SOCIOLOGY 201 EXAM 2
Food Stamp Program
(Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)) This program was created in 1964 under the Johnson administration, and it is administered through the Department of Agriculture's Food Nutrition Service. Gross income must not exceed 130 percent of federal poverty guidelines, and net income must not exceed 100 percent of federal poverty guidelines. Recipients must also meet specified work requirements. Benefit Computation Example Multiply net income by 30%... Subtract 30% of net income from the maximum allotment for the household size... $1,143.5 net monthly income x .3 = $343.05 (round up to $344) $668 maximum allotment for 4 - $344 (30% of net income) = $324, SNAP Allotment for a full month
Women's Sports Markets Created
1. Active female consumers 2. Male and female fans of women's sports Pro women's sports College and open amateur 3. Female fans of men's sports Waiting to be tapped Corporate sponsorship of women's sports more than triples '92-'00 to $1 billion
West & Fenstermaker - Doing Gender Five Implications of 'doing' gender:
1:Gender emerges within social situations; not within the individual or role expectations 2: Gender cannot be determined apart from its context. 3: Doing gender does not require heterosocial groups. 4: Not only individuals, but institutions are accountable to normative conceptions of gender. 5: Doing gender should not be understood as an intrusion to interactions.
S. Carolina Lawsuit
2013: a federal court has concluded that a medically unnecessary sex-assignment surgery on a child with an intersex condition could be a violation of the Constitution
Social Stratification
A relatively fixed, hierarchical arrangement in society by which groups have different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth. Different access to it based on who you are in the hierarchy Example--in a sports organization: Owners control the resources of the teams. Players earn high salaries, yet do not control the team resources. Sponsors provide the resources. Fans provide revenue.
Who poverty affects
AGE, RACIAL, AND GENDER LINES Data: there are now more than 46.7 million poor people in the United States, representing 14.8 percent of the population. Child-ization of poverty: 1 out of 3 poor persons are under 18. Racial-ization of poverty: In 2014, 38% of all African American children, 32 % of Latino/a children, and 13 % of non-Latino/a white children lived in poverty. Feminization of poverty: 2/3 of all adults living in poverty are women. The Silent Poor: WHAT WE SEE IN THE MEDIA AND STEREOTYPES PORTRAY URBAN POVERTY RATHER THAN WHITE POVERTY, THE STEREOTYPE IS FALSE White Americans account for approximately 2/3 of those below the poverty line.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Argued that private property creates social inequality and that this inequality ultimately leads to social conflict
Intimate Partner Violence
At some point during their lifetime, 36 percent of women—or approximately 42.4 million—were victims of rape, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner In 2010, violent crimes by intimate partners (both male and female) totaled 509,230 and accounted for 13 percent of violent crimes. Of female murder victims in 2010, 38 percent were killed by a husband or boyfriend
Race
Based on the physical traits of an individual. Categories are arbitrarily defined, exist in systems where social groups are arranged in a hierarchical fashion. Only has meaning in the context of situations where there is more than one racial group. "...denotes a group of people who perceive themselves and are perceived by others as possessing distinctive hereditary traits"
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Believed in a "master-slave" dialect. He believed that most social relationships were based on a master-slave model and over time, society would have more and more free people and the master-slave model would die out as the primary social relationship.
Sex
Biological make up including hormones, chromosomes, reproductive organs, and genitalia
Weber's Stratification along 3 dimensions
Class: economic dimension, dependent on the market, just money Status: social dimension, prestige and honor, income and prestige doesn't always align Party: political dimension, acquiring power and resources
Who Benefits from Colorblindness?
Color-blindness also implicitly suggests that race does not matter as long as non-dominant groups conform to the general values and expectations of the dominant group. For example, people are expected to adopt American names, become Christian, speak English as their primary language, etc. if they want to access all of the benefits of being a US citizen.
West & Fenstermaker - Doing Gender Conclusions
Conclusions: 1) gender is done/accomplished within a social context 2) individuals are held accountable for their doing gender, and 3) as individuals do gender, they reinforce the naturalness of existing gender inequalities within institutions.: seeming naturalness of gender differences gender inequality
Corporate Subsidies
Corporate welfare: any action by local, state or federal government that gives a corporation or an entire industry a benefit not offered to others. In 2015 the federal government spent $92 billion in corporate subsidies Example: Agribusiness 66% of farm subsidies went to the richest 10% of subsidy recipients Support agribusiness rather than the small farmer Alter nutrition availability
Ethnicity
Develops from the social experiences of an individual. Categories are geographically and historically defined. Groups can co-exist without the arrangement of social groups into hierarchies. Has meaning independent of the existence of other social groups. "...denotes a group of people who perceive themselves and are perceived by others as sharing cultural traits such as language, religion, family customs, and food preferences"
Benefits, opportunities & treatment
Equipment and supplies Scheduling of practice and competition Travel and per diem Opportunities for coaching and academic tutors Assignment and compensation of coaches and academic tutors Locker room, practice and competitive facilities Medical and training facilities and services Housing and dining facilities and services Publicity
Equality of outcome
Everyone in a society should end up with the same "rewards" regardless of starting point, opportunities, or contributions. Aligned with communist ideology.
Karl Marx
Felt that society was divided strictly into two classes — the proletariat, or working class, and the bourgeoisie, or employing class
Title 9 Requirements
Financial assistance Effective accommodation of students' interests and abilities Benefits, opportunities and treatment
Where does gender come from? Social constructionist:
Gender is socially constructed through social institutions and social norms Family, schools, media Based on two observations: Gender changes across time Gender changes across place
Socioeconomic status
HOW AMERICA IS STRATIFIED TODAY, refers to an individual's position in a stratified social order.
Racial Projects
How structure and representation are related, connect what race means and the ways in which both structures and experiences are based on their meaning
Where does gender come from? Essentialism (Traditional Model)
Idea that gender is rooted in natural, biological differences between men and women—inherent, innate Examples: Men act like men because of their testosterone Men and women evolved different strategies to pass along their genes Men produce millions of sperm, but women only produce a limited amount of eggs
Domestic Abuse
In 2005-10, 78% of sexual violence involved an offender who was a family member, intimate partner, friend, or acquaintance. In 2010, the male rate of rape or sexual assault was 0.1 per 1,000 males compared to a rate of 2.1 per 1,000 for females 50% of offenders in state prison for spousal abuse had killed their victims. Wives were more likely than husbands to be killed by their spouses: wives were about half of all spouses in the population in 2002, but 81% of all persons killed by their spouse.
REASONS FOR MINIMUM WAGE
Increases the standard of living for the poorest and most vulnerable class in society. Creates incentive to work. Decreases the cost of government social welfare programs by increasing incomes for the lowest-paid. Does not have a substantial effect on unemployment compared to most other economic factors and so does not put any extra pressure on welfare systems. Makes it easier for students and others at the bottom of the pay scale to support themselves on a small number of hours, enabling them to train for higher wage positions.
Transsexual Bodies
Individuals who may not exhibit any indication of inter-sexuality or genital anomalies but who feel, deep within themselves, that the physicality that embodies them does not correspond to their inner sense of gender identity.
Equality of opportunity
Inequality is acceptable so long as everyone has the same opportunities for advancement and is judged by the same standards. Associated with modern capitalists and civil right activists in the 1960s.
Ferguson and Millar
Inequality is good. They agreed with Rousseau, but they also argued that this is good because it means that some people are getting ahead and creating assets (a form of wealth that can be stored for the future).
Matrix of domination
Intersecting identities are dependent on the context
Implications because of income inequality
Life Expectancy: The rich live 7 more years of life on average than poor people. The lower you are on the economic hierarchy, the worse your health and the shorter your life is likely to be. Risk Factors: Even after accounting for differences in income, education, and other factors, the lower your social status or ranking in an organization or society, the higher the risk factors and mortality rates. Low Education: Less educated are twice as likely to die of chronic diseases; three times as likely to die as a result of injury; and twice as likely to die of communicable diseases. Educational Expenses: Rich family will spend over $250,000 on educating a child up to age 18. Middle-class families will spend over $170,000 and poor families less than $40,000
Class Action in the Media
Media Framing Shapes reality Frames of each class Wealthy: 4 positive and 2 negative Poor: 2 Working class: 5 Middle class: 3
The Well-Coiffed Man (Barber)
Men in hair salon "do difference" Class-based masculinity How is masculinity achieved?
Tax Policies & middle-class subsidies
Most people cannot afford to purchase a home outright; it is necessary for them to take out a loan, or mortgage. To encourage home ownership, federal tax law permits individuals to deduct the interest payments on their home mortgage from their reported income. If someone with a marginal tax rate of 30% were to pay $1000 in interest on a home mortgage, they could deduct the amount from their income, saving themselves $300 in taxes.
Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Injuries in Female Athletes: Why Are Women More Susceptible?
NCAA report showed that overall knee injuries were more common among female soccer and basketball players than among their male counterparts. Intrinsic Factors: Hormones Pelvic bone structure Anatomy Extrinsic Factors: Playing Surface Training Life course muscle development
Title IX (TITLE 9)
No person in the United States, shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. "does not require colleges to give the same amount of money to men's and women's sports programs or to have equal numbers of male and female athletes; it does require colleges to provide equitable resources and opportunities in a non-discriminatory manner." Sexual assault and discrimination between the genders
DOES GENDER STILL MATTER Inequalities in Representation:
Not given full right to vote until 1924 Women are not proportionally represented in politics Top positions in corporations are mostly males In the military, women have recently been given more equality
Effective accommodation of students' interests & abilities
Opportunities for males and females substantially proportionate to their respective enrollments Where one sex has been underrepresented, a history and continuing practice of program expansion responsive to the developing interests and abilities of that sex. Where one sex is underrepresented and cannot show a continuing practice of program expansion whether it can be demonstrated that the interests and abilities of that sex have been fully and effectively accommodated by that present program.
Sociological Perspective on Race
Race is a social concept, one in which certain physical or cultural characteristics take on social meanings that become the basis for racism and discrimination.
Racial Formation Theory OMI AND WINANT
Race is both part of social structure and cultural representation (stereotype).
Diverse sources of stratification
Race, class, and gender are overlapping systems of stratification. Which ever one stands out more depends on the context. Class position is manifested differently, depending on race and gender. Example: A Black middle-class man who is stopped by police when driving through a White middle-class neighborhood may feel his racial status is his most outstanding characteristic, but his race, class, and gender always influence his life chances.
Race Essentialist/ Biological Perspective on Race
Racial differences are fixed, biological categories.
REASONS AGAINST MINIMUM WAGE
Reduces profit margins of business owners employing minimum wage workers, thus encouraging a move to businesses that do not employ low-skill workers. Businesses try to compensate for the decrease in profit by simply raising the prices of the goods being sold thus causing inflation and increasing the costs of goods and services produced. Does not improve the situation of those in poverty. Minimum-wage legislation, by its very nature, benefits some at the expense of the least experienced, least productive, and poorest workers.
West & Fenstermaker-Doing Gender Accountability ties all three components together:
Renders gender "involuntary" because it is always "at risk of assessment" which maintains and reproduces the social structure of gender. Individuals must 'do' gender according to institutionalized notions of their chosen sex category in every interaction because they are held accountable for doing it correctly. Because gender is so naturalized within society, its accomplishment is not recognized as such and therefore it is perpetuated and reinforces gender inequality. The solution to overcoming gender differences and inequality must be institutional and interactional
West & Fenstermaker-Doing Gender
Resituate, reconceptualize gender and how it is constructed Based in interactionist, ethnomethodologist, and social constructionist perspectives They conceive of gender as an "accomplishment," "activity," or "social doing" within a virtual or observable interaction that is based in normative conceptions of appropriate actions according to sex categories (aka: gender ideology)
West and Fenstermaker- Doing Gender Sex, Sex Category, Gender:
Sex: socially determined biological criteria of what constitutes male and female Sex category: based in biological criteria of sex, but are maintained through individuals' identification as members of a category according to cultural appropriations of meaning. Gender: the activity of managing situated conduct in light of normative conceptions, attitudes, and activities appropriate for one's sex category
How Policy Exacerbates Poverty
Tax Policies & Middle-Class Subsidies Corporate Subsidies Labor Market Policies
Medical Construction of Gender-the Case of Intersexed Infants (Kessler)
The assumption that the gender binary is natural masks the doctors' and patients' realization that it is in fact constructed. Basing their decisions of gender assignment on genitals (emphasizing the penis) is to ensure the infants are not a threat to the culture, instead of considering a threat to their health. The medical establishment erases the ambiguity of infant genitalia in an attempt to "normalize" infants and insert them back into a clearer realm of hegemonic masculinity or femininity. Even though doctors articulated their work as "discovering" a baby's gender, Kessler argues that their decisions point to an attempt to maintain social categories. Ultimately, Kessler concludes that all gender identity is socially constructed rather than being biologically-determined
Forms of stratification
The estate system, the caste system, and the class system
MEDIA AND THE POOR
The media shapes the way people think about others, particularly the way we think about the poor: The Poor do not Exist The Poor are Faceless The Poor are Undeserving The Poor are an Eyesore The Poor have only themselves to Blame The Poor are down on their Luck The Poor are a burden on the middle class Blaming the Victim: blaming the poor for being poor stems from the myth that success requires only individual motivation and ability.
Social mobility
The movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society, can be either horizontal or vertical (Move up or down the social ladder) and can take place on the individual or group level.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
The program gives block grants to the states, who provide cash assistance to needy families. Each year, about $17 billion total is provided to the states each year. There are roughly 6 million Americans receiving welfare today. Recipients must participate in work activities as soon as they are ready. This includes employment, job search, training, and community service. Americans are only eligible for TANF benefits for five years over the course of their lifetime.
INTERSEXED BODIES
The state of an individual whose sex chromosomes, genitalia and/or secondary sex characteristics are determined to be neither exclusively male nor female.
National School Lunch Program
This program was created by the National School Lunch Act (1946) under the Truman administration. Today, it involves nearly 100,000 schools. The program is administered through the Food and Nutrition Service of the Department of Agriculture. In 2014, students from families of 4 that earn less than $30,615 qualify for free lunches, while students from families that earn less than $43,568 qualify for reduced cost lunches. In FY2012, more than 31 million children received a low-cost or free lunch each school day. The program costs $11.6 billion.
Social Security
This program was established during the Great Depression by the Social Security Act (1935), passed by Congress and sponsored by the Roosevelt administration. Social security is meant to reduce the economic insecurity associated with old age by providing financial benefits for retired workers. In 2013 about 58 million Americans received over $640 billion in Social Security Insurance and Supplemental Security Insurance benefits.
Social Constructionist Perspective
This view argues that things in the social world have no intrinsic meaning until its aspects are named. i.e., this view argues that there is no objective social reality. Meaning is derived from perception and human interactions. Once meaning is established, we generally take it for granted. i.e., we do not generally question our gender assumptions, why some are poor and some are rich, and whether or not the concept of race is real or not.
Essentialist Perspective
This view argues that things in the world exist without being named. i.e., it says that there is an objective reality. Also, it asserts that differences between things are intrinsic rather than perceived. Asserts that human behavior is natural and predetermined by biology. From this view, similar behaviors or characteristics that are perceived to seem similar are thought to represent some underlying human tendency.
Intersexuality
True hermaphrodites: having both male and female testis. [1/100,000] Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): malfunction of one or more of six enzymes involved in making steroid hormones, leading to severe masculinization of XX children. [7/100,000] Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS): Genetically inherited change in the cell surface receptor for testosterone of XY children making the body incapable of using testosterone making for highly feminine genitalia.[8/1,000,000] Gonadal dysgenesis: a catch-all category referring to individuals, mostly XY, whose gonads do not develop properly. Vaginal agenesis: underdevelopment or lack of vaginal opening. [2/10,000] Hypospadias: the urethra does not run to the tip of the penis. Turner syndrome: females lacking a second X chromosome (XO) so that ovaries do not develop making for lack of female secondary sex characteristics.[4/10,000] Klinefelter Syndrome: males with an extra X chromosome (XXY) which causes infertility and breast enlargement.[9/10,000] Other types of Non-XX or non-XY children:[6/10,000]
Symbolic Ethnicity
White individuals in the US often adopt symbolic ethnicity. This is characterized by: Eating ethnic foods Celebrating ethnic holiday e.g., St. Patrick's Day supporting specific political issues from the "old country" Ethnicity is largely peripheral to the lives of many White people in the US because they have assimilated. For many White people, ethnicity often does not influence what they "read, do, or say, or even whom they befriend or marry" There is not an active involvement in ethnically themed activities, nor are there generally restrictions on their access to most mainstream social groups based on ethnicity. Also, some of the ethnic customs practiced in White communities originated in the US and are not authentically from their countries of origin.
DOES GENDER STILL MATTER Inequalities in the Workplace:
Women are excluded from certain positions in society Women are paid less than men when occupying similar positions Women are paid less when in jobs thought to be 'feminine' Women have to work harder and take longer to be promoted
DOES GENDER STILL MATTER Rape and Violence:
Women are more likely than men to be victims of domestic violence Women are objectified, sexualized, and commodified by the media Women are more likely to be victims of molestation, child abuse, and rape
DOES GENDER STILL MATTER Inequalities at Home:
Women are not paid for domestic work, including child rearing Women do a second shift at home Women have few maternity benefits and rights
Estate system
a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility.
Caste system
a system of stratification based on hereditary notions of religious and theological purity and generally offers no prospects for social mobility.
Status Hierarchy System
a system of stratification based on social prestige. USUALLY OCCUPATION STATUS
Elite-Mass Dichotomy System
a system of stratification that has a governing elite — a few leaders who broadly hold the power of society. FEW ELITE AND THEN EVERYONE ELSE. C Wright Mills found this dangerous since it only allowed interest of a select few and not the mass.
Class system
an economically based system of stratification with somewhat loose social mobility based on roles in the production process rather than individual characteristics.
Corporate welfare
any action by local, state or federal government that gives a corporation or an entire industry a benefit not offered to others.
Max Weber
concept of class is based on grouping people according to the value of their property or labor in the commercial marketplace
Erik Olin Wright
developed the concept of contradictory class locations, which is the idea that people can occupy locations in the class structure that fall between the two "pure" classes defined by Marx.
Equality of condition
idea that everyone should have an equal starting point from which to pursue his or her goals. Basis/Model of affirmative action
Exchange mobility
mobility occurs when people essentially trade positions — the number of overall jobs stays the same, with some people moving up into better jobs and others moving down into worse ones.
Structural mobility
mobility that is inevitable from changes in the economy, such as the expansion of high-tech jobs in the past 20 years.
Gender
set of beliefs, feelings, behaviors associated with being male or female/masculine/feminine
Gender Ideology
set of normative beliefs about what is appropriate behavior for males/females
Ontological equality
the notion that everyone is created equal in the eyes of God. Justifies material inequality.
Thomas Malthus
viewed inequality favorably, but only as a means for controlling population growth. He feared that if we didn't have inequality, that we would overpopulate the world. thought that a more equal distribution of resources would increase the world's population to unsustainable levels and ultimately bring about mass starvation and conflict
