Sociology: Chapter 8- Social Stratification Terms

Max Weber: Class, Status, and Power

Max Weber identified three distinct dimensions of stratification: class, status, and power. - Following Weber, many sociologists use the term socioeconomic status, a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality. - Inequality in history: Weber's view: Weber noted that each of his three dimensions of social inequality stands out at different points in the evolution of human societies.

Proletarians

People who sell their labor for wages

Caste system

Social stratification based on ascription, or birth. Caste systems shape people's lives in four crucial ways: 1. Caste largely determines occupation. 2. Caste systems generally mandate endogamy. 3. Caste systems limit outgroup social contacts. 4. Powerful cultural beliefs underlie caste systems. * Caste systems are typical of agrarian societies because the lifelong routines of agriculture depend on a rigid sense of duty and discipline.

Meritocracy

Social stratification based on personal merit. It includes a person's knowledge, abilities, and effort. * Industrial societies move towards merit. - England uses this system nowadays even though caste elements are still present, commoners control the government, and mixed caste elements are present as well.

Capitalists

Sometimes called the Bourgeoisie; People who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuits of profits.

The Davis-Moore Thesis

States that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society. - The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it - Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try to their best. - Positions a society considers more important must reward enough to draw talented people.

Working class

- About one-third of the population falls within the working class (sometimes called the lower-middle class). - In Marxist terms, the working class forms the core of the industrial proletariat. - The blue-collar jobs held by members of the working class yield a family income of between $27,000 and $48, 500 a year, somewhat below the national average. - Working class families have little or no wealth and are vulnerable to financial problems caused by unemployment or illness.

Horticultural, Pastoral, and Agrarian Societies

- As technological advances create a surplus, social inequality increases. - In horticultural and pastoral societies, a small elite controls most of the surplus. - Large-scale agriculture is more productive still, and striking inequality--as great as at any time in history--places the nobility in an almost godlike position over the masses.

What are the two explanations of poverty?

- Blame the poor: Throughout this nation's history, people have placed a high cultural value on self-reliance, convinced that a person's social standing is mostly a matter of individual talent and effort. - Blame society: Argued by William Julius Wilson, holds that society is primarily responsible for poverty. Wilson points to the loss of jobs in our inner cities as the primary cause of poverty, claiming that there is simply not enough work to support families.

Hunting and Gathering Societies

- Hunters and gatherers produce only what is necessary for day-to-day living. - Some people may produce more than others, but the group's survival depends on all sharing what they have.

Industrial Societies

- Industrialization pushes inequality downward. Prompted by the need to develop people's talents, meritocracy takes hold and weakens the power of traditional elites. - Specialized work demands schooling for all, sharply reducing illiteracy. - A literate population demands a greater voice in political decision making, reducing social inequality, and lessening men's domination of women. - Over time, even wealth becomes somewhat less concentrated.

What is the critique for the Davis-Moore Thesis?

- It is difficult to specify the functional importance of a given occupation; some are clearly over- or under-rewarded. - Davis-Moore ignores how social stratification can prevent the development of individual talents. - The theory also ignores how social inequality may promote conflict and resolution.

Social-Conflict Theory on Social Stratification

- Level of analysis: Macro-level - Social stratification is a division of a society's resources that benefits some people and harms others. - Social position reflects the way society divides resources. - Unequal rewards are unfair. Unequal rewards only serve to divide society, creating "haves" and "have-nots." There is widespread opposition to social inequality.

Structural-Functional Theory on Social Stratification

- Level of analysis: Macro-level - Social stratification is a system of unequal rewards that benefits society as a whole. - Social position reflects personal talents and abilities in a competitive economy. - Unequal rewards are fair. They boost economic production by encouraging people to work harder and try new ideas. Linking greater rewards to more important work is widely accepted.

Symbolic-Interaction Theory on Social Stratification

- Level of analysis: Micro-level - Social stratification is a factor that guides people's interactions in everyday life. - The products we consume all say something about social position. - Maybe unequal rewards are fair. People may or may not define inequality as fair. People may view their social position as a measure of self-worth, justifying inequality in terms of personal differences.

What is the critique of Marxism?

- Marxism is revolutionary and highly controversial. - Marxism has been criticized for failing to recognize that a system of unequal rewards may be necessary to motivate people to perform their social roles effectively. - The revolutionary developments Marx considered inevitable within capitalist societies have failed to happen.

Karl Marx: Class Conflict

- Most people have one of two relationships with the means of production. 1. Bourgeoisie own productive property. 2. The proletariat works for the bourgeoisie. - Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth. - This oppression would drive the working majority to organize and overthrow capitalism.

Lower-Upper class

- Most upper-class people actually fall into the lower-upper class, and lower-uppers include some of the richest people in the world. - The major difference is that members of the lower-upper class are the "working rich" who get their money mostly by earning it rather than inheritance. - These "new rich" families make up 3 to 4 percent of the U.S. population - They generally live in large homes in expensive neighborhoods, own vacation homes near the water or in the mountains, and send their children to private schools and good colleges. - Barack Obama and Michelle Obama, for example, became very rich when they respectfully served as President and First Lady of the United States. This has not only given them many rewarding opportunities, but also to their daughters.

White-collar occupations

Higher-prestige jobs that involve mostly mental activity (doctors, veterinarians, psychologists, sociologists)

Class system

In a class system, social stratification is based on birth and individual achievement.

The Kuznets Curve

In human history, then, technological advances first increase but then moderate the intensity of social stratification. Greater inequality is functional for agrarian societies, but industrial societies benefit from a more equal system. This historical trend is illustrated by this diagram.

Blue-collar occupations

Lower-prestige jobs that involve mostly manual labor (construction workers, sales associates, restaurant workers, police officers)

Status consistency

The degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. In class systems, status consistency is lower than in caste systems.

Alienation

The experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness; happens under capitalism

Relative poverty

The lack of resources of some people in relation to those who have more

Wealth

The total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts. This can include stocks, bonds, and real estate, which is why this tends to be distributed more unequally than income.

Feminization of poverty

The trend of women making up an increasing proportion of the poor

Intergenerational social mobility

Upward or downward social mobility of children in relation to their parents - A woman becoming a doctor like her mother is an example of upward intergenerational social mobility. - A man becoming a carpenter unlike his father who is a businessman is an example of downward intergenerational social mobility.

Aristocracy

Used in England during the Middle Ages; a caste-like system of aristocracy: - First estate: Church leaders - Second estate: Aristocracy - Third estate: Commoners

Social mobility

A change in position within the social hierarchy; may be upward or downward. *Upward social mobility: A person born in poverty, for example, can go to college, graduate, and then get a high-income job. *Downward social mobility: A person born rich loses all of their money through gambling.

Intragenerational social mobility

A change in social position occurring during a person's lifetime. An economic downturn or upturn may affect the types of jobs people have, for example.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality.

Absolute poverty

A lack of resources that is life-threatening

Structural social mobility

A shift in the social position of large numbers of people due more to changes in society itself than to individual efforts. *During the 1990s, structural social mobility in the Russian Federation turned downward as that country experienced something similar to the Great Depression of the 1930s in the United States.

Social stratification

A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.

Marx on Ideology

Believed capitalist societies keep wealth and power for a few.

Plato on Ideology

Believed every culture considers some type of inequality fair or just.

Spencer on Ideology

Believed in survival of the fittest; people get more or less of what they deserve in life.

Conspicuous consumption

Buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position. For example, ignoring the water fountain in favor of paying for bottled water tells people that you have extra money to spend.

Ideology

Cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality. Social stratification persists because of this.

Income

Earnings from work or investments

Upper-Middle class

- People near the top of the 40 to 45 percent of the middle class - They make an above-average income in the range of $116,000 to $205,000 a year. Such income allows upper-middle class families to live in a comfortable house in a fairly expensive area, own several nice automobiles, and build investments. - Two-thirds of upper-middle class children graduate from college, and about one-third have postgraduate degrees. Many go on to high-prestige occupations as physicians and engineers. - Lacking the power of the richest people to influence national or international events, upper-middles often play an important role in local political affairs.

Upper-Upper class

- Sometimes called "blue bloods" or simply "society," includes 1 percent of the U.S. population. - Membership is almost always the result of birth. - Most of these families possess enormous wealth that is primarily inherited. For this reason, members of the upper-upper class are said to have "old money." - Their children typically attend private schools with others of similar background and complete their formal education at high-prestige colleges and universities.

Lower class

- The remaining 20 percent of our population make up the lower class. Low income makes their lives insecure and difficult. - In 2011, the federal government classified 46.3 million people (15 percent of the population) as poor. Millions more, called the "working poor," are slightly better off, holding low-prestige jobs that provide little satisfaction and minimal income. - Just seventy percent of lower-class children manage to complete high school, and only about 15 percent ever complete a four-year college degree. - Society segregates the lower class especially when the poor are racial or ethnic minorities.

Average-Middle class

- The rest of the middle class falls into this category, falling close to the center of the U.S. class structure. - Typically work at less prestigious white-collar jobs as bank branch managers or high school teachers or in highly skilled blue-collar jobs such as electrical work and carpentry. - Family income falls between $48,500 and $116,000 a year, which is roughly the national average. - Middle-class people generally build up a small amount of wealth over the course of their lives, mostly in the form of a house and a retirement account. - Most average middle-class men and women are likely to be high school graduates, but the odds are fifty-fifty that they will complete a four-year degree, usually at a less expensive, state supported school.

What are the four basic principles of stratification?

1. Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a function of individual differences. 2. Social stratification persists over generations. A) However, most societies allows some social mobility or changes in people's position in a system of social stratification. B) Social mobility may be upward, downward, or horizontal. 3. Social stratification is universal but variable. 4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs.