Sociology Lesson 6

intergroup relations between Whites and Asian Americans

-Chinese immigration ended with Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 - white workers blamed Chinese migrants for taking jobs - Chinese men did not have funds to return to China or to bring their families to United States, so they remained physically and culturally segregated in Chinatowns of large cities -Immigration Act of 1924 further curtailed Chinese immigration - included race-based National Origins Act that kept U.S. ethnic stock as undiluted as possible by reducing "undesirable" immigrants -after Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Chinese immigration again increased and many Chinese families were reunited -California Alien Land Law of 1913 was aimed at Japanese and other Asian immigrants and prohibited aliens from owning land -Japanese internment camps of World War II

American Laws against Native Americans

-Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of any native tribes east of Mississippi River to lands west of river -Indian Appropriation Acts funded further removals and declared that no Indian tribe could be recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with which U.S. government would have to make treaties - even easier for U.S. government to take land it wanted -Dawes Act of 1887 reversed policy of isolating Native Americans on reservations, instead forcing them onto individual properties that were intermingled with white settlers, thereby reducing their capacity for power as a group

current status of Native Americans

-eradication of Native American culture continued until the 1960s -Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 guaranteed Indian tribes most of the rights of United States Bill of Rights -Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 and Education Assistance Act recognized tribal governments and gave them more power -Indian boarding schools have dwindled to only a few, and Native American cultural groups are striving to preserve and maintain old traditions to keep them from being lost forever -long-term poverty, inadequate education, cultural dislocation, high rates of unemployment, lower life expectancies

structural functionalist view of gender

-views family as most integral component of society, so assumptions about gender roles within marriage are important -gender roles were established well before pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of domestic responsibilities in or around home -roles considered functional because women were often limited by physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave home for long periods of time. -established roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping family system functioning properly -during World War II, changes in family structure also occurred - many women had to assume the role of breadwinner alongside their domestic role in order to stabilize a rapidly changing society - when men returned from war and wanted to reclaim their jobs, society fell back into a state of imbalance, as many women did not want to forfeit their wage-earning positions

immigration of Asian Americans

Asian immigrants have come to United States in waves, at different times, and for different reasons -first Asian immigrants to come to United States in mid-nineteenth century were Chinese - primarily men whose intention was to work for several years in order to earn incomes to support their families in China - main destination was Gold Rush, Transcontinental Railroad, and other manual labor like mining and agricultural wor -Japanese immigration began in 1880s after Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 - many came to Hawaii to participate in sugar industry and others came to mainland California - Japanese had a strong government that negotiated with U.S. government to ensure well-being of their immigrants - Japanese men brought wives and families to United States -most recent large-scale Asian immigration came from Korea and Vietnam and during second half of the twentieth century - Korean immigration has been fairly gradual and Vietnamese immigration occurred after 1975 after fall of Saigon and establishment of restrictive communist policies in Vietnam - Vietnamese immigrants came as political refugees, seeking asylum from harsh conditions in their homeland - Refugee Act of 1980 helped them find a home in United States

sexuality

a person's capacity for desire, sexual preference, and sexual identity and behavior -sexual behavior is a cultural universal -.each society interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways, ie. premarital sex, age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviors -certain norms are shared among most societies, ie. incest taboo is present in every society, though which relative is deemed unacceptable for sex varies widely from culture to culture -societies generally have norms that reinforce their accepted social system of sexuality -"normal" in terms of sexual behavior is based on mores and values of society -individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion -religion used to have greatest influence on sexual behavior in most societies, but in now peers and media have emerged as two of strongest influences

discrimination

actions against a group of people based on race, age, religion, health, and other indicators -race-based laws against discrimination strive to address this set of social problems -ie. unfair housing practices and biased hiring systems -cannot erase discrimination from our culture just by enacting laws to abolish

symbolic interactionist view of gender

aims to understand human behavior by analyzing critical role of symbols in human interaction, which is relevant to discussion of masculinity and femininity -ie. to convince a male loan officer, you may state your case logically by listing all the hard numbers that make you a qualified applicant as a means of appealing to the analytical characteristics associated with masculinity -ie. to convince a female loan officer, you may make an emotional appeal by stating your good intentions as a means of appealing to caring characteristics associated with femininity -meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not natural, and fluid, not static, we act and react to symbols based on the current assigned meaning -ie. gay once meant "cheerful," but by the 1960s it carried primary meaning of "homosexual" - also, gay (as it refers to a homosexual), carried a somewhat negative and unfavorable meaning fifty years ago, but it has since gained more neutral and even positive connotations -both gender and sexuality are socially constructed

minority group

any group of people who are singled out from others for differential and unequal treatment -defined in 1945 by Louis Wirth -connotes discrimination -being a numerical minority is not a characteristic of being a minority group - sometimes larger groups can be considered minority groups due to their lack of power -Wagley and Harris said minority group is distinguished by five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage -also includes LBGT community, religious practitioners whose faith is not widely practiced where they live, and people with disabilities

gender socialization

aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning nature of being female or male in a specific group or society -four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media -agents create and maintain normative expectations for gender-specific behavior -secondary agents such as religion and the workplace -repeated exposure to these agents over time leads men and women into a false sense that they are acting naturally rather than following a socially constructed role

heteronormative

assumption that everyone is heterosexual unless there are signs indicating otherwise

bisexuality

attraction to individuals of either sex

heterosexuality

attraction to individuals of other sex -referred to as "straight"

homosexuality

attraction to individuals of same sex -referred to as "gay" respectively but more inclusive terminology is needed

pansexuality

attraction to people regardless of sex, gender, gender identity, or gender expression

gender identity

awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture -person's deeply held internal perception of one's gender

gender

behaviors, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to being female or male -sex does not always correspond to gender -characteristics may vary greatly between different societies -ie. in U.S. it is considered feminine (or a trait of female gender) to wear a dress or skirt -ie. in many Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) are considered masculine -ie. kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture

biological determinism

belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology

social construction of sexuality

belief that sexuality is a social construction -shaped by social factors and not biological or natural but created through society

prejudice

beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes someone holds about a group -not based on experience but is a prejudgment, originating outside actual experience

white privilege

benefits people receive simply by being part of dominant group -most white people are willing to admit that nonwhite people live with a set of disadvantages due to color of their skin -very few white people are willing to acknowledge benefits they receive

peer group (agent of socialization)

children become agents who actively facilitate and apply normative gender expectations to those around them -when children do not conform to appropriate gender role, they may face negative sanctions such as being criticized or marginalized by their peers

Pre-Columbian culture

Native American culture prior to European settlement -prior to coming of Christopher Columbus in 1492 -Columbus named indigenous people "Indians" because he thought he had landed in East Indies

gender dysphoria

condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with -DSM-5 replaced "Gender Identity Disorder" with "Gender Dysphoria." -gender identity disorder stigmatized patient by implying there was something "disordered" about them -gender dysphoria removes some of that stigma by taking word "disorder" out while maintaining a category that will protect patient access to care, including hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery -must be a marked difference between individual's expressed/experienced gender and gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months -separate category from sexual dysfunction and paraphilia -changing clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance in society - transgenders are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination and 1.5 as likely to experience intimidation as nontransgender individuals

Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

defined marriage as between only a man and women -1996 -many states and companies extended benefits to same sex partners and many states legalized same sex marriages -California passed Proposition 8 in 2008, a state law that limited marriage to unions of opposite-sex partners -Windsor v. United States in 2013 overturned parts of DOMA -Supreme Court dismissed of Hollingsworth v. Perry, affirming August 2010 ruling that found California's Proposition 8 unconstitutional -U.S. Supreme Court in 2014 declined to hear appeals to rulings against same-sex marriage bans, which effectively legalized same-sex marriage in Indiana, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin, Colorado, North Carolina, West Virginia, and Wyoming -Supreme Court ruled in 2015 in case of Obgerfell vs. Hodges that right to civil marriage was guaranteed to same-sex couples

genocide

deliberate extermination of a racial or cultural group -most toxic intergroup relationship -ie. Holocaust - Hitler's attempt to exterminate the Jewish people in the first part of the twentieth century - eradication of European Jewry, as well as destruction of other minority groups such as Catholics, people with disabilities, and homosexuals -ie. treatment of aboriginal Australians -ie. European colonization of North America - forced off lands and enslaved but mostly died from disease -ie. ethnic and geographic conflicts in Darfur region of Sudan have led to hundreds of thousands of deaths

miscegenation

demeaning historical term for interracial marriage -used to be extremely rare and often illegal -sexual subordination of slaves did result in children of mixed race but these children were usually considered black property -ie. historically no concept of multiple racial identities with possible exception of Creole society developed in New Orleans - mixed-race culture grew from French and African inhabitants - "Creoles of color" had greater social, economic, and educational opportunities than most African Americans

miscegenation

derogatory word for amalgamation -achieved through intermarriage between races -1967's Loving v. Virginia made last antimiscegenation law unconstitutional

sexual discrimination

discrimination (usually in employment) that excludes one sex or orientation to benefit of the other sex -major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have not come into effect until last few years -Obama overturned "don't ask, don't tell" policy that required gay and lesbian people in US military to keep their sexuality undisclosed in 2011 -Supreme Court decision in 2020 added sexual orientation and gender identity as categories protected from employment discrimination by Civil Rights Act

heterosexism

discrimination or prejudice against homosexuals on assumption that heterosexuality is normal sexual orientation -both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations -systematic disadvantage embedded in our social institutions, offering power to those who conform to heterosexual orientation while simultaneously disadvantaging those who do not

prejudiced discriminator

does not believe in the values of freedom and equality and consistently discriminates against other groups in both word and deed

expulsion

dominant group forcing subordinate group to leave a certain area -ie. Trail of Tears and Holocaust have expulsion as a factor in genocide -ie. Executive Order 9066 in 1942 authorized establishment of internment camps for anyone with as little as one-eighth Japanese ancestry - over 120,000 legal Japanese residents and Japanese U.S. citizens, many of them children, were held in these camps for up to four years

intergroup relations between whites and blacks

dominant-subordinate group relationship -in order to justify their severely discriminatory behavior, slaveholders and their supporters had to view blacks as innately inferior -slaves were denied even most basic rights of citizenship, a crucial factor for slaveholders and their supporters -slavery poses an excellent example of conflict theory's perspective on race relations; the dominant group needed complete control over the subordinate group in order to maintain its power -whippings, executions, rapes, denial of schooling and health care were all permissible and widely practiced -nation divided into geographically and ideologically distinct factions about slavery, leading to Civil War -century later, civil rights movement characterized by boycotts, marches, sit-ins, and freedom rides: demonstrations by a subordinate group that would no longer willingly submit to domination -Civil Rights Act of 1964 - banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin -some sociologists argue that institutionalized racism still exists

intergroup relations between Europeans and Native Americans

effect of European settlement of Americans was to nearly destroy the indigenous population -Native Americans' lack of immunity to European diseases caused most deaths -overt mistreatment of Native Americans by Europeans was devastating -European settlers took what land they wanted and expanded across continent at will -Europeans fought Native Americans off land with superior weapons -most tribes considered earth a living entity whose resources they were stewards of - concepts of land ownership and conquest didn't exist in Native American society -after establishment of the United States government, discrimination against Native Americans was codified and formalized in a series of laws intended to subjugate them and keep them from gaining any power -establishment of Indian boarding schools in late nineteenth century - run by both Christian missionaries and United States government - purpose of "civilizing" Native American children - schools located off-reservation to ensure that children were separated from their families and culture - forced children to cut their hair, speak English, and practice Christianity - no policy against physical and sexual abuses until 1987 - some scholars argue that many of the problems that Native Americans face today result from almost a century of mistreatment at these boarding schools

conflict theorist view of race and ethnicity

examines numerous past and current struggles between white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when dominant group perceived threat from minority group -ie. rising power of black Americans after Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely limited black political and social power -years since Civil War have shown a pattern of attempted disenfranchisement, with gerrymandering and voter suppression efforts aimed at predominantly minority neighborhoods

transphobia

fear, hatred or dislike of transgender people, and/or prejudice and discrimination against them by individuals or institutions

symbolic interactionist view of sex and sexuality

focus on meanings associated with sexuality and with sexual orientation -femininity is devalued in U.S. society as those who adopt such traits are subject to ridicule, especially boys or men -masculinity and heterosexuality signify normalcy -APA cites no association between sexual orientation and psychopathology and sees homosexuality as a normal aspect of human sexuality since 1973 -interested in how discussions of homosexuals often focus almost exclusively on sex lives of gays and lesbians - may be assumed to be hypersexual and, in some cases, deviant -interactionism might also focus on slurs used to describe homosexuals - labels such as "queen" and "fag" are often used to demean homosexual men by feminizing them, which affects how homosexuals perceive themselves

race

group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns or genetically inherited characteristics -less connected with ancestral and familial ties, and more concerned with superficial physical characteristics -used to be based on various geographic regions (ie. Mongolia and Caucus Mountains), ethnicities, or skin tones (ie. black, white, yellow, and red)

subordinate group

group of people who have less power than dominant group

dominant group

group with most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status

Hispanic Americans

have a wide range of backgrounds and nationalities -17.1 percent of population -75 percent of respondents who identify as Hispanic are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban origin -2010 U.S. Census states that "Hispanic" or "Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race"

current status of Asian Americans

have been subject to their share of racial prejudice, despite seemingly positive stereotype as model minority -stereotype can result in unrealistic expectations, by putting a stigma on members of this group that do not meet the expectations

prejudiced nondiscriminator

have negative attitudes but believe they must conform to anti-discrimination laws and norms

ethnicity

identity through shared culture—practices, values, and beliefs of a group -might include shared language, religion, and traditions -difficult to describe and its meaning has changed over time -individuals may be identified or self-identify with ethnicities in complex, even contradictory, ways

transgender

individual who identifies with a gender that is different from his or her biological sex -not the same as homosexual, and many homosexual males view both their sex and gender as male -two to five percent of the U.S. population is transgender -some may undertake a process to change their outward, physical, or sexual characteristics in order for their physical being to better align with their gender identity (male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM)) -many maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender - adopting dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, etc. -people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a gender different from their biological sex, are not necessarily transgender -experts believe biological and social factors - could be genetics or prenatal hormone levels or childhood and adulthood experiences

family (agent of socialization)

initial site for gender role socialization -single most significant agent of socialization -parents socialize sons and daughters differently -girls are given more latitude to step outside of their prescribed gender role -typically results in greater privileges afforded to sons, ie. boys are allowed more independence at an earlier age, may be given fewer restrictions on appropriate clothing, dating habits, or curfew, free from performing domestic duties such as cleaning or cooking -daughters are limited by their expectation to be passive and nurturing, generally obedient, and to assume many of the domestic responsibilities -fathers are firmer in their expectations for gender conformity than are mothers, and their expectations are stronger for sons than they are for daughters -parental socialization and normative expectations also vary along lines of social class, race, and ethnicity

queer theory

interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation -focuses on mismatches between anatomical sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation, not just division into male/female or homosexual/hetereosexual -there is a need for a more flexible and fluid conceptualization of sexuality—one that allows for change, negotiation, and freedom -Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick argued against U.S. society's monolithic definition of sexuality and its reduction to a single factor - sex of someone's desired partner -theorists utilizing queer theory strive to question ways society perceives and experiences sex, gender, and sexuality, opening door to new scholarly understanding

sedimentation of racial inequality

intergenerational impact of both practical and legalized racism that limits abilities of black people to accumulate wealth

homophobia

irrational fear of homosexuals that causes stereotyping and discrimination

asexuality

lack of sexual attraction or desire for sexual contact

gender inclusive language

language that does not discriminate against males or females -pronoun usage is gendered In many languages, including English -English has traditionally been binary, with "he/him/his," for male subjects and "she/her/hers," for female subjects - excludes those who identify as neither male nor female -"they," which was used for hundreds of years as a singular pronoun, is more inclusive -important step in recognizing and accepting of those whose gender is not man nor woman

exogamy

marriage to someone outside one's social group

social construction of race

more sociological way of understanding racial categories -race is not biologically identifiable and that previous racial categories were arbitrarily assigned and used to justify racist practices -recognizes that relative darkness or fairness of skin is an evolutionary adaptation to available sunlight in different regions of the world -in modern society, some people who consider themselves "white" actually have more melanin in their skin than other people who identify as "black" -in some countries, such as Brazil, class is more important than skin color in determining racial categorization - people with high levels of melanin may consider themselves "white" if they enjoy a middle-class lifestyle - people with low levels of melanin might be assigned identity of "black" if they have little education or money -reflected in way names for racial categories change with changing times

unprejudiced nondiscriminator

not personally prejudiced and do not discriminate against others

unprejudiced discriminator

not personally prejudiced but may sometimes, reluctantly, discriminate against other groups because it seems socially or financially convenient to do so

sex education

not required in all public school curricula in America -controversy is about type of sex education that should be taught -debate is over issue of abstinence and providing contraception -not effective to ignore sex ed because teen pregnancy and STD rate is much higher than other first world countries

dichotomous view of gender

notion that someone is either male or female -specific to certain cultures - not universal -berdache - used in past by anthropologists to refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as a different gender - seen in certain Native American tribes -Samoan culture has a "third gender" - fa'afafine, which translates as "the way of the woman," is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine trait - considered an important part of Samoan culture - have a varied sexual life that may include men and women

Native Americans

only nonimmigrant ethnic group in United States -once numbered in millions but by 2010 made up only 0.9 percent of U.S. populace -2.9 million people identify themselves as Native American alone, while an additional 2.3 million identify them as Native American mixed with another ethnic group -arrived millennia before European immigrants - between 45,000 and 12,000 BCE -thought that early Indians migrated to this new land in search of big game to hunt, which they found in huge herds of grazing herbivores in America -culture blossomed into intricate web of hundreds of interconnected tribes, each with its own customs, traditions, languages, and religions

stereotype

oversimplified generalizations about groups of people -can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic -may be positive (usually about one's own group) but are often negative (usually toward other groups) -doesn't take individual differences into account -new stereotypes are rarely created - recycled from subordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups

doing gender

performance of tasks or possession of characteristics based on gender role assigned to you -based on the work of West and Zimmerman -expressing masculinity or femininity is something we do or perform, not something we are

sex

physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity -characteristics will not vary greatly between different societies -ie. breasts and menstruation no matter which culture

segregation

physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions

sexual orientation

physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male and/or female) -divided into several categories: heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, pansexuality, and queer

redlining

practice in which banks refuse to make loans to people living in certain geographic locations

sexism

prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another -varies in level of severity -occurs at both the micro- and macro-levels -institutional discrimination is built into social structure

assimilation

process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on characteristics of dominant culture -may lead to loss of minority group's cultural identity as they become absorbed into dominant culture, but assimilation has minimal to no impact on majority group's cultural identity -some groups may keep only symbolic gestures of their original ethnicity, ie. Irish Americans may celebrate Saint Patrick's Day, many Hindu Americans enjoy a Diwali festival, and many Mexican Americans may celebrate Cinco de Mayo -antithetical to "salad bowl" created by pluralism -sociologists measure degree to which immigrants have assimilated to a new culture with four benchmarks: socioeconomic status, spatial concentration, language assimilation, and intermarriage

amalgamation

process by which minority group and majority group combine to form a new group -creates classic "melting pot" analogy; unlike "salad bowl," in which each culture retains its individuality, "melting pot" ideal sees the combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely

symbolic interactionist view of race and ethnicity

race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity -some think symbols of race, not race itself, are what lead to racism -Blumer suggested that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of dominant group - without these interactions, individuals in dominant group would not be racist because interactions contribute to an abstract picture of subordinate group that maintains status quo -look at how people define their races and race of others

structural functionalist view of race and ethnicity

racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have -functionalist might look at "functions" and "dysfunctions" caused by racial inequality -racism is functional for dominant group, ie. suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society (slavery in South justified by saying black people were fundamentally inferior to white and preferred slavery to freedom) -racism can contribute positively to functioning of society by strengthening bonds between in-group members through ostracism of out-group members -dysfunction of failure to take advantage of talent in subjugated group -dysfunction that money, time, and effort are wasted to maintaining separate and unequal educational systems prior to civil rights movement

de facto segregation

racial segregation that occurs in schools, not as a result of law, but as a result of patterns of residential settlement

sexuality in United States

rather restrictive of citizens' general attitudes about sex compared to other industrialized nations -higher rates of respondents condemn premarital sex, sex before age of 16, extramarital sex, and homosexuality -particularly restrictive in its attitudes about sex when it comes to women and sexuality - widely believed that men are more sexual than women -double standard started as prohibiting premarital sexual intercourse for women but allowing it for men and evolved into allowing women to engage in premarital sex only within committed love relationships, but allowing men to engage in sexual relationships with as many partners as they wish without condition -woman is likely to have fewer sexual partners in her life time than a man -future of society's sexual attitudes may be somewhat predicted by values and beliefs of country's youth - most young people ages fifteen to nineteen agree that its okay for an unmarried female to have a child and that waiting until marriage for sex is not realistic

racial steering

real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race

gender role

refers to society's concept of how men and women are expected to look and how they should behave -roles based on norms, or standards, created by society -ie. in U.S. culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination -starts with socialization at birth -children learn roles is through play - studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with "gender appropriate" toys even when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior -drive continues later in life - occupational roles are examples of typical U.S. male and female behavior, derived from our culture's traditions - adherence to them demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference

education (agent of socialization)

reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes -segregation by gender -ie. girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math and science -teachers may not even realize they are acting in ways that reproduce gender differentiated behavior patterns -schools subtly convey messages to girls indicating that they are less intelligent or less important than boys -teachers have traditionally treated boys and girls in opposite ways, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration -boys are also permitted a greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role

homosocial

relating to nonsexual, social interaction between members of the same sex, typically men -Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick -males in America are subject to a clear divide between two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity -women can express homosocial feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex) through hugging, handholding, and physical closeness -males refrain from these expressions since they violate the heteronormative expectation that male sexual attraction should be exclusively for females - experience more social disapproval for being physically close to other men

intergroup relations

relationships between different groups of people -range along a spectrum between tolerance and intolerance

Asian Americans

represent a great diversity of cultures and backgrounds -large differences between their experiences -5.3 percent of the population identify themselves as Asian

de facto segregation

segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice -cannot be abolished by court mandate -sociologists use segregation indices to measure racial segregation of different races in different areas - 0 is most integrated and 100 is least integrated

de jure segregation

segregation that is enforced by law -ie. apartheid movement of South Africa from 1948 to 1994 - South Africans were stripped of their civil rights and forcibly relocated to areas that segregated them physically from their white compatriots ie. Jim Crow laws that required segregated facilities for blacks and whites - 1896's Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson, which stated that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional until 1954's Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"

mass media (agent of socialization)

serves as another significant agent of gender socialization -women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers -parts are normally wholesome, saint-like figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure -same inequality is pervasive in children's movies -commercials and other forms of advertising also reinforce inequality and gender-based stereotypes -women are underrepresented in roles that involve leadership, intelligence, or a balanced psyche -themes intermingling violence and sexuality are quite common

conflict theorist view of sex and sexuality

sexuality is another area in which power differentials are present and where dominant groups actively work to promote their worldview as well as their economic interests -two key dimensions to debate over same-sex marriage --dominant groups (heterosexuals) wish for their worldview—traditional marriage and nuclear family—to win out over what they see as intrusion of a secular, individually driven worldview - gay and lesbian activists argue that legal marriage is a fundamental right that cannot be denied based on sexual orientation and there is a precedent for changes to marriage laws - 1960s legalization of formerly forbidden interracial marriages --from economic perspective, activists in favor of same-sex marriage point out that legal marriage brings with it certain entitlements like Social Security benefits and medical insurance - argue that denial of these benefits to gay couples is wrong

sexuality as a continuum

six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual rather than a dichotomy -Alfred Kinsey

conflict theorist view of gender

society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources -men are dominant group and women are subordinate group -social problems created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups -it is difficult for women to rise above men, as dominant group members create rules for success and opportunity in society -Engels studied family structure and gender roles - suggested that same owner-worker relationship seen in labor force is also seen in household, with women assuming role of proletariat -contemporary suggestion that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in family structure and create more democratic arrangements in home, although they may still carry majority of domestic burden

colorism

someone believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group -ie. darker skinned African Americans experience more discrimination than lighter skinned African Americans -ie. darker-skinned black male adolescents receiving more warnings about danger of interacting with members of other racial groups than did lighter-skinned black male adolescents

LGBT and LGBTQ

stands for "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender" (and "Queer" or "Questioning" when Q is added)

pluralism

state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing -represented by ideal of United States as a "salad bowl" -characterized by mutual respect on part of all cultures, both dominant and subordinate, creating a multicultural environment of acceptance -true pluralism is a difficult goal to reach

model minority

stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without challenging existing establishment

structural functionalist view of sex and sexuality

stress importance of regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability -family unit is most integral component in society so it is focus and argue in favor of social arrangements ensure family preservation -ie. Talcott Parsons argued that regulation of sexual activity is an important function of family - encourage sexual activity within marriage and discourage premarital and extramarital sex -encourage sexual activity in confines of marriage to intensify bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship -homosexuality is dysfunctional to society and cannot be promoted on a large-scale as an acceptable substitute for heterosexuality because procreation would eventually cease

racism

stronger type of prejudice used to justify belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others -set of practices used by racial majority to disadvantage racial minority -ie. Ku Klux Klan -Durkheim calls racism a social fact, meaning that it does not require action of individuals to continue - complex reasons related to educational, criminal, economic, and political systems in our society -racist attitudes and beliefs are often more insidious and harder to pin down than specific racist practices

immigration of African Americans

subordinate by conquest - ancestors did not come here by choice -Dutch sea captain brought first Africans to Virginia colony of Jamestown in 1619 and sold them as indentured servants -for next century, black and white indentured servants worked side by side -by 1705, Virginia passed slave codes declaring that any foreign-born non-Christian could be a slave, and that slaves were considered property -next 150 years saw rise of U.S. slavery, with black Africans being kidnapped from their own lands and shipped to the New World on trans-Atlantic journey known as the Middle Passage -black population grew until U.S.-born blacks outnumbered those born in Africa -slave class created because colonial (and later, U.S.) slave codes declared that child of a slave was a slave -by 1808, slave trade was internal in United States, with slaves being bought and sold across state lines like livestock -in 1808, during Thomas Jefferson's presidency, Congress prohibited international importation of humans to be used as slaves

scapegoat theory

suggests that dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group -ie. . Hitler was able to blame the Jewish population for Germany's social and economic problems -ie. recent immigrants have frequently been scapegoat for nation's or an individual's woes

African Americans

term can be a misnomer for many individuals -13.2 percent of United States' population is black

intersection theory

theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes -Patricia Hill Collins -way we experience race is shaped, for example, by our gender and class -multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create way we experience

sexuality in Sweden

thought to be most liberal when it comes to attitudes about sex, including sexual practices and sexual openness -very few regulations on sexual images in media -sex education starts around age six and is compulsory part of Swedish school curricula -permissive approach to sex has helped country avoid some of major social problems associated with sex -ie. rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease are among world's lowest

current status of African Americans

true equality does not yet exist -National Urban League's 2011 Equality Index reports that blacks' overall equality level with whites shows a growing trend of increased inequality with whites, especially in the areas of unemployment, insurance coverage, and incarceration -blacks also trail whites considerably in areas of economics, health, and education -election of country's first African American president in 2008 - despite being popularly identified as black, we should note that President Obama is of a mixed background that is equally white - startling percentage of critiques of Obama have been based on his race

feminist theory

type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues -radical feminism considers role of family in perpetuating male dominance - patriarchal perspectives and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted., causing women's viewpoints to be silenced or discredited or -Sanday's study of the Indonesian Minangkabau revealed that in societies some consider to be matriarchies (women comprise dominant group), women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively - men, however, do not experience sense of bifurcated consciousness under this social structure that modern U.S. females encounter

queer

umbrella term used to describe sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression

gender stratification

unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women -despite making up nearly half (49.8 percent) of payroll employment, men vastly outnumber women in authoritative, powerful, and, therefore, high-earning jobs -when a woman's employment status is equal to a man's, she will generally make only 77 cents for every dollar made by her male counterpart -women in paid labor force also still do majority of unpaid work at home - keeps working women in a subordinate role in family structure -all societies classify work by gender - cultural universal -division of labor studies found that in nearly all cases the jobs assigned to men were given greater prestige

culture of prejudice

value system that promotes prejudice, discrimination, and oppression -prejudice is embedded in our culture -because we are all exposed to these images and thoughts, it is impossible to know to what extent they have influenced our thought processes

institutional racism

way in which racism is embedded in fabric of society -ie. racial profiling - disproportionate number of black men arrested, charged, and convicted of crimes