Bill of Rights

Law Passed in 1944 to help returning veterans buy homes and pay for higher education

Selective Service Act

Law passed by Congress in 1917 that required all men from ages 21 to 30 to register for the military draft

Attila

Leader of the Huns who put pressure on the Roman Empire's borders during the 5th century.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Sun Yat-Sen

Led a movement to create a united, democratic China free from foreign control.

The Warren Court

Led by Chief Justice Earl Warren that banned prayer in public schools and brought about change in federal and state reapportionment and the criminal justice system

Roman Empire's use of slavery in their economy

Led to a lack of innovation in manufacturing and agriculture.

Article VI

Legal Status of the Constitution

Equal Pay Act of 1963

Legislation that requires employers to pay men and women equal pay for equal work

Article I

Legislative Branch

Ex parte Milligan (1866)

Limited the President's power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus

United States v. Nixon (1974)

Limited the scope of a President's use of executive privilege

10th Amendment

Limits the government's power (1791)

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to 2 terms or 10 years (1951)

Blacklists

Lists preventing people suspected of communism from getting jobs and housing

Patagonia Desert

Located in Southern Argentina and is the largest desert in the Americas

Gobi Desert

Located in north central China; Second largest desert in the world; Extreme temperature. Very dry and infertile; sand is called loess

Mt. Kilimanjaro

Located on Great Rift Valley, Africa's tallest mountain, 19,341 ft. high

Yalta

Meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin to plan the post-war world

Social Cognition

Mental processes associated with people's perceptions of, and reactions to, other people.

Prime Meridian

Meridian at zero degree longitude from which east and west are reckoned (usually the Greenwich longitude in England)

Mesolithic Period

Middle part of the Stone Age beginning about 15,000 years ago

Consequences of WWII

Millions killed, US became world power, USSR now distrusted because of imperialist behavior, US helps reshape Japan, went from Isolationist to international, US established, Israel, decolonization and independence for many colonized countries

Population Pull Movement

Motives to migrate can be incentives attracting people away, for example: Higher incomes, lower taxes, better weather, and better availability of employment.

Hindu Kush

Mountain range in Central Asia. It meets the Karakoram and Himalaya from the West to complete a wall of mountains between the subcontinent and the rest of Asia.

Ural Mountains

Mountain range that divides Europe from Asia.

Zagros Mountains

Mountains on the western side of Iran help isolate that country from the rest of Southwest Asia. The birthplace of agriculture located in northeastern Iraq.

Urbanization

Movement of people from rural areas to cities. Refers to a process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities and the suburbs of cities. Historically, it has been closely connected with industrialization

26th Amendment

Must be 18 to vote (1971)

Strait of Gibraltar

Narrow waterway that separates Europe from Africa by 8 miles

NIRA

National Industrial Recovery Act, to stimulate industrial and business activity and reduce unemployment

NYA

National Youth Administration, provided high school and college-age Americans with part-time jobs that allowed them to stay in school

Balance of Payments Account

National account of international payments and receipts, divided into current account, and capital and financial account

New Left

New political movement of the late 1960s that called for radical changes to fight poverty and racism

3rd Amendment

No quartering of troops (1791)

24th Amendment

No tax on voting (1964)

4th Amendment

No unwarranted search and seizures (1791)

Huns

Nomadic people from Asia who attacked Europe in the 4th Century and then invaded the northwest part of India in the 5th Century.

Arabs

Nomads. Organized into tribes for survival on the Arabian Peninsula

3rd Article

Not being sovereign, it does not call the United States of America a "nation" or "government," but instead says, "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever."

Cost Push Inflation

Occurs when businesses respond to rising production costs, by raising prices in order to maintain their profit margins.

War on Poverty

President Lyndon B. Johnson's program in the 1960's to provide greater social services for the poor and elderly

Margin Buying

Partial financing by a costumer of the purchase of securities, with money borrowed from a broker, the maximum allowable limit for margin buying is 50 percent of the total purchase price. This practice led to the 1929 Stock Market Crash.

Progressive Era

Period of reform from 1890s-1920s. Opposed waste and corruption, while focusing on the general rights of the individual. Pushed for social justice, general equality, and public safety. Significant in this movement included trust-busting, Sherman Anti-trust Act, President Theodore Roosevelt, Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle", Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act of 1906.`

The Meiji Restoration

Period of time where the shoguns were abolished as military leaders of the government and all control was given to the government and Japan was modernized

Inca

Peru (primarily), Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, and Columbia 1438-1533; The largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. They used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.

Daoism

Philosophical system developed by of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu advocating a simple honest life and noninterference with the course of natural events

B.F. Skinner

Pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. He is famous for use of his operant conditioning apparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats., Studied observable behaviors rather than thought - reinforcement - rewarding good behavior.

Glasnost

Policy of openness initiated by Gorbachev in the 1980s that provided increased opportunities for freedom of speech, association and the press in the Soviet Union.

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center (1473-1543)

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798-1799)

Political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799, in which the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures took the position that the federal Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional. The resolutions argued that the states had the right and the duty to declare unconstitutional any acts of Congress that were not authorized by the Constitution. In doing so, they argued for states' rights and strict constructionism of the Constitution. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 were written secretly by Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, respectively.

Vasco Da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Jefferson Davis

President of the Confederacy during the Civil War

Diocletian

Roman emperor who was faced with military problems, when that happened he decided to divide the empire between himself in the east and Maximilian in the west. He led the last persecution of the Christians. Separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and re-organized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire.

Augustus

Roman statesman who established the Roman Empire and became emperor in 27 BC. First Roman Emperor

New Deal

Roosevelt called Congress into special session during the next 100 days Congress approved all 15 measures, which made up the heart of the president's New Deal program

Edwards v. South Carolina (1963)

Ruled that 14th amendment doesn't permit a state to prohibit the peaceful expression of unpopular views

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

Ruled that African Americans cannot be U.S. citizens and that Congress has no power to forbid slavery in U.S. territories

Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

Ruled that a state court's decision is subject to review by the U.S. Supreme Court

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

Ruled that a state law against flag burning was an unconstitutional limit on freedom of expression

Chaplisky v. New Hampshire (1942)

Ruled that insults and fighting words--like profanity and libel -- are not protected by the 1st amendment

Tinker v. Des Moines School District (1969)

Ruled that schools would need to show evidence of the possibility of substantial disruption before students' free speech at school could be limited

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Ruled that separate but equal facilities for African Americans are constitutional

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

Ruled that separation of the races in public schools is unconstitutional; reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson decision

Grisworld v. Connecticut (1965)

Ruled that the Constitution did guarantee certain zones of privacy

Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842)

Ruled that workers have the right to organize

Pachacuti

Ruler of Inca society from 1438 to 1471; launched a series of military campaigns that gave Incas control of the region from Cuzco to the shores of Lake Titicaca.

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members, shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations

Joseph Stalin

Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition

Anthropology

Scientific study of humankind in all its aspects, especially human evolution, development, and culture, studying the organs and development of people and their society.

Coral Sea

Sea containing the Great Barrier Reef & located off the northeastern coast of Australia.

Pentagon Papers

Secret government documents published in 1971; revealed that the U.S. government had misled Americans about the Vietnam War.

Archaeology

Study of artifacts and relics of early mankind, the study of the remains of past cultures.

Mongols (1200s)

Seized control of much of the known world; Armies spread across central Asia; Destroyed Baghdad; Ended Abbasid Dynasty

Neutrality Acts

Series of laws passed by Congress in 1935 that banned arms sales or loans to countries at war

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Served as the French minister of finance from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy.

Astronomy

Set up observatory in Baghdad; Knew earth was round; Named many stars; developed Astrolabe

Hoovervilles

Shantytowns built by unemployed and destitute people during the Depression

Panama Canal

Ship canal cut across the Isthmus of Panama by United States Army engineers; it opened in 1915. It greatly shortened the sea voyage between the east and west coasts of North America. The United States turned the canal over to Panama on Jan 1, 2000.

Topographic Map

Shows surface features of an area such as mountains, valleys, plains, and plateaus by using contour lines to show changes in elevation

Tripartite Pact

Signed between the Axis powers in 1940 (Italy, Germany and Japan) where they pledged to help the others in the event of an attack by the US

Treaty of Paris (1783)

Signed on September 3, 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain on one side and the United States of America and its allies on the other. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic had separate agreements

Positive Sanctions

Social approval for observing a norm, a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a prize.

Negative Sanctions

Social disapproval for violating a norm, a punishment or threat of a punishment to promote conformity to norms.

Primary Groups

Social groups, such as family or friends, composed of intimate face-to-face relationships that strongly influence the attitudes and ideals of those involved, groups that provide members with a sense of belonging and affection.

Ascribed Status

Social position a person receives at birth or involuntarily later in life

Zimbabwe (1300-1400)

South Africa; Wealthiest state in nation; Gold trade; City surrounded by huge stone walls

SEATO

Southeast Treaty Organization: Includes USA, UK, France, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand to oppose communism in Southeast Asia

Gorbachev

Soviet statesman whose foreign policy brought an end to the Cold War and whose domestic policy introduced major reforms (born in 1931)

Berlin Crisis

Soviets tried to remove the Allies from Berlin by cutting off access to the city

Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547)

Montgomery Bus Boycotts

Sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest; lasted 381 days until Federal Courts struck down segregation laws

Beliefs

Specific ideas that people hold to be true

11th Amendment

State is immune from non-citizen lawsuits (1795)

Plato

Student of Socrates, wrote The Republic about the perfectly governed society.

Allah

Supreme God for Muslims

Physical Anthropology

Systematic study of humans and biological organisms

Trade Restrictions

Tariffs and quotas restrict the amount of a good imported and supply will decrease

Automatic Stabilizers

Taxes and transfer payments, Federal government expenditures or receipts that automatically increase or decrease without requiring action by Congress or the President. Examples are unemployment compensation and corporate and individual income tax.

Tariffs

Taxes on imports, raise the price of imported goods, which increases the demand and price for the same goods produced by domestic suppliers. Revenues from these are collected by the domestic government.

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to view one's own culture and group as superior to all other cultures and groups, belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.

Current Account

That part of the balance of payments recording a nation's exports and imports of goods and services and transfer payments

21st Amendment

The 18th amendment is repealed (1933)

Cuban Missile Crisis

The 1962 confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles in Cuba

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945)

The 32nd President of the United States (1933-1945) He served as President from 1933 until his death at Warm Springs, GA on April 12, 1945. He was the President that was responsible for the economic policy known as the New Deal, and he was President for most the the U.S. involvement in World War II.

Albany Congress (1754)

The Albany delegates spent most of their time debating Benjamin Franklin's Albany Plan of union. It would have created a unified colonial entity. The plan was rejected by the colonies, which were jealous of their powers, and by the Colonial Office, which wanted a military command. However, it formed much of the basis for the later American governments established by the Articles of Confederation of 1777 and the Constitution of 1787.

The Vietnam War

The Communist forces of North Vietnam supported by China and the Soviet Union and the non-Communist forces of South Vietnam supported by the United States resulted in war.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

The Court ruled that evidence seized illegally could not be used in state courts. This is called the exclusionary rule.

Article IV

The States

Comparative Advantage

The ability of an individual, firm, or country to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than other producers

Absolute Advantage

The ability of an individual, firm, or country to produce more of a good or service than competitors using the same amount of resources.

Social mobility

The ability of individuals to move from one social standing to another. Social standing is based on degrees of wealth, prestige, education and power.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

The acquisition by the United States of America in 1803 of 828,000 square miles of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana. The U.S. paid $11,250,000 plus cancellation of debts worth $3,750,000, for a total sum of 15 million dollars (less than 3 cents per acre) It encompassed all or part of 15 current U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The land purchased contained all of present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; parts of Minnesota that were west of the Mississippi River; most of North Dakota; most of South Dakota; northeastern New Mexico; northern Texas; the portions of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, including the city of New Orleans; and small portions of land that would eventually become part of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The purchase of the territory of Louisiana took place during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. At the time, the purchase faced domestic opposition because it was thought to be unconstitutional. Although he agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain provisions for acquiring territory, Jefferson decided to go ahead with the purchase anyway in order to remove France's presence in the region and to protect both U.S. trade access to the port of New Orleans and free passage on the Mississippi River.

Role

The actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group.

Explicit Costs

The actual payments a firm makes to its factors of production and other suppliers

Money Multiplier

The amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserves, the multiple by which deposits can increase for every dollar increase in reserves; equal to 1 divided by the required reserve ratio.

Social Darwinism

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.

Growing Season

The average number of days between the last frost of spring and the first frost of fall; The most common measure of the length of this is the number of days with no frost

Climate

The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time.

New Frontier

The campaign program advocated by JFK in the 1960 election. He promised to revitalize the stagnant economy and enact reform legislation in education, health care, and civil rights.

The Assembly

The central events of the Athenian democracy. It had four main functions; it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes.

Industrial Revolution

The change from an agricultural to an industrial society and from home manufacturing to factory production, especially the one that took place in England from about 1750 to about 1850.

Military Industrial Complex

The close association of the federal government, the military, and defense industries

Korean War

The conflict between Communist North Korea and Non-Communist South Korea. The United Nations (led by the United States) helped South Korea.

Mores

The conventions that embody the fundamental values of a group, norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance.

The Four Noble Truths

The core of the Buddhist teaching. There is suffering. There is a cause to suffering. There is an end to suffering. The is a path out of suffering (the Noble 8-fold path).

Federal Reserve System

The country's central banking system, which is responsible for the nation's monetary policy by regulating the supply of money and interest rates

Russian Revolution

The coup d'état by the Bolsheviks under Lenin in November 1917 that led to a period of civil war which ended in victory for the Bolsheviks in 1922

Bush vs. Gore (2000)

The court ruled that manual recounts of presidential ballots in the Nov. 2000 election could not proceed because inconsistent evaluation standards in different counties violated the equal protection clause. In effect, the ruling meant Bush would win election.

Egyptian Afterlife

The dead were judged and if they had led a good life, they would live forever in the next world just as they had on Earth.

Pluralism

The doctrine that reality consists of several basic substances or elements.

Marxism

The economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will ultimately be superseded

Praetorian Guard

The elite bodyguard of a Roman Emperor

Deadweight Loss

The fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a tax.

Fiscal Policy

The federal government efforts to keep the economy stable by increasing or decreasing taxes or government spending.

Abnormal Psychology

The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.

Labor Movement in the United States

The first local trade unions of men in the United States formed in the late 18th century, and women began organizing in the 1820s. The National Labor Union (NLU), founded in 1866, was the first national labor federation in the United States. It was dissolved in 1872. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions began in 1881 under the leadership of Samuel Gompers. Like the National Labor Union, it was a federation of different unions and did not directly enroll workers. Its original goals were to encourage the formation of trade unions and to obtain legislation, such as prohibition of child labor, a national eight hour day, and exclusion of foreign contract workers.

Panic of 1819

The first major financial crisis in the United States, and occurred during the political calm of the Era of Good Feelings.

Renaissance

The great period of rebirth in art, literature, and learning in the 14th-16th centuries, which marked the transition into the modern periods of European history

Amazon Basin

The home of the world's largest tropical rainforests which runs along the largest river in the world on the continent of South America.

Tang Dynasty

The imperial dynasty of China from 618 to 907, with its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time, is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization—equal to, or surpassing that of, the earlier Han Dynasty—a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, was greater than that of the Han period

Economies of Scale

The increase in efficiency of production as the number of goods being produced increases.

Marginal Product

The increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input, the additional output that can be produced by adding one more unit of a specific input, ceteris paribus

Fordney- McCumber Tariff Act

The law pushed tariff rates on manufactured goods to an all-time high

Socialization

The lifelong process by which people learn their culture and develop a sense of self.

Scarcity

The limited quantities of resources to meet unlimited wants, the condition that results from limited resources combined with unlimited wants

Volga River

The longest river in Europe and Russia's most important commercial river.

Yangtze River

The longest river of Asia, River found in China; 3rd longest river in the world (3915 miles long)

Henry Kissinger

The main negotiator of the peace treaty with the North Vietnamese; secretary of state during Nixon's presidency (1970s).

Amazon River

The major river of South America; located primarily in Brazil, largest river in the world

Foreign Exchange Market

The market in which the currencies of different countries are bought and sold.

Price Elasticity

The measure of how responsive both consumers and producers are to price changes, a measure of consumers price sensitivity e = (percent change in quantity demanded)/(percent change in price)

Islam

The monotheistic religion of Muslims founded in Arabia in the 7th century and based on the teachings of Muhammad as laid down in the Koran

"Black Sox"

The name given to a scandal, where many of the 1919 Chicago White Sox players intentionally lost the World Series to the Cincinnati Reds in order to profit from gambling on the outcome. It angered many Americans, but baseball remained the nation's pastime.

Capital Account

The net result of public and private international investments flowing in and out of a country. The net results includes foreign direct investment, plus changes in holdings of stocks, bonds, loans, bank accounts, and currencies.

William Henry Harrison (1773-1841)

The ninth President of the United States (1841), an American military officer and politician, and the first president to die in office. He was 68 years, 23 days old when inaugurated, the oldest president to take office until Ronald Reagan in 1981, and last President to be born before the United States Declaration of Independence. He died on his 32nd day in office[a] of complications from pneumonia, serving the shortest tenure in United States presidential history. His death sparked a brief constitutional crisis, but that crisis ultimately resolved many questions about presidential succession left unanswered by the Constitution until passage of the 25th Amendment.

Montezuma II (1466-1520)

The ninth ruler of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. The first contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign, and he was killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when Conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men fought to escape from the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

Gerald Ford

The only person to serve as Vice President and President without having been elected . He succeeded Richard Nixon upon his resignation from office.

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

The peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The treaty largely restored relations between the two nations to status quo ante bellum, with no loss of territory either way.

Zhou dynasty

The people and dynasty that took over the dominant position in north China from the Shang and created the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. It is remembered as prosperous era in Chinese History.

Progressive Income Tax

The percentage of income paid in taxes will increase as income increases.

Potsdam

The place at which the three Allied leaders, Truman, Stalin, and Atlee, met to discuss the distribution of Germany and the ultimatum that they would issue to Japan demanding their immediate surrender

Isolationism

The policy of isolating one's country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, foreign trade, international agreements, etc., seeking to devote the entire efforts of one's country to its own advancement and remain at peace by avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities. It was a popular political theory from the 1920s until the bombing of Pearl Harbor.

Domino Theory

The political theory that if one nation comes under Communist control then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control

Legitimacy

The popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a régime. The Enlightenment-era British social theoretician John Locke said that political legitimacy derives from popular explicit and implicit consent of the governed. Charismatic authority (chieftains or ayatollahs), traditional authority (monarchs), rational-legal authority (representative democracy).

Great Irish Famine

The potato disease which caused 25 % of a population to leave their homeland, cause of Irish immigrants to the US

Bicameralism

The practice of having two legislative or parliamentary chambers compromise bills.

Atmospheric Pressure

The pressure that is exerted by the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, which is caused by the collisions between molecules in the air.

Prohibition

The prevention by law of the manufacture and sale of alcohol, made part of the Constitution with the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment.

Market Price

The price at which buyers and sellers agree to trade. The price determined by supply and demand

Price Equilibrium

The price at which demand and supply are equal

Enculturation

The process by which a society's culture is transmitted from one generation to the next and individuals become members of their society.

Transference

The process whereby emotions are passed on or displaced from one person to another (psychoanalysis).

Share-Our-Wealth

The program would empower the government to seize wealth from the rich through taxes and then provide a guaranteed minimum income and a home to every American family

Townshend Acts (1767)

The purpose of the Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they would be independent of colonial rule, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies.

Money Supply

The quantity of money available in the economy

Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787)

The rebellion started on August 29, 1786. It was precipitated by several factors: financial difficulties brought about by a post-war economic depression, a credit squeeze caused by a lack of hard currency, and fiscally harsh government policies instituted in 1785 to solve the state's debt problems. Protesters, including many war veterans, shut down county courts in the later months of 1786 to stop the judicial hearings for tax and debt collection.

Spending Multiplier

The reciprocal of 1 minus the marginal propensity to consume; or the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save

Cultural Relativity

The recognition that all cultures develop their own ways of dealing with the specific demands of their environments, the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behavior takes place.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

This gave the President authority to take "all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against forces of the United States."

Merchants

This group in medieval Europe helped loosen feudal ties.

Bill of Rights

This is the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution

Volstead Act

This law was passed to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition)

Mao Zedong

This man became the leader of the Chinese Communist Party and remained its leader until his death. He declared the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and supported the Chinese peasantry throughout his life.

Cold War

This period of time following World War II is where the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers and faced off in an arms race that lasted nearly 50 years.

Newton

This physicist developed the law of universal gravitation and further caused the decline of the old system of science

Mexican Revolution

This revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist and agrarian movements, led by Francisco Madero, 1810 to 1823. They fought for independence from Spain and for social justice; they wanted equal rights for Indians, mestizos,

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

This would have banned slavery in any territory to be acquired from Mexico in the Mexican War or in the future, including the area later known as the Mexican Cession, but which some proponents construed to also include the disputed lands in south Texas and New Mexico east of the Rio Grande. It passed the House but failed in the Senate, where the South had greater representation.

Muslims

Those who practice Islam

Average Product

Total output divided by total units of the variable factor of production

Economic Profit

Total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costs

Accounting Profit

Total revenue minus total explicit cost

Average Variable Cost

Total variable costs divided by the number of units of output

Haitian Revolution

Toussaint L'Ouverture led this uprising, which in 1790 resulted in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule on this Caribbean island. This revolution set up the first black government in the Western Hemisphere and the world's second democratic republic (after the US). The US was reluctant to give full support to this republic led by former slaves.

TVA

Transformed the economic and social life of the region, it is also built several power stations that provided electricity, flood control

7th Amendment

Trial by jury of your peers (1791)

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Type of personality disorder characterized by extreme suspiciousness or mistrust of others

Smoot-Hawley Tariff

US law enacted in June 1930 which caused an increase in import duties by as much as 50 percent. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act goal was to increase US farmer protection against agricultural imports

Seasonal Unemployment

Unemployment that occurs as a result of harvest schedules or vacations, or when industries slow or shut down for a season.

Structural Unemployment

Unemployment that occurs when workers' skills do not match the jobs that are available. Changes in technology and tastes can have an impact on this.

Cyclical Unemployment

Unemployment that rises during economic downturns and falls when the economy improves. Getting laid off due to a recession is the classic case of this.

Multicultural diversity

Unique characteristics of ethics groups

Rosa Parks

United States civil rights leader who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery (Alabama) which triggered the national civil rights movement (born in 1913)

John Foster Dulles

United States diplomat who (as Secretary of State) pursued a policy of opposition to the USSR by providing aid to American allies (1888-1959)

Real Value

Value in current dollars after adjusting for inflation.

Dominant Cultures

Values, customs, and language established by the group or groups that traditionally have controlled politics and government in a society.

Otto von Bismarck

Was a Prussian/German statesman of the late 19th century, and a dominant figure in world affairs. Helped Germany expand, went to war against Denmark, won war, turned against Austria, gained control of North German Confederation.

Kingdom of Mali

Was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I. This Empire had many profound cultural influences on West Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River. This empire extended over a large area and consisted of numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces.

Kingdom of Songhay (Songhai)

Was an African state of West Africa. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, and it was one of the largest African empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group. Its capital was the city of Gao, where a small state had existed since the 11th century. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present day Niger and Burkina Faso.

The Concept of Zero

Was developed in India and brought to Europe by Arab mathematicians. The place-value notation was much more efficient than the unwieldy numerical systems of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.

Gunpowder

Was invented, documented, and used in the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) in China where the Jurchen military forces used gunpowder-based weapons technology (i.e. rockets, guns, cannons), and explosives (i.e. grenades and different types of bombs) against the Mongols. The Mongols, Muslims, Western Europe, and Japan adopted gunpowder in chronological sequence.

The Printing Press

Was most responsible for the rapid spread of new ideas in Renaissance Europe.

The Neolithic Revolution

Was the first agricultural revolution—the transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands, to agriculture and settlement. Archaeological data indicate that various forms of domestication of plants and animals arose independently in at least seven or eight separate locales worldwide, with the earliest known developments taking place in the Middle East around 10,000 BC or earlier

Shintoism

Was the primitive religion of Japan before the coming of Buddhism, which is currently the main religion of Japan. It is a very simple religion. It gives only one command, the necessity of being loyal to one's ancestors.

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848)

Was the sixth president of the United States (1825-1829). He served as an American diplomat, Senator, and Congressional representative. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. He was the son of former President John Adams and Abigail Adams.

Sparta

Was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which completely focused on military training and excellence.

Preamble

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Ghana (500AD)

West Africa first great trading state. Strong kings, no laws; Vast wealth; Well-trained Army; Weakened by wars and collapsed in 1100s

Songhai (1400s)

West Africa; Sunni Ali- created Sunni dynasty; Songhai began to expand from military conquests; Conquests gave Ali control of trade; Muhammad Ture- King when Songhai was at its peak; Continued expansion.

Mekong River Valley

Wet-Farming techniques and tropical climate located in Eastern to South Eastern Asia

The Great Rift Valley

What is the name of the giant depression in East Africa that runs from Jordan to Mozambique, Long, deep gash in the earth in eastern Africa where the first humans appeared

Trade Surplus

When a country exports more than it imports

Trade Deficit

When a country imports more than it exports.

7th Article

Whenever an army is raised for common defense, colonels and military ranks below colonel will be named by the state legislatures.

Khadija

Wife of Muhammad

Prevailing Winds

Winds that blow in the same direction over large areas of Earth.

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West.

Flappers

Women who adopted the new style; enjoyed defying traditional standards of female behavior

19th Amendment

Women's suffrage (1920)

WPA

Works Progress Administration; to help Americans find work, Congress budgeted some $5 billion for the WPA's job-creation programs

The Feminine Mystique

Written by Betty Friedan, journalist and mother of three children; described the problems of middle-class American women and the fact that women were being denied equality with men; said that women were kept from reaching their full human capacities

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

Written by Mark Twain and follows the life of a boy on the Mississippi River, and deals with issues of slavery, racism, and scams.

Rousseau

Wrote Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind, The Social Contract, & Emile. He identified the human nature was originally happy but was corrupted when man claimed that they owned land. Said the government must rule at the general will of the people so that the most people are benefited. He hated Parliament because the delegates made laws instead of the people.

Locke

Wrote Two Treatises of Government. Said human nature lived free and had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. He said government was created in order to protect these rights and if the government failed to do so it was the duty of the people to rebel.

Tropic of Cancer

a line of latitude about 23 degrees north of the equator

Hijrah

also Hijrat or Hegira, is the migration or journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in June 622 CE.

Ziggurats

ancient Mesopotamian temple towers, built by Sumerians of mud brick. Believed the gods lives in them.

Frederick Douglass

b.1817-d.1895 United States abolitionist who escaped from slavery and became an influential writer and lecturer in the North.

Sledges

flat-bottomed carts, used before the wheel was invented

Untouchables

nickname of Ness and his detectives

Plumbers

people whose job it was to stop leaks of what Nixon was trying to achieve from being let out of the White House

Holocaust

the Nazi program of exterminating Jews under Hitler

Black Power

the belief that blacks should fight back if attacked. It urged blacks to achieve economic independence by starting and supporting their own business.

GNP

the total value of goods produced and services provided by a country during one year, equal to the gross domestic product plus the net income from foreign investments

The Communist Manifesto

written by Marx and Engels; said that human societies have always been in warring class; put the middle class as "haves" and the working class as "have-nots"; said that IR had enriched the wealthy and impoverished the poor, predicting that the workers would overthrow the owners; inspired revolutionaries to adapt Marx's beliefs to their own situations