Sociology Test Two
Overview of Oklahoma
"In Oklahoma, anxiety about fracture families and the use of TANF money to fund marriage promotion focuses attention of single-mother families, coded as women of color and their children... HOWEVER its practices on the ground offer services to predominantly white, middle-class couples."
Legal changes in sexual activity: (1) Roe v. Wade (2) Lawrence v. Texas
(1) *Roe v Wade*: The Supreme Court case that legalized abortion in 1973... based on the idea that sexual and reproductive decision making lies in the hands of individuals, not communities or state. (2) *Lawrence v. Texas*: Ruled that anti-sodomy laws were unconstitutional.
Describe the *Oklahoma Marriage Initiative's* Two Models of Promotion
1) Seeks to "blanket the state" with messages of marriage --> free marriage workshops 2) Targets specific populations; Native Americans, high school students, low-income parents, welfare recipients, etc. *The more sustained efforts of the Oklahoma Marriage Initiative were for the general population, not target groups*
Fight Evader Tactics
1. Leaving the house when fight. 2. Refusing to argue or talk. 3. Derailing arguments... (ie. "I can't take it when you yell at me). 4. Promise to talk about it later, but never do.
About _____/______ Sexually Active in High School?
1/3.
Five Different Types of Marriages: Passive-Congenial Marriages:
17%, couples w low emotional investment and few expectations for each other. Type of couple who, when asked later, say their marriage was a marriage of convenience. Partners are independent of each other, and generally happy.
Five Different Types of Marriages: Vital Marriages
18%, Partners lives closely intertwined but NOT enmeshed. Spend a lot of time together, rarely experience conflict, and able to solve it quickly when it occurs. Satisfying sex life. "Very happy" w. their marriages.
By age 19 _____/_____ Have Had Sexual Intercourse?
2/3.
Extramarital Sex and Infidelity- Cohabitation VS. Marriage
Cohabitating couples are much more likely to have sex outside of their primary relationship than are married couples
Sexual Fantasies and Gender Norms
Gender differences in sexual fantasies mirror (often) the differences in gender roles: -Women's more romantic, passive, and submissive than men's. -Even when women fantasize about the "unusual" sex practices, they tend less to act them out.
Economic uncertainty and scarcity of economic resources ____________ the likelihood of cohabitation compared with marriage.
Increases the likelihood.
Marriage Market and Homogamy
We cannot begin a relationship with someone we have never meet... The extent that out social circles are limited by geography, education, and race = our "pool" of romantic partners limited as well Result: **Homogamy** : Partnering with others similar to ourselves.
Serial Cohabitation
When people cohabit with a series of partners in relatively short-term and unstable unions.
Why are so Many People Marrying? -The Symbolic Significance of Marriage
"Although the practical importance of being married has declined, its symbolic importance has remained high". Marriage evolved from... Marker of conformity, foundation of adult personal life, something someone routinely gains in life. --> TO --> Marker of prestige, capstone to adult personal life, something someone achieves through one's own efforts.
Marriage Market and Interracial Marriage
"As the social distance between racial groups breaks down, people of different races interact with each others more frequently"... -Widening the pool of potential romantic partners. AND -Increasing social acceptance of interracial and interethnic unions.
20th Century.... Changing context of sex, marriage and reproduction **as a result of compassionate marriage ideology**
"The seeds that were planted in compassionate marriage (19th Century): celebrating love, passion, and romance, soon spread beyond marital confines"... (1) Increases in non-marital cohabitation (2) Rising non-marital fertility. (3) Legal recognition and growing acceptance of same-sex marriage
Sexual attitudes and satisfaction STUDENTS: Sexual Education- Parents
% NEVER or SELDOM discussed... Freq (NEVER/SELDOM) discussed with mother: -Female: 59% -Almost 60% have never discussed it with their mother. -Male: 75% -⅔ have discussed it with neither. Freq (NEVER/SELDOM) discussed with father: -Female: 92% -Almost never discussed with father. -Male: 74% -⅔ of males have discussed it with neither.
Three Types of Marriages in the United States: Companionate Marriage (1) Time period it occurred (2) Foundation of the marriage(s) (3) Divorce (?) (4) Role of parents/freedom to choose (5) Correlation of basis of marriage and divorce rates
(1) 19th and early 20th centuries, formed out of shifting economy --> agricultural to industrial base. People leaving farms and moving to cities, immigration and increasing diversity. Also, increasing roles of consumer culture and youth culture. (2) Foundation shifted from economical necessity, familial and social obligation TO the foundation being romantic love. Marriages here were built to be emotionally meaningful as each partner fulfilled their distinct roles as husbands and wives. (3) Divorce rates rose. (4) Youth became more independent in their romantic lives. Marriage occurred AFTER love, not vice versa. (5) "As satisfying as love can be, it is also a less stable foundation for marriage than are economic necessity and familial and social obligations"... LOVE AND PASSIONS CAN FADE
Culture of Individualism: (1) Overall beliefs (2) How it conflicts with Culture of Marriage
(1) Celebrates independence, autonomy, being true to oneself, standing on "one's own two feet" (2) These values (above) can undermine marital stability.
Transitions in the Meanings of Marriage... (1) Cultural and (2) Material Norms Altering the Definition of Marriage during the 20th Century. *Cultural Trends are the "Two Transitions in the Meaning of Marriage"* --> See this Slide for More
(1) Cultural Trends... Emphasis on emotional satisfaction and romantic love that intensified early in the century. AND an ethic of expressive individualism in the last few decades of the century. 2) Material Trends... Decline of agricultural labor, increase in wage labor, decline in mortality, rising standards of living, and movement of married women into the workforce.
Three Types of Marriages in the United States: Individualized Marriage (1) Time period it occurred (2) Foundation of the marriage(s) (3) Divorce (?) (4) Role of parents/freedom to choose
(1) Final decades of the 20th century. (2) Marriage based and judged on how happy and fulfilled we are as individuals within them. Romantic love and family responsibility important to the extent that we feel fulfilled by them. (3) High expectations for marriage --> expecting out spouse to be "the one", one person who meets our emotional, sexual, social, financial, spiritual, and interpersonal needs... Thus high divorce rates when these not all meet by one individual. (4) Individuals free to choose.
Four trends in cohabitation: (1) Co-habitation more common with some than others. (2) Couples choose to live together for a variety of reasons. (3) Outcomes of cohabiting relationships-- break-up, marry, or continue cohabiting-- has changed over time. (4) Relationship between cohabitation and divorce has changed over time.
(1) Less education and less income MORE likely to cohabit. Younger generations also MORE likely to cohabit. VS. More religious and more traditional LESS likely to cohabit. (2) For some, it is a stage in the dating process. For others, it is a step towards marriage. For small minority, it is an alternative to marriage. -Both financial and emotional reasons as well. (3) Fewer couples transition from cohabitation to marriage than in the past, now more common for couples to break up than to marry. Lead to *serial cohabitation* (4) Couples who live together before marriage more likely to divorce. Many explanations... *see explanations slide*
Three Types of Marriages in the United States: Institutionalized Marriage (1) Time period it occurred (2) Foundation of the marriage(s) (3) Divorce (?) (4) Role of parents/freedom to choose (5) Rights of Women
(1) These marriages occurred before industrialization. (2) Marriages built on economic necessity, community and family obligations, and social regulations. Spouses viewed as "help-mates" rather than "soul mates". Love was a "by-product of marriage, not a "foundation" (3) Divorce was highly restrictive and rare. (4) Individuals were not free to choose who they wanted to marry, parents were often involved in the decision. (5) The legal rights of women were nonexistent: recall *coverture*
Culture of Marriage: (1) Overall Beliefs (2) Beliefs on divorce (3) Beliefs on General Population
(1) Valorized marriage as the ideal way of life (2) Views divorce as the last resort (3) Thinks marriage is the best for *everyone*
The Gains to Marriage... *Enforceable Trust* From a Rational Choice Perspective
*Enforceable trust*: Marriage still requires a public commitment to a long-term, possibly life-long relationship. Therefore, marriage, more so than cohabitation, lowers the risk that one's partner will renege on agreements that have been made. HOWEVER, Enforceable trust that marriage brings is eroding as (1) divorce is more widely accepted and (2) the legal differences between cohabitation and marriage become minimal.
Katleen Kiernan's (2002) Stages of the Acceptance of Cohabitation
*Stage One*: Cohabitation is a "fringe"/unorthodox phenomenon. *Stage Two*: It is accepted as a testing ground for marriage. *Stage Three*: It becomes acceptable as an alternative to marriage. *Stage Four*: It becomes indistinguishable from marriage.
Gains to Marriage.... Other Theoretical Perspectives (Whether Accurate or Not):
*Structural Functionalist*: Child having the link to the "power of the father" through marriage, providing them protection/claim to inheritance. (As women entered workforce, became less important). *Evolutionary*: Women seek stable bonds with men to help with pregnancy and raising child, solving the problem of the "sexually wandering male". (Doesn't explain single mothers and wedding ceremonies). *Economic*: Marriage viewed as allowing individuals to invest in the partnership with less fear of abandonment, thus seen as weighing of "costs". *These theories are better at explaining why marriage has declined than why it persists.*
Across Cohorts... Divorce Rates for Women Based on Education Level, **Now and Then**
-Across cohorts, women w/o a college degree are MORE likely to divorce today than in the past. -While women w. a college degree are LESS likely to divorce today than in the past.
Defense of Marriage Act... DOMA -Define -First state to overrule -When was it overruled?
-Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) is a law enacted in 1996 that defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman. -Massachusetts first state to allow same-sex marriages. -DOMA overturned in June of 2015, legalizing same-sex marriage.
Federal and state law has shaped marriage as a from of inclusion AND exclusion by determining... WHAT?
-Determining WHO can marry -The rights and the obligations involved in marriage. -The conditions under which a marriage can end.
Good Vs. Bad Communication
-Good vs. bad listening skills. -Speaking self vs. speaking for others. -Self disclosure of feelings high or low -Clear with messages or inconsistant with messages. -Staying on topic or not. -High or low respect.
Education Level and Cohabitation
-Less educated women are more likely to cohabit. -The increase in cohabitation is LARGER for women w/o a college degree. -More educated women more likely to marry their cohabiters. -Less educated women more likely to remain in cohabitation for 3+ years.
Shifting Meanings of Marriage and Cohabitation
-Marriage, as an institution is increasingly defined as a short-term relationship. Divorce is more acceptable. Laws no longer assume the permanence of marriage. -Meaning of cohabitation is shifting along with shifting meaning of marriage... marriage is offering fewer benefits relative to cohabitation AND though young people expected to marry and believe it it important to family life, do not believe you must be married to live a good life.
Extramarital Sex and Infidelity
-Men more likely to describe as ALWAYS wrong. -Women are ACTUALLY just as likely to engage in infidelity, considering other things besides just intercourse... -Women are more likely to engage in *emotional infidelity* than men.
OVERVIEW... Change, Continuity, and Diversity in Marriage/Cohabitation
-We are marrying later and cohabiting more, but **most people still get married and or plan to get married in the future** -Essentially, we are still looking for partners pretty similar to ourselves, internet dating has not **dramatically** changed this. -Interracial relationships are on the rise, but people are still most likely to get married to someone in their racial-ethnic group. -Same-sex marriage more accepted, but the fight still continues. -Marriage patterns for college educated individuals do not look that different from earlier generations --> similar to parents/grandparents generations. VS. -Marriage patterns for those who are less educated are different than past generations, MORE STARK.
Divorce rates and cohabitation... Explanations
1) *Experience* breaking up viewed as more acceptable. 2) *Selection* individuals with lower levels of education and income cohabit more and divorce more. 3) *Kuperberg* younger people cohabit thus more likely to divorce.
Kathryn Edin's 5 Reasons why Single Mothers Choose Not to Get Married
1) Affordability- by not marrying, single mothers leave open the possibility to finding a partner who is more economically stable. 2) High value placed on marriage- believe marriage is a sacred commitment that should last forever. 3) Afraid that becoming a wife would result in a loss of their independence, resulting in deference (submission) to their husband. 4) High levels of infidelity leads to mistrust and wary about marriage. 5) Interpersonal violence, domestic abuse.
Two Forms of Cohabitation... 1) As a Stage Before Marriage. 2) As an End in Itself.
1) Cohabitation is often a prelude to marriage. 2) Cohabiting unions may also be an "end in themselves" for an increasing percentage of cohabiters. --> Causing less cohabitations to end in marriage now than in the past.... *thus cohabiting unions have become less stable over the past decade*
Four Houseman of the Apocalypse
1) Contempt 2) Criticism 3) Defensiveness 4) Stonewalling 5) Belligerence- Hostility
Four Types of Families/Relationships
1) Disengaged 2) Connected 3) Cohesive 4) Enmeshed
Good Communication- Ten Guidelines
1) Express anger with kindness. 2) Check your interpretations of others behaviors 3) Avoid attacks by using "I" statements 4) Avoid mixed/double messages 5) Choose the time/place carefully. 6) Address an issue and be open to compromise. 7) Be willing to change yourself. 8) Don't try to "win" an argument. 9) Be willing for forgive 10) End the argument.
Current Context of Marriage: Individualized Marriage Two Major Changes....
1) Individuals experience more CHOICE in their personal lives.... --> Forms of marriage, alternatives to marriage, cohabitation, child-bearing outside of marriage, same-sex marriage, gender roles w/in marriage. 2) Difference in the nature of the rewards that people seek through marriage and other close relationships.... --> Personal growth and intimacy rather than "socially valued roles" of good parent/spouse BOTH OF THESE CHANGING CONTEXTS HAVE RESULTED IN THE DEINSITUTIONALIZATION OF MARRIAGE.... SOCIAL NORMS OF PAST COUNT FOR LESS
Top 5 Communication Problems for Couples:
1) Partner DOES NOT share feelings. 2) Difficulty asking partner for what you want. 3) Feels partner does not understand your feelings 4) Partner refuse to discuss issues or problems. 5) Partner puts down or makes disparaging comments.
Over the Past Few Decades, the *Deinstitutionalization* of Marriage has Occurred... 1) What does "Deinstitutionalized" refer to? 2) What does "Deinstitutionalized" result in --> 2 results.
1) Refers to the weakening of the social norms that define people's behavior in a social institution, such as marriage. 2) On one hand, results in disagreements and tensions between couples as change in social institution forces couple to negotiate new ways of acting. -On the other hand, results in the breakdown of old rules based on a gendered institution, leading to a more equal/egalitarian relationship between husbands and wives.
Define... 1) Marriage Market 2) Marriage Squeeze
1) Term used by sociologists to help understand the structural patterns that shape our romantic choices. Likens the search for a romantic partner to the search for a job in the labor market. --> One's success in the "marriage market" depends on the pool of partners (jobs) available, the kinds of partners (jobs) available, and the desirable characteristics (resources) that one brings to the search. 2) Term used to describe how if the pool of available partners is limited (marriage market), one will have a harder time finding a mate.
Five Different Types of Marriages: Devitalized Marriages
19%, partners are initially in love w eachother when they marry, spend time together, and have satisfying sex. As time goes on, the love fades, and these people are unhappy. They think of divorce, and often have marriage counselors. Often become resigned to just being unhappily married.
Increase in Educational Homogamy: 1960-2008
1960-2008: -Firstly, percentage married in all education categories has declined, with college graduates being the most likely to marry than those with less education. -However, the gap between education groups has GROWN larger between 1960-2008: 1960: 7% points difference between highest and lowest education levels. 2008: 20% points difference between highest and lowest education levels.
Between ________ and ________, young adults became more accepting of non-marital cohabitation & Approval of Cohabitation is likely to _________
1970s-1980s. Increase, (cohort replacement).
Same-sex marriage... Public approval 1996 --> 2015: % of Americans say same-sex marriage SHOULD be legal. -Two explanations for this shift
1996 (when DOMA enacted), 27% of Americans said same-sex marriage SHOULD be legal. 20 years later, in 2015, more than doubled to 60%. Explanations: 1) Attitude change on an *individual level*. 2) Attitude change with *cohort of generational replacement* --> overall shift as older people with more conservative ideas die, they are placed by younger less conservative people.
Five Different Types of Marriages: Conflictual Marriages
22%, partners fight emotionally and sometimes, physically, and often think about divorce. The parties are incompatible on many levels. Generally both need maturity to improve their partnerships. These relationships are "HELL"
Children's Sexual Development
24 Hours After Birth: Males touching genitals/getting errections. 2-5: Rhythmic "manipulation" of genitals. -Children interested in playing doctor, seeing nudity... *overtly sexual behaviors*. 11/12: Sexual attraction first manifests itself around this age --> *Sexual Orientation* gradually developed --> see slide!. *Age of puberty is decreasing, but the age of marriage is increasing, creating an *extended period of sexual activity.*
Five Different Types of Marriages: Harmonious Marriages:
24%, compatible on many levels. Want the same things out of marriage. Interdependence, "pretty happy" with their marriages, able to resolve conflicts.
Non-marital fertility and Education Level
57% of women with less than a high school degree and 49% with a high school degree are unmarried when they have their children. COMPARED to only 9% of women with a college degree having a child when unmarried. *Overall, women with less education are more likely to have a child outside of marriage*
Nearly ______% of the population gets married at least once
90%
Despite Fewer Americans Marrying During the Peak Years of Marriage in the Mid-20th Century.... ____% will marry eventually. __________ in the importance they attach to marriage.
90% will marry. NO decline in the importance to marriage.
Define... Family of Choice
A family that is formed largely through voluntary ties among individuals who are not biologically or legally related, often formed by gay and lesbian individuals.
By Attending Oklahoma Marriage Initiative Workshops, Meeting with Employees, Taking Field Note on the Workshops, and Conducting Semi-Structured Interviews... Susan Ferguson Found That...
A gap between the Oklahoma Marriage Initiative's states goals and its on-the-ground practices existed, with the marriage promotion activities targeting to a general population that included *predominately white, middle-class couples*.
Changes/"Deinstitutionalization" to Marriage 1970's and after...
After 1970's... More recent changes in family life, both of which have contributed to the deinstitutionalization of marriage after the 1970s.... -Growth of cohabitation, as *cohabitation* became a more prevalent and more complex phenomenon. -The emergence of *same-sex marriage* is the most recent development in the deinstitutionalization of marriage.
Define Marriage Promotion -Example of marriage promotion in *Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Recognition Act of 1996*
An array of government policies collectively known as the "marriage promotion," which seek to reduce the rates of divorce and single parenting. The *Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Recognition Act of 1996* ended federal welfare benefits to poor families.... --> instead directing federal funding under the *Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)*, --> which specifically designed marriage promotion as sanctioned under use of federal funds.
Define... Pure Relationship
An intimate partnership entered into for it's own sake, which lasts only as long as both partners are satisfied with the rewards-- love and intimacy-- that they get from it. -Not tied to an institution, such as marriage or the desire to raise children, but "free-floating", independent of social institutions or economic life. -Marriage choice, rather than necessity.
Benefits/Costs of Masturbation
Benefits: -Relieves sexual tension, safe way to experiment, allows for fantasy exploration, increases self-confidence and combats loneliness, stress relief etc. Costs: -Guilt (esp. adolescents) on if "normal", women feel guilt because trained to please men, some use to avoid close relationships.
Rising rates of Co-habitation
Co-habitation went from rare to commonplace in a generation... 1.5 million in 1980 --> 4.0 in 2000 --> 7.9 in 2014 Approval rates for co-habitation have rose in concordance, in 2012 approval being 77% or about *2/3*
Racial Comparisons: A Common Theme in Marriage Movements.
Concern commonly expressed over the "once isolated breakup of Black families" spreading now to white ones. --> The poor Black family remaining an "invisible standard of deviancy, while the focus of the family breakdown is on the "norm" of the white, middle-class family.
Alternative Futures... Predictions about Deinstitutionalization or Reinstitutionalization of Marriage Moving Forward.... Three Alternatives
Currently, marriage is no longer as dominant as it once was, but it remains important on a symbolic level. Community institution --> Individualized, choice-based achievement. 1) Return to a more dominant, institutionalized form of marriage (unlikely). 2) The current situation continues; marriage remains important but not as dominant... still retaining a high symbolic status. --> What will occur if Giddens and other modernity theorists are correct. 3) Marriage fades into just one of many kinds of interpersonal romantic relationships. --> What will occur if modernity theorists are not correct.
The Rise in Public Acceptance of Cohabitation and Childbearing Outside Marriage Lead to a ______________ in cohabiters' expectations about whether marriage is the "next step".
Decrease.
Sexual Attitudes and Satisfaction Among Students
Dissatisfied: 8% Women, 7% Men ...MOST satisfied with it! Feel Guilty Seldom/Never: 72% Women, 78% Men. ... About 3/4/ Feel Comfortable Always: 48% Women, 54% Men. ...About 1/2. Ever Organismed: 89% Women, 97% Men
The "Cult of True Womanhood"
Elevated the submissive housewife as morally superior. --> Commonly achieved by wealthy, white women.
Homogamy: DEFINE... Endogamy Exogamy Heterogamy
Endogamy: Marrying WITHIN one's social group. Exogamy: Marrying OUTSIDE one's group. Heterogamy: Marrying someone dissimilar in race, age, education, religion, or social class. *Social pressure and geography causes homogamy*
Define *Oklahoma Marriage Initiative*
Ethnographic research (2004) collected on how the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act took root in the "Bible-Belt" state of Oklahoma in the most extensive state-wide marriage initiative in the nation... AKA the **Oklahoma Marriage Initiative** Overall, fears about the declining significance of the nuclear family have spurred the Oklahoma Marriage Initiative to offer marriage education to the public as a mechanism to *reinstitutionalize* marriage.
Percent of High School Students Who Have Ever Had Sexual Intercourse/Are Sexually Active... By RACE/ETHNICITY and GENDER
Females: -*Hispanic Females*: 47% have had sex, 35% sexually active. -*White Females*: 45% have had sex, 36% sexually active. -*Black Females*: 53% have had sex, 38% sexually active. Males: -*Hispanic Males*: 49% have had sex, 35% sexually active. -*White Males*: 42% have had sex, 33% sexually active. -*Black Males*: 61% have had sex, 47% sexually active. *Note... All relatively similar, however at mid-40% had sex, mid-30% for sexually active... BUT with Black Females and Black Males the MOST, White Males the LEAST*
Critical Heterosexual Studies
Focuses on how heterosexuality is viewed as the standard for all "sexual-socio behavior"... sheds light on heterosexualities "organizational and ritualistic practices as a set of rules and norms for behavior. --> Thus, marital heterosexuality= natural/desirable AND homosexuality= perverse and unnatural.
"Free-Choice" Culture Vs. Social Exchange
Free-Choice: -People freely choose their own mates. -BUT do often seek their parents and family members support. Social Exchange: -People pick their partners to be most rewarding/least costly. -Pick partners with resources they value: Beauty, personality, status (rich, athlete, etc), skills, maturity, intellect, originality, etc. -We all value these resources differently. *Though we live in a "free choice" society, our choices on who we partner with are dictated by social exchange*
Important Qualities in a Mate- Married
Good company Considerate Honest Affectionate Dependable Intelligent Kind Understanding Like talking to *About WHO they are, not WHAT they look like*
Heterosexuality and Marriage Workshops --> Teaching Gender
Heterosexuality is the backdrop to teach about gendered behavior of "opposite sexes" w/in the ideal family. --> Teaching them to "do gender" in the manner of the "natural family" -Suggesting a gender hierarchy, compelling women to put up with men, as they are the "stronger sex". -Solidifies the importance of the differences between men and women, teaching men and women to accept these differences, thereby solidifying martial heterosexuality. (Often using Biblical references to do so). -Teaching this interaction of gender and heterosexuality helps to "position men and women" in a social order, w. breadwinner male and ideals of the "natural" married family.
The US has the _________ divorce rates in the world.
Highest rates.
"Two Transitions in the Meaning of Marriage"* Early 20th Century
Historical events such as the Depression and WWII produced two great changes in the meaning of marriage during the 20th century: 1) *"From institution to companionship"*: Where the emotional satisfaction of the spouses became an important criterion for marital success... but where marriage still remained the only socially acceptable way to have a sexual relationship/ raise children. --> ie. Compassionate Marriage. --> Early 20th Century.
"Two Transitions in the Meaning of Marriage"* Late 20th Century
Historical events such as the Depression and WWII produced two great changes in the meaning of marriage during the 20th century: 2) *From compassionate to individualistic*: Importance on the development of one's own sense of self and the expression of their feelings, as opposed to the satisfaction they gained through building a family and playing the roles of spouse and parent. Changes to divorce, divorce law, child raising, age at marriage, etc. in concordance. --> ie. Individualized Marriage. --> Late 20th Century.
United States and Cohabitation laws: Married Couples/Children.
In the U.S., cohabitation was uncommon until fairly recently. Thereby, few of family law rights given to married couples are given to cohabiters, and children born to cohabiters lack some advantages as well.
WHAT troubles efforts to strenghen a clear boundary of marital heterosexuality? -How do Oklahoma Workshops Cope w. This?
Increasing visibility of same-sex couples. -Workshops focus on gender w/in the confines of marital heterosexuality to ensure that same-sex couples presence remains invisible. -Environment of workshops discouraged dealing w. gender outside of heterosexual relationship. ...The invisibility of the same-sex couples confirms the power of heterosexual couples to exclude.
Assortative Mating: A Filtering Process
Individuals gradually filter those who they think will be the best spouse.... -Many willing to date many more than they would be willing to live with/become engaged to --> Many willing to live with many more than they would date. *They are "filtering" partners to find the best one.* -Incomplete as we become "satisfied and stop the process when would be best to keep going...
Legal Marriage Used as a Central Mechanism to Regulate... WHAT
Institutionalized heterosexuality and the construct of the "natural"-- white, middle-class-- family.
Sexual activities- Masturbation
Involves self-pleasure through direct contact... 94% of adult males. 64% of adult females. ...MOST people have done it!
Important Qualities in a Mate- Students
Kind & understanding. Exciting Intelligent Attractive *** Healthy Easygoing Creative Wants children. *Appearance important here, where as in marriage it is not*
Comparing Gay Male and Lesbian Sexual Behaviors:
Lesbians are the "least sexualized"... -Have sex least frequently than gay men or heterosexual women. -BUT report greater satisfaction the heterosexual women -Gay men have a lot more sex than lesbian couples... men in hetero and homo sexual relationships have lots of sex! OVERALL... Patterns of sexual frequency and satisfaction in gay/lesbian relationships resemble those of heterosexual, *men are men, women are women*.
Despite Having Low Marriage Rates, Low-Income Women _______________.
Low-income women demand much out of marriage; reliable income, commitment to the family, companionship, faithfulness, and non-abusive behavior.
In the U.S., marriages preceded by cohabitation are __________ likely to end in separation or divorce than in which the couple did not live together previously.
MORE likely --> see explanations slide. (This is not the cause world-wide)
Cohabiters with more finanicial resources are _______ likely to marry their partners.
MORE likely, due to economic stability... feel it is appropriate to marry.
Sexual Fantasies
Males/women (Across ALL ages and ALL marital statuses)... -Both fantasize about sex... BUT fantasize differently: -Girls have very romantic, vivid, and elaborate fantasies. -Boys fantasize about very specific sexual acts.
Due to conflicting beliefs in Cultures of Marriage and Culture of Individualism the United States has the highest rates of _____________ and _______________.
Marriage and divorce rates.
Model of Marriage that the United States government has historically promoted....
Marriage as a "lifelong, faithful monogamy, formed by the mutual consent of a man and a woman, bearing the impress of Christian religion and the English common law in its expectations for the husband to be the family head and economic provider". --> Nuclear family: creation of housewife/breadwinner tropes.
Sexuality Throughout Marriage/Committed Relationships
Married couples have sex more often when young. Diminishes at 50. -Due to... physical aging AND marital dissatisfaction. Married have more sex than single, but less than cohabitating.
Sexual Activities by Young Adulthood (Age 19)
Masturbation: -66% Females, 86% Males. Mutual Masturbation: -39% Females, 49% Males. Received Oral Sex: -62% Females, 59% Males. Gave Oral Sex: -62% Females, 61% Males. Vaginal Intercourse: -64% Females, 63% Males. *Note... MOST young adults masturbate, more men than women*
Sexual attitudes and satisfaction STUDENTS: ALWAYS orgasm in intercourse
Men: 49%... Organism NEVER= 3% Women: 8%... Organism NEVER= 16%. *VERY hard for women to organism during sexual intercourse, easier during oral sex*
Non-marital fertility
More than 43% of births (2005-2010) to unmarried mothers. 57% (over half) occurred in cohabitation relationship.
Most marriages are classified as passive-congenial, conflictual, and devitalized...
Most ARE NOT happy!
Lesbian and Gay Couples Who Choose to Marry Must Actively Construct ___________________?
Must construct a marital word with almost NO institutionalized support. -Because gay and lesbian couples lack the social norms and social roles associated with marriage and child-bearing in heterosexual relationships... --> Thus they must create their own norms/roles through *discussion, negotiation, and experiment*.
Is the meaning of cohabitation universal and unchanging?
NO! -The meaning of cohabitation outside of marriage and other family relationships depend on the social situations in which they occur.
Sexual attitudes and satisfaction STUDENTS: Hookups
No intercourse w/o love... -Female: 71%. -Male: 47% Hookups "Ok"... -Female: 11% -Male: 35%
As non-marital childbearing becomes MORE common, individuals are LESS likely to think...
Of non-marital childbearing as deviant.
Contradictory Outcomes of of Workshops On Sexuality...
On one hand... -Teachings on gender and marital heterosexuality inscribe a powerful vision of the "natural family". On the other hand... -The prevailing image of the "natural family" can be interrupted by increasing diversities of families and prominence of lesbian/gay couples in the U.S.
Increasing marriage rates between U.S.-born and foreign- born ethnic minorities, WHY?
Ongoing influx of immigrants has widened the pool of same-race partners available to U.S. minorities.
Online dating --> Reduction in Homogamy?
Online dating sites extend the pool of potential partners beyond those who you would run into in you regular social circles. For groups with "thin"/limiting markets, such as middle-aged heterosexuals and lesbians & gays, the expansion of the marriage market provided by dating apps minimizes the marriage squeeze and increases the likelihood of finding a partner.
Cohabitation and Child Outcomes Over ___% of cohabiting couples have children in their households... results on children.
Over 40% of cohabiting couple have children in their households. Children living with cohabiting parents are at higher risk for experiencing negative outcomes: 1) Lower academic achievement 2) Behavioral challenges. ... Results of lower socioeconomic status of these families AND relative instability of these families.
Changes/"Deinstitutionalization" to Marriage 1970's and before.... -Define *Stalled Revolution*
Prior to AND during the 1970's... Changing divisions of labor in the home and an increase in childbearing outside marriages were undermining the institutionalized basis of marriage, (also steep rise in divorce)... -The distinct role of breadwinner and homemaker were fading as *married women entered the workforce*. --> *Stalled Revolution*: Women's entry into the labor market was revolutionary, but changes in men's behaviors at home did not keep pace. -Marriage was no longer a universal setting for *childbearing* with 1/6 births occurring outside marriage.
Sexual Activities- Petting/Feeling-UP
Produces physical contact between men/women to produce erotic arousal w/o sexual intercourse... -More acceptable form of sexual behavior bc does NOT result in pregnancy. *VERY common, MOST common form of teenage sex*
Weakening Connection Between Cohabitation and Marriage
Proportion of cohabitation couples resulting in marriage decreasing... 60% in 1970 --> 33% in 1990. Thus, cohabitation not accurately performing as a "trial marriage"
Public Approval of Interracial Marriage
Public approval of interracial marriage is at an "all-time high". -63% said they would be fine with a family member marrying someone of a different race or ethnicity.
Brief History of Sex in America
Puritans: Sex for reproduction, men control women's sexuality, still persists.. --> 20th Century: Emergence of sexual expression. --> *1960s Sexual Revolution*: Sex for pleasure, not just for procreation (Puritan belief). -Availability of birth control= intercourse become separate from pregnancy. -Helped to reverse the ideas that the state held sway over sexual/reproductive decisions. -Overall attitudes and behaviors of public changed. --> 1980s/1990s: Challenge to heterosexualism, Increasing visibility of gays/lesbians.
Government Interventions to Protect "The Family" Have Shown to be Attempts to Safeguard the Boundaries of the Nation Along the Lines of...
Race, class, gender, and sexuality. "Federal and state actors enact policies to reinstate the heterosexual, nuclear family in American culture". -Laws concerning welfare, pension, child-care/education, and the labor market.
Women are more likely to engage in ____________ talk
Rapport talk
African-Americans: Race-Ethnicity and Marriage/Cohabitation
Recall... African-Americans lowest rates of marriage based on race-ethnicity in the U.S. Why? -African Americans have fewer college degrees. -Economic inequalities make African Americans less financially secure, thereby reducing marriage rates and increasing the risk of divorce. -Also, high rates of unemployment and incarceration of young Black men limit the marriage market for heterosexual Black women.
Asian-Americans: Race-Ethnicity and Marriage/Cohabitation
Recall... Asian-Americans highest rates of marriage based on race-ethnicity in the U.S. Why? -Asian-Americans more likely than other Americans to have a college degree. -Influenced by the practices of their families countries of origin, higher expectations of marriage than in the U.S. Reflected in more foreign born than native born Asian Americans being married. -Native born Asian-Americans are younger than the foreign born, thus reflecting a delay in marriage as many of these individuals will likely marry.
Sexual Orientation
Refers to whether an individual is drawn to the same sex or the opposite sex... -Sexual orientation DOES NOT predict sexual behavior... -Men have more sex than women do, just like heterosexual couples.
Four Types of Families/Relationships: Connected
Separate/Together: More separate I-We Balanced: More "I' than "we" Closeness: Low/moderate Loyalty: Some. Activities: More separate than shared. Independence: More independent.
Four Types of Families/Relationships: Cohesive
Separate/Together: More together I-We Balanced: More "we' than "I" Closeness: Moderate to high. Loyalty: Considerable. Activities: More shared than separate. Independence: More dependent.
Four Types of Families/Relationships: Enmeshed
Separate/Together: TOO much together I-We Balanced: Primarily "we". Closeness: Very high. Loyalty: High. Activities: Too much shared. Independence: High dependent.
Four Types of Families/Relationships: Disengaged
Separate/Together: VERY separate I-We Balanced: Primarily "I' Closeness: NOT close Loyalty: Lack of. Activities: Lack of. Independence: Very Independent
Sexual attitudes and satisfaction STUDENTS: Sexual Education- Schools
Sex Education Viewed as "adequate"... Sex ed in schools: -Female: 74% -Male: 66% Sex ed from parents: -Female: 57% -Male 51%
Children's Sexual Development --> Attachment Theory
Sexual experiences of infancy, shape later sexual expression... Insecure → insecure. Detached → detached. Secure → secure.
Sexual activities- Masturbation in Marriage
Still occurs in marriage... 50% of men 33% of women ...Masturbate MONTHY, decreases as people age but still occurs.
Cohabiting Unions End Quickly Because...
The couple either (1) marries or (2) breaks up. -Cohabiters much more likely to break up than married couples.
Most Americans believe marriage is _____________ place to raise children.
The ideal place to raise children.
Division of House Work in Gay and Lesbian Couples
The one with the less demanding, lower paying job does more housework and work keeping in touch with family and friends... Regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
What age demographic has historically been and today is more supportive of same-sex marriage?
The youngest Americans most supportive. 76% supportive <30 yrs in 2015, compared to 44% supportive 65+ yrs.
If marriage is about personal commitment and love, THEN _____________.
Then two adults who feel this commitment and love should be able to marry.... Same-sex marriage is consistent with contemporary ideas about the role of love and marriage in individual lives.
Feminist Theories of the State
Theories that emerged out of the 2nd wave of feminism... -Envisioned the state as a perpetuator of patriarchy, offering a monolithic conceptualization (all-encompassing perception) of state power over women as a *homogeneous group*. --> Recent years expanded to... -Analyze the gendered state and its social practices that regulate the gender of its citizens along the lines of *race* and *class*. PROBLEM W. THIS THOERY... -Tends to assume heterosexuality in marriage and in the family; pair this theory with *Critical Heterosexual Studies* for a more holistic understanding --> see slide.
The United States has identified __________ types of marriage. (1) Explain how they are described through "ideal type" frameworks (2) **List all three***
Three types of marriages. (1) Ideal Type: An ideal type is a way to describe the characteristics of a construct or phenomenon-- such as the three types of marriage in the U.S. **Ideal in the sense that they best describe these types of marriage, not to be confused with meaning the types of marriages are ideal** (2) Institutionalized marriage, companionate marriage, individualized marriage.
Anger/conflict taboo
When individuals grow afraid to express anger or engage in conflict. --> Often because we have observed others who are EXTREMELY BAD at handling conflict.
Increasing or Decreasing... Racial Homogamy Religious Homogamy Educational Homogamy
While racial homogamy continues to be the norm in the U.S., interracial marriage is becoming more common. --> Racial Homogamy DECREASING. Interfaith marriage rates are increasing as fewer Americans affiliate with a religious denomination in adulthood --> Religious Homogamy DECREASING. Spouses are becoming more educationally similar --> Educational Homogamy INCREASING
