Sociology Readings Exam 1

"Remembering Rosa Parks"

Rosa parks - famous for not giving up her seat to a white man She was fed up with racial inequalities Led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott Author is writing this to point out how Parks influenced his decision to conduct a tour of historical civil rights sites in Georgia and Alabama.

Sidewalk - Dunier

Selection about Duneier's ethnography of street vendors in NYC Hakim, a street vendor, is out of a book that a man, a deliveryman, wants to buy it for a female who LOVES to read Hakim reads a lot and is extremely knowledge Starts dating Alice who sells classics and best-sellers -> merge tables Hakim originally sold "black books" about/written by black people Hakim says he's a 'public character' Sidewalk life is a place for mutual support among strangers

"How to do sociology in the era of Trump" - Risman

- People before us made the society that shaped us, and we are making the society our children will inherit - We should give up hope to change social policy - Break glass barriers between college-educated elites and those who voted for trump - Public sociology: doing sociology that gets shared to the public for non-academic spaces; spreads to many as people as possible - Post-truth age: increasingly politicians and citizens aren't relying upon scientific evidence/sound empirical evidence to make decisions - 98% abt climate change -> it's a hoax

"Personal autonomy"

Self-autonomy means to be a law to oneself Claiming self-autonomy also means to deny the authority of any outsider What distinguishes autonomy-undermining influences on a person's decision, intention, or will from those motivating forces that merely play a role in the self-governing process?

"What is sociology: Developing a sociological perspective" (p 1-13) - Giddens et al:

- "learn that we construct society through our actions and we are constructed by it" - Sociological Imagination: the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions; "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life. - Social Structure: the underlying regularities or patterns in how people behave and in their relationships with one another - Developing a sociological perspective: the four questions a. How are the things that we take to be natural socially constructed? b. How is social order possible? c. Does the individual matter? (Does free will exist?) d. How are the times in which we are living different from the times that came before?

"Perspectives in criminological theory" - Walklate

- 6 theories 1. Classical criminology: criminals engage in rational calculative decision making when choosing to commit a crime (key presumption -> individuals have free will - individuals guided by hedonism: maximization of pleasure and minimization of pain - crime is normal; it's expected, and part of intrinsic human nature 2. Positivist Criminology: scientific commitment to the gathering of the 'facts' which cause crime - cause of crime due to individual biology rather than free will (Lombroso et al.) - atavism: Humans revert to an earlier developmental stage - poses free will question - only some people have the affected biology to be a criminal - others thought social forces were responsible for criminal behavior 3. Social disorganization: just like in animals and plants adapting to environment, you can identify patterns in the growth and development of the city - City as series of concentric zones radiating from city center - Zone of transition: urbanization create communities in which because of immigration -> competing norms and values --> breakdown of traditional norms/values --> social disorganization - One of 1st theories to consider social origins of criminality vs. Individual roots of crime (1+2) 4. Strain theory: Robert Merton, Functionalism: society behaves like an organism - Tensions btn legitimate and illegitimate means of acceding to norms and values -> deviant behavior - focused on social and cultural norms which underpinned social order and/or disorder and lower class - Importance of structural variables external to the individual Two parts: A. Strain: everyone in US theory is socialized into American dream and materialism; a cultural goal; - Some people have more opportunity to achieve American dream; - Some people less privileged are blocked from American dream; which leads to psychological stress, lashing out through anger or material necessities B. Anomie: American dream encourages material success, there are appropriate means to achieving it (be ethical, considerate, do it the right way) - More cultural socialization to focus on goal rather than the means --> creates anomic balance --> why people use the wrong means to achieve material success, people will cut corners through unethical/illegal means 5. Labelling theory Symbolic interactionism Understand the processes underpinning social life and the mechanisms by which meanings are assigned to those processes Direct attention towards quality of interactions which take place between people, how those interactions are understood, and how they become modified, refined, and developed Becker's labelling theory, 2 central components Concern to address how a particular behavior is labelled as deviant Pay attention to societal creation of laws and enforcement, who gets labelled as deviant Societal creation of deviance Concern to understand impact of that labelling process Understand effects on individuals who are deviant; lead to more crime and deviance; deviance-amplifying Ex. Convicts can't get a job as easily Falsely accused, pure deviant, conformist, secret deviant Limited: Never specified ideological constitution of moral/criminal categories 6. Marxist Criminology Capitalism creates the desire to consume; has to be recognized that not all members of society are able to earn enough to match levels of consumption induced by the capitalist process

"Queer Customs" - Kluckhohn

- Anthropology - We cannot explain acts soley in terms of the biological properties of the people concerned, their individual past experience, and the immediate situation - Past experience of other men in the form of culture enters into almost every event - Important not to confuse culture with society - Not all social events are culturally patterned - Every culture is designed to perpetuate the group and its solidarity - Basic categories of all cultures are similar - Each culture dissects nature according to its own system of categories Part applies only to those who perform the roles in the society for which these patterns are designed Explicit culture: those regularities in word and deed that may be generalized straight from the evidence of the ear and the eye Behavioral pattern: in sample of 100, 30 tend to marry sister of brother's wife Regulatory pattern: explicitly forbidden to marry member of one's own clan; thou shalt or a thou shalt not Implicit culture: natives do not announce their premises Forms and significances which seem obvious to an outsider will be denied outright by those who carry out the patterns Each specific culture constitutes a kind of blueprint for all of life's activities

"I'm a black feminist. I think call out culture is toxic: There are better ways of doing social justice work." - Ross (2019)

- Call-outs are justified to challenge "provocateurs", those who deliberately hurt others, or powerful people beyond our reach - Most public shaming is horizontal - They become self-appointed guardians of political purity - Calling-in engages in debates with words/actions of healing/restoration - People spend their times arguing rather than focusing on the important issues of discrimination and injustice - People avoid being called out, so they don't speak on certain topics - Calling-in: a call-out with love; its okay to make mistakes, we shouldn't be so aggressive

"Does the college major matter?" - Selingo 2013

- Employers care about your skills, not major - ¼ freshman change their field of study by end of 1st yr - "curiosity and willingness to adapt" - increasingly, college graduates lack interpersonal skills, prob. Solving, written and comm. Skills, teamwork skills and critical/analytical thinking - acquire necessary skills to succeed in workforce thru seeking passionate profs (don't hide in lectures), conducting research projects (critical thinking, accomplishment), study abroad (life changing)

"As fake news spreads, more readers shrug" - Tavernise 2016

- Fake news and proliferation of opinions that pass for news are creating confusion leaving readers doubting everything, including real news. - pushed up the political temperature and increased polarization - people on the right and the left have become more entrenched in their positions, less inclined to listen to the other

"Some principles of stratification" - Davis et al

- How does social inequality result from social class membership - Functionalist account - Class, stratification, and inequality are inevitable and functional to society - Need to appropriately place & motivate ppl - Happens bc some social positions are more important to the social system than others - Stratification is diff between societies - Social inequality: an unconsciously evolved system; societies ensure most important positions are filled by the most qualified - Resonates with what Marginal productivity theory from Stiglitz reading

"Of the 1%, by the 1%, for the 1%" - Stiglitz

- Marginal productivity theory; Higher-income = more productive & greater societal contribution (applauds rich people); -> meritocracy - But inequality increasing due to technology, globalization, social changes; etc; - Thin evidence of MPT: Corporate executives have brought on societal troubles like recession + wealthy more reluctant to spend money on common needs - Not using valuable assets in most productive way possible -> Undermine efficiency of economy: most people go into finance instead of other fields - Top 1% want it that way (I.e., intentional governance choices) through tax policy, (lowering capital gains), lax enforcement of anti-trust laws, manipulation of the financial system

"Saints and scroungers: Constructing the poverty and crime myth" - Hancock & Mooney

- Political myth exists when accounts of a sequence of events with same principal actors have the same overall interpretation and implied meaning circulate within a social group - Corporate crimes treated differently than crime committed by lower class; Middle-class criminality - 'deserving' vs. 'undeserving poor' - Those who receive welfare seen as a burden on the rest of society; Deeply rooted historically, renewed in the wake of 2008 financial crisis - Criminality occurs and harm is perpetrated by actors located throughout the social structure - Working-class communities portrayed as generators of many contemporary social problems, dysfunctional families, lazy, lack aspiration

"Class struggle in the USA" - Dowd (2012)

- Public believes class conflict is rising - Both political parties claim to represent middle class - Class has a moral identity (middle class = hardworking, upper class = greedy, lower-class = lazy)

"The saints and the roughnecks" - Chambliss

- Saints and Roughnecks were 2 groups of adolescent boys who participated in similar delinquent activities but had different socioeconomic statuses - socioeconomic status drastically affected community's perception of the boys - both groups lived up to expectations in adulthood (labeling theory & symbolic interactionism) - conflict theory is also applicable

"Body ritual among the nacirema" - Miner

- Satirical work - Nacirema are North American group - Economic pursuits and ritual activity huge part of life - Masochistic tendencies? - Scraping and lacerating surface of the face with a sharp instrument - Excretory functions are ritualized, routinized, and relegated to secrecy - Intercourse is taboo

"Doing sociology" - Kaufman 2011

- Sociology is about how you approach the world, not what careers lie ahead - The Four Points (of doing sociology) a. Understanding: How do you name, describe and identify the issue? b. Reflection: How does the issue affect you? c. Analysis: Dig deeper to understand through sociological ideas, concepts and theories d. Action: How should you address the issue? - not in one order

"Introduction to the Discipline" "Invitation to Sociology" - Berger

- Things are not what they seem, we need to understand the world - goal of sociology for students: developing a sociological perspective ("the sociological imagination") -> Allows for the "transformation of consciousness" - interested in "the doings" of people - Society has multiple layers and it's a paradox; frees us but also takes away freedom (create rules) - Personal "troubles" and social "issues" are closely related

"Crime control, American style: From social welfare to social control" - Beckett & Western

- US has "get-tough" approach to crime; crime control expenditures has increased while weakened welfare; social policy more punitive; - how this "get-tough" governance was adopted by US and its consequences - "get-tough" approach was adopted due to reorientation of government policy around social control instead of social welfare - Analyze impact of increasing incarceration - Incarceration of many working-age men in US conceals high level of unemployment, esp. black men - Changing Face of Governance in the United States: several theories, Garland (penal policies have cultural underpinnings); more crime-ridden so individual experiences create heightened anxiety about crime - Crime, Punishment, and Reconstruction of the State: 1950's politicization of crime, Visions of poor as dangerous and undeserving; - From Social Control to Social Welfare: welfare programs weakened by Acts (legislation) - high incarceration rate reduces the productivity and employment of the male workforce

"Justifications and purposes of imprisonment" - Dunbar et al

- Why do we punish?; 'expressive' function: creates social solidarity & expresses blame - Justifications for punishment a. Deterrence - influence through fear of consequences; however, Ppl are deterred by informal social control mechanism (opinion of friends/families) much more than threat of formal sanctions b. Rehabilitation - reform offender's character c. Incapacitation - preventing offender from committing crimes in society (locking him up) d. Retribution - suffer punishment bc they deserve it e. Alternative: offenders should compensate victims & society for their wrongs thru payment + community service - Ppl need to feel protected

"How to do social sciences without data" - Gross 2017

- Zygmunt Bauman: sociologist, published Modernity and the Holocaust"; against widespread view that Holocaust reflected overarching anti-Semitic madness, he described the genocide as result of the modern era. - efficient transportation systems were essential elements, alongside anti-Semitism, of Hitler's mass slaughter - was a work of theory and synthesis. He collected no data and had no methodology - now, we are transitioning from the "solid modernity" of the mid-20th century to the "liquid modernity" of today. - Life is freer, more fluid and a lot more risky, no continuity - Our leading researchers prefer the concrete to the abstract

"The shadowy lines that still divide" - NY Times

- class lines seem to have blurred due to diversity of products to buy but inequality has increased - class plays a greater role today than 3 decades ago - Reduction in income mobility - Yes, merit partially replaced system of inherited status - But 'merit' is in part class-based -> wealth-based meritocracy - Parents with money, education & connections: cultivate in their children the habits that meritocracy rewards

"Ethnonationalism and the rise of Donald Trump" - Manza & Crowley

- ethnonationalism/anti-immigration main motivators of trump voters - Argued that voters who were economically insecure/economically downward were not the main motivator of trump voters (popular myth) - two theories of trump's rise not mutually exclusive - Trump didn't benefit from a bloc of poor/low-income voters; Trump support grew among ppl who want less social spending - DT was unprecedented (lack of decorum, not following traditional norms, bullying, getting accused of sexual assault) but not unprecedented in use of racial resentment - figure like DT could repeat again because racial resentment/ethnonationalism is now a partisan divide (becoming part of the Republican party)

"The Sociological Imagination" - Mills

- sociology is an attempt to understand - A trouble is private: Values cherished by an individual are felt by him to be threatened - An issue is public: Some value cherished by publics is felt to be threatened - well-being: When people cherish some set of values and don't feel any threat to them - crisis: when they cherish values but do feel them to be threatened - indifference: Ppl that are neither aware of any cherished values nor experience any threat - apathy: Indifference with all values - Institutions and other societal forces are in control of everyone's private lives; some are unaware of these forces and feel threats to their values but don't know what it is; the rapid change of institutions/societal forces also reinforce uneasiness and indifference - 'Personal troubles of milieu' and 'public issues of social structure': Personal experiences/viewpoints vs. Larger social forces - making a Distinction is an essential tool of sociological imagination - So is...being able to see the connections btn them

"Introduction to Sociological Theory" - Ritzer

- theory: "A set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systemization of knowledge of the social world, the explanation of that world, and predictions about the future of the social world" - everything, from most exalted to most mundane can be the subject of social theory" - Social theory is based on previous works (broader issues) vs. Lay theory is more narrow/personal issues, - Social theorists publish their theories scientifically + base their theories on data - diff. levels in theory: micro, meso, macro - Scope also relates to goal(s) of theory E.g., Merton's strain theory vs. General control theory - Theoretical perspectives/traditions include Symbolic interactionism, Functionalism, Conflict theory, and more

"Afrofuturism and black panther" - Strong & Chaplin (2019)

Afrofuturism: used techno-culture and science fiction as a lens for understanding Black experience Uses time travel to explore how institution of slavery and its intersections of race, gender and relationships shape both present and future societies Black Panther provides positive portrayals of Africa beyond stereotypes of civil warfare and violence, disease, famine, and other social ills Pan-African identity Divine Feminine Powerful women decoupled from European ideas Imagination gives us agency

"Sociology and the gene" - Ledger

All social sciences assume individuals are same at first and then differences are due to social environment Genetically informed sociology Genes for behavior? Social environment often interacts with genetic factors Promoting expression of a gene or dampening it Some genes could be altered in an individual thru events like trauma Social environment actually changes genes Plasticity of the genome Some say "how can u look for the genetic basis for socially constructed behaviors?" Even socially constructed behaviors have components which reflect basic workings fo the mind Genes and environment interact to create behavior Social factors like stress can turn certain genes on or off Similar to twin studies (same innate genes) Social life stresses were stronger than genes Genes and environment play off one another More medical sciences are using sociological tools and thinking Class notes: Nature/nurture Emergent field of 'genetically-informed sociology' Genes: presence vs expression Epigenetics Recent research (make sure u understand what they're arguing) Guo: ""Almost all social sciences, including economics, basically assumes individuals are the same at first; teen sexuality Sha:

"The presentation of self in everyday life" - Goffman

Any expression has to sign activity The expression that he gives Verbal symbols - conveys the info attached to the symbols Traditional The expression that he gives off Wide range of action that is symptomatic of the author Expectation - the action was performed for reasons other than the info conveyed in this way This distinction has an initial validity only In communication, when someone is in the presence of others, his activity will have a "promissory character" He may have diff objectives, but he should control their conduct/responsive treatment Control this by controlling situation by controlling his expressions "the kind of impression Preedy thinks he is making is in fact the kind of impression that others correctly & incorrectly glean from someone in their midst" If the others act like the individual conveyed a certain impression.. The individual has "effectively" projected a given definition of the situation And "effectively" fostered the understanding that a given state of affairs obtains Infinite cycle - concealment, discovery, false revelation & rediscovery Witness likely has the advantage - retain initial asymmetry of communication Modus vivendi - arrangement for two parties to coexist peacefully Contributes to an overall defintion of the situation Not a real agreement about what exists About whose claims concerning what issues will be temporarily honored Also about avoiding an open conflict of definitions of the situation This level of agreement - "working consensus" Diff in diff settings Defines situation -> lines of responsive action First impressions When they signify their certain social characteristics - gthey ough to be this Also, when they define the situation (claims to be a particular person), exerts a moral demand upon the others

"The power elite" - Mills

Challenges to the American system Not many important challenges to its basic legitimations Power elite is in its fifth epoch There is a certain political order Politics is less genuine now

"The looking glass self" - Cooley

Sense of self...comes from interaction 'I am not what I think I am, and I am now what u think I am'... I am what I think you think I am Perceptions, mental schema, identity: shaped socially And sense of self...shapes our actions Social facts as internal & coercive

"America's faulty perception of crime rates," - Eisen & Roeder (2015)

Article was written in 2017 Highlights St.Louis - 7 killings Gallup poll Violent crime has actually dramatically declined People seem to think the opposite " serious crime has decreased almost every year from 1994 through 2013" Some cities are still more dangerous/violent than others, but crime has dropped overall The New York Times's murder mentions do not reflect the decline of the homicide rate (New york) Other magazines/newspapers have had a decline in murder mentions Crime rates have dropped, attention to crime has dropped, but the people still think there is a lot of violence Why does it matter? The public is still afraid since the crime surge in the late 1900s Covering a single crime is misleading about the actual crime violence in America Crime is actually at a low, so we should make sure our policy-makers maintain that rate "Just as with the case of airplane crashes, the public may see the extraordinary event as representative of the norm when it is not."

"The interaction order of bathrooms" - Cahil

Backstage: very important Comparing backstage to frontstage action: very telling But: bathroom only partially backstage: 'Sacred' front can come down...but are still performing Reveals how loyal we are to commonly understood, but unspoken, rules that govern everyday social interaction Negative interpersonal rituals? Honoring right to privacy (in some public situations) Civil inattention (aka studied non-observance) "enough visual notice to demonstrate that one appreciates that the other is present...while at the next moment withdrawing one's attention from him so as to express that he does not constitute a target of special curiosity" Washing hands? Social (not just personal) practice Norms/rituals of urinal conversations? How did you learn?

"Culture as figurative action" - Shearing & Ericson (1991)

Critique the model that culture is a set of rules that generate action Police culture is the focus of this Link between culture and action People don't walk around with rules in their heads to apply to situations in the midst of action Used this approach to analyze how police officers make decisions Typically police deviate from legal instructions Conclude they must follow some alternate system of rules This approach is limited Ethnomethodological critique Rule-based model captures an important truth about society, the social world presents itself as a Durkheimian reality bc people often present their own, and others, activity as rule-generated Activity of reality construction Analysis of police stories suggests that culture is a poetic system that enables action through a trope and precedent based logic Logic transfer knowledge thru analogous reasoning

"Normality of crime" - Durkheim

Determining normal vs abnormal is much more different for sociologists than doctors/biologists Crime is seen as abnormal but actually its inevitable part of society Thus crime is actually normal Even if there was no crime, smallest deviations to collective values would be seen as an infraction and then be considered a crime Crime is inevitable Crime sometimes causes changes in the collective sentiments of morality Crime can no longer be perceived as an evil that cannot be too much suppressed

"Deviance and social control"

Deviance is a cultural universal Deviance = violation of societal or group norms Social control vs. Informal control Cuts across all persons and structures in society Relative and changeable Rural and urban settings usually have relative definitions of deviance Bc situations and settings redefine deviance

Classical Sociological Theory on Durkheim, Marx & Weber - Ritzer

Excerpt 1: Durkheim Social Facts Study of social facts is crucial in separating sociology from philosophy SOCIAL FACTS TO BE TREATED AS THINGS S.F. are external to, and coercive of, the actor Soci - study of S.F Psych - study of psych facts Internal (inherited) Material Social Facts Real, material entities Less significant in Durkheim's work Ex - architecture & law Nonmaterial Social Facts 'norms' and 'values', culture Not so clear-cut > found in minds of actors Mental phenomena Major levels of social reality (durkheim) Material S. F. Society Structural components of society (ex. Church and state) Morphological components of society (ex. Population distribution, channels of communication, and housing) Nonmaterial S.F. Morality Collective Conscience Collective representations Social Currents Durkheim saw society as composed of "organs" - social facts/structures with diff. Functions Studied the causes of social structures and their functions Excerpt 2: Durkheim A society with mechanical solidarity is characterized by repressive law A society with organic solidarity is characterized by restitutive law "Individual needs morality and external control to be free" Anomie lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group Division of labor makes up for weakening collective morality a little bit Collective Conscience More important in societies with organic solidarity, not mechanical Differentiated in 4 ways Volume - how many ppl enveloped by the CC Intensity - how deeply the individuals feel about it Rigidity - how clearly it is defined Content - takes to polar types of society Excerpt 2: Morx Alienation

"Tuck in that shirt: Race, class, gender and discipline in an urban school" - Morris

Focus/research questions? - correlation between race, class, and gender to amount of correction and punishment due to their appearance - Process of socialization ('hidden curriculum') inside middle school - Methods/data?: Ethnography, Observational & interview, survey - at Middle school in TX Findings? - Black & Latino vs. White & Asian-American - Black & Latino: seen as having 'street' values, potential aggression, in need of cultural capital - Boys: 'overly masculine' vs. Girls: 'inadequately feminine' - White & Asian: their "race often seemed to represent cultural capital in itself" - Important: how teachers perceived students (and assumptions that permeated their perceptions) - Assumptions structured by race, gender, class, etc Intersectionality; they modify class and vice versa - clothing styles and manners function as important and visible aspects of cultural capital

"Free will" - excerpt, Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy

Free will is closely related to moral responsibility it is plausible that the central loci of our responsibility are our choices, or "willings." Argues free willing are a subset of willings Rene Descartes thinks it's a freedom of choice Debates on whether we even have it He main perceived threats to our freedom of will are various alleged determinisms: physical/causal; psychological; biological; theological. For each variety of determinism, there are philosophers who (i) deny its reality, either because of the existence of free will or on independent grounds (ii) accept its reality but argue for its compatibility with free will (iii) accept its reality and deny its compatibility with free will.

"The development of sociological thinking", (p 13-20) - Giddens et al

French Philosopher, Auguste Comte Invented the word sociology - initially social physics Apply scientific method to study human behavior Believed society and social order is not natural (no divine power), constructed by individuals Plans to reconstruct French society Emile Durkheim Famous first principle "study social facts as things!" Social facts - aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals Came up with Organic Solidarity Social cohesion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole Continuation/existence depends on cooperation Societies exert social constraint over their members' actions Conditioning influence on our behavior of the groups and societies of which we are members Distinct property of social facts Analysis of social change based on division of labor Gradually replacing religion as a social cohesion As it expands, people become more dependent on each other Karl Marx Connected economic problems to social institutions Materialist Conception of History It is not the ideas or values human beings hold that arre the main sources of social change Social change is prompted by economic influences Capitalism - class system Max Weber Rejected the materialist conception of history, class conflict is not as significant Major study - bureaucracy Enables large org. To run well but limits democracy Involves the rule of experts, who make decisions without consulting those whose lives are affected by them Hesitant to label sociology as a science Neglected founders Women and racial minorities are often ignored Harriet Martineau The first woman sociologist Significant contributions Activist for women and slavery Positive philosophy Studied American society Methodological insight Focus on all aspects (political, religious, and social institutions) when studying a society Analysis of a society must include all members (including women) Paid attention to ignored issues (marriage, children, race relations) Do more than just observe, act to benefit society W.E.B. Du Bois First African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard "double consciousness" - view identity through lens of African Americans History and society influence identity "the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line Connected social analysis to social reform Understanding the Modern World: The Sociological Debate Capitalism is less central to modern social development Weber - religious values shape society and create a capitalistic outlook Rationalization - the organization of social, economic, and cultural life according to principles of efficiency, on the basis of technical knowledge

"Finding out how the social world works" - Schwalbe

Intriguing example - despite a common instinct thought, there are more poor white people than poor black people simply because there are many more white people in America Way to know things Logical deduction Elaborates knowledge Wrong premise -> wrong conclusion Passed down knowledge How do we know what they tell us is right? Personal Experience & Observation Easy to misjudge and overgeneralize Systematic Research Mystical Revelation Instinctive knowledge Sociologically mindful - be aware of the limitations of your source of knowledge Systematic research is the best source knowledge Using a standard method controls personal biases Goes beyond observation Scientists can offer feedback to each other Always question knowledge, no matter what the source is Be mindful of where your knowledge comes form The Kinds of Questions We Can Ask Knowledge is a response to a question Empirical Q - answerable by measuring, counting, or observing Aesthetic Q - a 'q' about what is subjectively pleasing to the senses; no evidence/logic Moral Q - calls for judgement Interpretation Q - what does it mean Interpreting the Answers to Empirical Questions Clear poverty rates of white and black people; black > white Schwalbe saw it as evidence of racism and discrimination A student saw it as evidence of black inferiority Schwalbe supported his interpretation with reasonable explanation Limited education opportunity, discrimination in hiring, factories closing down But it does not prove his interpretation to be correct Its also not an opinion Mindful Skepticism There is a way to notice which numbers are right Who benefits from this information being true? Seek alternative views "Columbus discovered America," vs. "Columbus launched a brutal invasion of an already populated continent." Alternative can be conventional for someone else Many angles allows for better understanding of the world Partial Truth and Inevitable Uncertainty We're scared to lose what we think is true Socio mindful - we never possess the absolute, complete truth Be flexible, have an open mind, learn more Be okay with uncertainty Perpetual Inquiry and Conversation Mindful skepticism of all knowledge -> avoid nihilism and fanaticism (dead ends) Nihilism - "There is no truth. Anyone can make up numbers. You might as well believe what you want.") Fanaticism - "There is only one truth and my people know it!All other be- liefs are false or insane!"* M.S. encourages further inquiry and discoveries Conversation is a means to this end and an end in itself Curiosity, Care and, Hope Curiosity would make living forever interesting - more and more learning about the world Social mindfulness -> discover more wrongs of the social world Doesn't inspire hope Inspire outrage and a desire to change things Sometimes, awareness of problems + feeling powerless = despair Possibility of change - HOPE Knowledge is obtained from personal experiences other people logical deduction systematic research Family member/friend, social media (media sources) (instincts?) Others 'Sociologically' mindful: aware of limitations of each Problems with logical deduction Start with faulty premises Problems with personal experiences Bias Knowledge is too generalized; perspective is too narrow N of 1 = sample size of 1 Once it has come from a previous source of information, it can become its own generator of ideas (assumption) Knowledge from any source should be critically interrogated "If research is not done properly, it can yield as much foolishness as any other methods" Systematic research Not immune from bias or mistakes, but ...what sets it apart? Widely accepted means of research Empirical evidence Rather than common sense, assumptions, opinion Empirical: based on observation, measurement, and/or experience (rather than theory, logic, or assumption) Beyond personal experience (problem of the n of 1) Allows for 'checking up' Review, confirmation, criticism Peer review Can't be used for non-empirical questions Is the death penalty just or unjust? What else? Types of questions Interpreting empirical device Mindful skepticism Not selective skepticism Not hostility 'sociologically mindful' Current knowledge/beliefs as provisional Partial truth and inevitable uncertainty Perpetual inquiry Compare contrast with 'alternative facts'

The code of the streets - Anderson 3) "The cultural economic connection"

Issues of poverty Many go on to be drug dealers Black males are stereotyped and demonized - rep, appearance Employer discrimination Clocking: the drug trade as a living Violent fall out Personal & public experience Common ownership of guns Health?? The crack culture: rationale and consequences Violence/drug activity is a reflection of dislocations in the economic transformations Lack of education/training for black people, but Du Bois also noted racism as a problem Alvin and Joyce Alvin - 26, big drug dealer Lived the fast life showered Joyce with love Joyce - 17, cleaning women They're very happily engaged until Alvin get shot in a drug related altercation

"The Lucifer effect: understanding how good people turn evil" - Zimbardo

Lucifer effect - attempt to understand good people who do bad things Evil (Zimbardo's definition) - intentionally behaving in ways that harm, abuse, demean, dehumanize, or destroy innocent others - or using one's authority and systematic power to encourage or permit others to do so on your behalf. -> knowing better but doing worse What influences human behavior? Inner determinants vs. Outer determinants We tend to view ourselves very highly - egocentric bias Three issues How well do you really know yourself, strengths and weaknesses? Does your self- knowledge come from reviewing your behavior in familiar situations or from being exposed to totally new settings where your old habits are challenged? How well do you really know your family, friends, co-workers and lover? Evil: Fixed and Within or Mutable and Without? Benefits of the idea that there is a separation between good people and bad people Creates a binary logic - evil is essentialized Assumption that some people are inherently evil and some are not Takes "good people" off the responsibility hook Alternative conception - evil is incremental We are all capable of it, esp. Depending on the situation Alternative Understandings: Dispositional, Situational, and Systemic Essentialist vs. Incremental parallel to Dispositional vs. Situational There are shootings, kids murdering kids, suicide bombers...why? Traditional view Look within for answers - for pathology or heroism Modern psychiatry is dispositionally oriented Ask questions like "who is responsible?" Or "Who gets blame/credit?" Situational - looks for deeper causes Ex: Dispositional approach will offer a child with a learning disability different medical/behavioral treatment. Meanwhile, a situationalist will find that the problem is caused by ingesting lead in paint from walls (worsened by poverty) Power Systems Exert Pervasive Top-Down Dominance Institutions create mechanisms that translate ideology (ex. Causes of evil) into operating procedures (ex. Witch hunts) Systems of power influence situational conditions Ex: good cops vs bad cops Majority is said to be good, but who distinguishes them? - The people who isolate the problem and take attention away from those at the top The power elite are often who arrange factors of our life The Power to Create "The Enemy" The powerful people aren't the ones who do the dirty work What does it take for a society to hate, torture and kill another society? A "hostile imagination" - psychological construction that transforms those others into "The Enemy" Process begins with stereotyped and dehumanized perceptions of the other Most nation's propaganda for war -> hostile imagination Most extreme instance - genocide Crimes Against Humanity: Genocide, Rape, and Terror Literature teaches us no one is incapable of evil We live in the "mass murder century" Government decrees Ottoman Turks slaughtered Armenians Nazis killed in concentration camps Stalin's soviet empire murdered Russians Horrific Images of Abuse at Abu Ghraib Prison Understand the how/why of physical/psych abuse of prisoners at the Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq American men/women tortured civilians they were meant to guard Why create photographic evidence? Trophy? Cruel, vivid photos Female soldier said abuse was "just fun and games" People curious to how these "few bad apples" could do such evil Zimbardo is more curious as to what things in the prison could have caused even good soldiers to do bad things Parallel Universes in Abu Ghraib and Stanford's Prison Zimbardo not surprised by the images of prisoner abuse because of his own experiment Similarities in photos Had random healthy college students role play guards or prisoners -> abuse

Marx, excerpt of The German Ideology

Marx: alienation within capitalism https://rice0-my.sharepoint.com/personal/sjk7_rice_edu/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?sourcedoc={1a9db22a-deac-40af-97fc-2070229d56d4}&action=edit&wd=target%28SOCI.one%7C27bcda7b-4a9d-44f6-a928-6987d633e66a%2F9%5C%2F11%20Wed%7C12172a72-ad37-4e8c-8df6-78650f7b405f%2F%29

"The development of sociological thinking" (p. 21-28) - Giddens et al

Modern Theoretical Approaches Symbolic Interactionism Developed by George Herbert Mead Emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction Language allows to be more aware of our own individuality Criticized for not dealing well with larger-sale structures and processes Functionalism Based on idea that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform - that is, the contributions they make to the continuity of a society Manifest functions - known to, and intended by, the participants in a social activity Latent functions - consequences of that activity of which participants are unaware Marxism and Class Conflict Combo of sociological analysis and political reform Emphasize conflict, class divisions, power, and ideology Power - capability of individuals/groups to make their own interests count, regardless of any resistance Accompanied by ideologies, sometimes used to justify the actions of the power. Conflicts are often about power Feminism and Feminist Theory Women's experiences are central to the study of society Sociology presumes a male point of view Emphasizes that gendered patterns and gendered inequalities are socially constructed Rational Choice Theory Weber divided behavior into four categories Behavior oriented toward higher values (politics) Behavior oriented toward habit (walking to school) Behavior oriented toward affect (emotions) Behavior oriented toward self-interest (money) Aka instrumental or rational action Rational choice approach - if you could have only a single variable to explain society, self-interest would be the best one Postmodern Theory Postmodernism - society is no longer governed by history or progress. Highly pluralistic and divers "no grand narrative" guiding its development Media is allowing for social life to be influenced by signs and images Theoretical Thinking in Sociology Difference between a theoretical approach and theories Robert K. Merton says we should focus on theories of the middle range (more modest) Tested by empirical research, cover a range of phenomena A wide range theory is more difficult to test empirically Levels of Analysis Microsociology - study of everyday behavior during face-to-face interaction Macrosociology - analysis of large scale social systems

"Being sane in insane places" - Rosenhan

Normality and abnormality are not universal Can the sane be distinguished from the insane? Can degrees of insanity be distinguished from each other? Do characteristics of insanity lie inside patients or in the environments/contexts we find them in? Belief has been that patients present symptoms, which are categorized which distinguish sane from insane Recently questioned Recent view: psychological categorization of mental illness is useless at best and downright harmful, misleading, and pejorative at worst Patients often recognized normality when staff did not raises important questions Massive role of labeling in psychiatric assessment Perception of circumstances was shaped entirely by diagnosis Characteristic of psychiatric diagnosis is that it locates the sources of aberration within individual and only rarely within the complex of stimuli that surrounds him Process of socialization within hospital = mortification Processes of depersonalization that have been described there Can't distinguish sane from insane in psychiatric hospitals

The code of the streets - Anderson 1) "The code of the streets"

Poor inner-city black community The streets The decent Code of streets Informal rules governing public behavior Penalties Decent and street facilities

"Outsiders" - Becker

Social groups create deviance by making the rules for deviance Apply rules to people, labeling them "outsiders" Those labeled as deviant are not homogenous Deviance = product of transaction btn some social group and another group that is labeled as a rule-breaker Deviance involves responses of other people to the behavior Variations in rule enforcement Moral Entrepreneurs Rule creators Moral crusaders Rule enforcers Crusade becomes institutionalized Harm must be discovered and pointed out Deviance - infraction of some agreed-upon rule Leads to assumption of type of ppl who break the rule Ignores the central fact: deviance is created by society Social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance - applies this to the "outsiders" There are not personality traits for people who commit a certain deviant act What do they have in common besides their label Deviance also depends on how ppl react to it Who commits it and who has been harmed Not all rules are enforced Enforcement requires explanation Explanation rests on: Enforcement of a rule is an enterprising act - someone has to punish them Enforcement occurs when those who want the rule enforced publicly bring the infraction to the attention of others Can't be ignored once public Ppl make enforcement necessary when there is an advantage Interest to enforce varies with complexity of situation Moral entrepreneurs Rule Creators Interested in content and change of rules Moral crusaders - help those beneath them achieve a higher status Concerned more with ends than means Success -> new rule Fail -> can become outsiders themselves Rule Enforcers Deviance is the result of an enterprise

"Sociology and social facts" - Durkheim

Sociology is in stage of system-building and philosophical syntheses No clear solution to no clear problem Sociological method - social facts must be studied as things

"Asking and answering sociological questions" - Giddens et al

Starts off with context of the frequent police presence in hospitals serving African American communities Why Hang Out with Men Who Are On the Run? Alice Goffman spent six years in a poor black neighborhood Warrants for low level violation -> live in fear For most, hospitals just mean going to the doctor but for this Philadelphia neighborhood, it is a risk Using Theoretical Approaches Is Sociology a Science? Mills created the "sociological imagination" but Goffman also expanded her knowledge through the direct involvement with her subjects People pushed to make Sociology had to move past theories, find facts & data Robert Park - wanted ideas to relate directly to the actual lives of ppl, based on evidence about their lives Used the city as his laboratory - interviews, observation Research was systematic William Ogburn - focus more on the science Sociologists can study anything that could be measured with numbers Science - use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical thinking, and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of knowledge about a subject matter Sociology is scientific, but it is not a natural science We can pose questions directly to who/what we study If someone knows their being studied, they may not behave normally The Research Process Defining the research problem An area of factual ignorance about certain institutions, social processes, or cultures? Problems can be puzzles - not just lack of info, but a gap in our understanding (why) Reviewing the Evidence Making the Problem Precise How to approach problem Formulate a hypotheses Working Out a Design Choose method Carrying out the Research Difficulties may arise Interpreting the results Reporting the Findings Understanding Cause and Effect Correlation is not causation Causal Mechanisms - parents' attitudes and facilities for learning in the home (good grades) Find ind., dep., & control variables Previous research helps identify causal relationships Open to different interpretations Research Methods Ethnography Participant observation/interviewing Provides info of behavior of group Limitations only smaller groups can be studied Researcher may conclude more about his effects on the group Researcher may become extremely involved -> no longer an outside observer Generalization and based on interpretation Surveys Provides less detailed info; can be generalized to population at large Standardized - fixed choice of questions with fixed range of responses (very unlikely - very likely) Can be misleading Open-ended questionnaires More detailed Difficult to compare statistically Must be calibrated Accommodate the characteristics of respondents (understandable? Offensive? Answerable?) Pilot study - trial run to see errors in survey Sampling Studying a representative proportion of a group Random sampling Advantages Easily quantified and analyzed Can study large group of people Disadvantage Doubt for accuracy High level of nonresponse Experiments Test a hypothesis under controlled conditions Common in natural sciences, more difficult in sociology bc only small group can be studied in a lab Subject know theyre being studied -> unnatural behavior? Life Histories Belong only to social sciences Consist of biographical material about particular individuals Relies on person's memory, letters, newspaper descriptions Some sociologists think it doesn't provide useful info, some believe it offers new source of insight Comparative Research Compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies Historical Analysis Historical perspective in sociology Research in the Real World: Methods, Problems, and Pitfalls Triangulation - the use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data Research involving human beings -> ethical dilemma Reflexivity - our thinking/behavior and sociology shape each other

The code of the streets - Anderson 2) "Tyree's story"

Story of a fifteen year old black student He has never met his dad, other male figures in his life through his mom Moved to a poorer neighborhood after his house burned down Gets beat up by the 'bols' For four weeks, scared of them Eventually fights J.C. and becomes a member Loses but shows heart

"Learn to love uncertainty and failure" - Jha

Web magazine Edge invites scientists, philosophers, artists to answer a question This year - "What scientific concept would improve everybody's cognitive toolkit" They called for "shorthand abstractions" - briefly describing an idea/scientific concept that could be used as a part of bigger questions The Responses Several entailed the idea that the public often debates about things they don't fully understand (climate change, vaccine safety) 'the uselessness of certainty' Carlo Rovelli Science is meant to leave room for doubt Allows us to modify conclusions after new discoveries 'truth is just a model' Neil Gershenfeld Scientists don't seek truth, they make and test models 'people should think more carefully about how they see the world' Clay Shirky Suggests the Pareto Principle pattern whereby the top 1% of the population control 35% of the wealth or, on Twitter, the top 2% of users send 60% of the messages. Aka '80/20 rule' Average is far from the middle 'the value of negative results' Kevin kelley We learn just as much from an experiment that does not work as from one that does Failure cultivates knowledge, embrace it 'the importance of thinking "bottom up not top down"' Michael Shermer Reoccurring concept in society (water, life, economies, democracy) 'the true meaning of "experimentation"' Roger Schank Bad education does not capture the essence of an experiment Its about data and analysis, not a boring, irrelevant matter '"science" itself' Lisa Randall We all understand and aspects of the world a certain way Scientific words/phrases also help interpret the world - 'cause and effect', 'probability', 'median' Interviewed many different types of academics; scientists, in CSA Scientifically proven is a term that is problematic From 2011 "certainty is useless; it's not reliable" Makes you not flexible to adapt another model of viewing phenomena Climate change; (we can't say climate change is ever proven) which makes some people think it's a hoax Science =/ absolute/certain truth Science does not produce Truths Produces models (attempted explanations) Uncertainty and failure are a necessary part of science Taking chances, making mistakes, being challenged (by your findings or by someone else) = crucial part of the process

"College culture, hooking up, and women" - Hamilton & Armstrong

Why study "hookups"? To study the women's aspect of it -- gender roles in hookup culture What approach do authors take? Intersectional and interactional approach -- how gender and roles are interacted in college culture? Methodology? Ethnographic study heavily reliant on interviews -- kept the same sample group (longitudinal and cross sectional) Gender as a social structure reproduced at multiple levels of society? Gender embedded in individuals but also found in interaction and organizational structures, individuals see them in interaction and hold others accountable to this perception -- thus, even if individuals do not internalize gender beliefs, they must confront them Relational imperative? Self-development imperative? The idea that women should WANT relationships How do gender roles play out...and how do gender and class intersect? Gender roles: set of socially constructed ideas about appropriate Double bind for privileged women? Relational and sexual double bind -- you should be in relationships and should NOT seek sex, love etc outside relationship vs almost the self-development imperative in which you just have no strings sex to fulfil 'selfish' wants → women who do engage in hookups are subjected to 'slut shaming' → "Fu*kboy/i" Slut is to describe a woman with sexual encounters -- Fu*kboy is used to describe personality type Experience of college romantic/sexual culture for less privileged women? Less privileged women were forced to grow up quicker -- did not experience the double bind because it was possible to be in a relationship AND focus on their education (quick marriage → perhaps they had more responsibilities growing up?)

"Freaks, Geeks, and Cool Kids" - Milern

all about conformity - some crowds and their rankings - aspects of conformity and elaboration - beauty and athletic ability - clothes and style - uniforms, jackets, and emblems - speech and language - collective memories and humor - ritual - body language and demeanor - popular music - dancing and singing - phones, backpacks, and cars - space and territory Flexibility of norms and status symbols - language and music - athletic shoes and letter jackets - money and status symbols coolness and boredom

"Anybody's son will do" - Dyer

army training one - If culture is learned it can be unlearned -> resocialization - Gives up one way of life and set of values for another - Ex. Military training: resocialization that murder is OK - Humans are pretty malleable - Undergo collective punishments to See yourself as part of a group - Direction of submission to military authority -> internalization of military values

"Structure and agency" - Wikipedia

structure or agency of human behavior is a debate Agency - the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices Structure - the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available. Structure, socialisation and autonomy What is the social world made of? Functionalist think structure and hiearchy are key to stabilizing our society Other theorists say our social existence is determined by an overall structure of society Third option - find a balance. Structure -> human behavior and humans -> change the social structure Approaches Emphasizing importance of societal structure Classical sociology The collective had emergent properties of its own Methodological Individualism Central debate - methodological holism vs. Methodological individualism Major Theorists Georg Simmel Pioneered concept of structure and agency Nobert Elias Focused on relationship between power, behavior, emotion, and knowledge Shaped process sociology Talcott Parsons Main theorist of action theory No "structure"-"agency" problem Pierre Bourdieu Theory of practice - understanding the relation between agency and structure Berger and Luckmann Saw structure and agency relationship as dialectical Society forms the individuals who create society (a loop) James Coleman Links macrosociological phenomena and individual behavior Anthony Giddens Structuration Theory Duality of structure - social structure is both the mediuym and the outcome of social action Roberto Unger Thesis of negative capability False necessity - structure constrains and molds the individual but the individual cant resist