SOP3004 FINAL EXAM

Group Size

Conformity in Asch study maximized with group size of 3 to 5 confederates Group of 5+ yields diminishing returns

Status

Individual of higher-status have more influence in groups

Conflict resolution: contact

Increased contact has the power to reduce negative attitudes such as prejudice Desegregation can improve racial attitudes when friendships develop and equal-status interactions happen.

Group Think

Type of thinking in which maintaining group cohessiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner

dependent variable

factors being measures

Barbara was really shocked when her candidate was not elected. She had assumed that everyone felt as she did and supported her candidate's ideas. This is an example of the

false consensus effect

Theory of Planned Behaviour

Easier to predict behavior using information about a persons intentions

self- handicapping

protecting one's self image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later

insufficient justification

reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is insufficient

locus of control

the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces

Social comparison

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others. Others around us help to define the standard by which we define ourselves as rich or poor, smart or dumb, tall or short: We compare ourselves with them and consider how we differ. Social comparisons can also diminish our satisfaction. When we experience an increase in affluence, status, or achievement, we "compare upward"—we raise the standards by which we evaluate our attainments. When climbing the ladder of success, we tend to look up, not down; we compare ourselves with others doing even better. When facing competition, we often protect our shaky self-concept by perceiving the competitor as advantaged. (swimmers losing, and saying their coaches were better)

Evolution and Gender

Mating Preferences Men: seek cues of youth and fertility Women::seek cues of resources , power and ambition

IAT

Measures the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations or stereotypes under pressure.

Agression

Men are more likely to engage in physical aggression. Women engage in less assaultive forms of aggression

Sexuality

Men are more likely to think about and initiate sex

Evolution & attraction

Men prefer women: with hourglass figures, who are youthful Women prefer men: of higher status, dominant, with resources, increased ovulation for masculine features during ovulation Both genders prefer sympathy, kindness, and intelligence

Social Dominance

Men tend to be more socially dominant

Gender Similarities

More similar than different

Defining Gender

The characteristics whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

Social sources of prejudice: social inequalities

Unequal status breeds prejudice Higher status individuals are more likely to view their success as a result of their own skill and effort We tend to view other groups as competent (respectable) or likable (warmth) but not both - ex) slavery =laziness

Discrimination (negative behavior)

Unjustified negative behavior towards a group or its members

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate is known as...

informed consent

in an experiment, the independent variable is __________, and the dependent variable is_________.

manipulated; measures

debriefing

post experimental explanation of a study to its participants

terror management theory

proposes that people exhibit self- protective emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of their mortality

Explain how random sampling and random assignment are different from one another.

random assignment is in experiments and helps infer cause and effect. random sampling is in surveys and helps generalize a population

GRIT

"Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction" Developed to alleviate tense international relations Begins by one side announcing conciliatory intent. Then, the initiator carries out conciliatory acts, intensifying pressure to reciprocate. Maintains retaliatory capability. ---------------------------------------------It is a bargaining strategy with the end goal being a "gradual reduction in tension" between two parties. Essentially it is one of the disputing parties encouraging de-escalation by proposing a small initial concession to the opposing party under the assumption that this concession will be accepted and matched by the other. If the party accepts this concession then another one is offered and so on. If successful this will lead to a peace spiral. By offering and accepting small concessions then trust can be established between the two opposing parties.

Normative Influence

-social comparison -pluralistic ignorance -band wagon effect

CH. 3

Social Beliefs and Judgments

self efficacy

a sense that one is competent and effective

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Benevolent sexism

"Knight in shining armor" ideology; endorses traditional gender roles. Chivalrous attitude towards women that feels favorable but it is sexist because it casts them as weak and needing protection.

Self confident

-defections from the majority -one defector opens up the opportunity for other defectors -defection from the majority are more convincing than a consistent minority position

internal locus of control

you control your own destiny

Evil and Moral Acts

~Evil acts leads to negative attitudes -we dislike those we are mean to ~Acts of morality or love/kindness lead to positive attitudes Ex: Benjamin Frankilin Effect

1. Compare and contrast the definitions of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.

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Ch. 10

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Stereotype threat

- A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. - Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. --------------------- Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.

Motivational sources of prejudice: scapegoat theory

- Frustration can lead to displaced aggression and out-groups become scapegoats for aggression - Passion promotes prejudice - Example: Anger in response to 9/11 predicted prejudice

Internal motivation to avoid prejudice

- Genuinely believes that prejudice is wrong - More predictive of behavior

Motivation to Avoid Prejudice

- People may be motivated to avoid or reduce their own prejudice - Motivation to reduce prejudice does not always coincide with our actions --- "the prejudice habit" is hard to break

Out-group homogeneity effect

- Perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse" - In general, the greater our familiarity with a social group, the more we see its diversity

Consequences of prejudice: self-perpetuating prejudgments

- Prejudgments guide our attention and our memories - Whenever a member of a group behaves as expected, we duly note the fact; our prior belief is confirmed (confirmation bias) - Prejudgments are self-perpetuating

Comparing theories

- Self-presentation theory - Cognitive dissonance - Self-perception theory

Cognitive sources of prejudice: categorization

- Spontaneous categorization can be energy-saving and informative - Categorization is necessary for prejudice - Prejudice requires racial categorization.

Who is most likely to exhibit in-group bias?

- Those who feel a need for status, those with a low self-regard, and when in-group solidarity helps satisfy the need to belong. - Basking in reflected glory of successful ingroup members - "We won" vs. "they lost" - We evaluate ingroups more positively and devote more resources (even to arbitrary groups!) - Example: loving FSU usually means hating UF or Miami - Ingroup bias does not require disliking outgroups

Cognitive sources of prejudice: distinctiveness

- We are often defined by our distinctive traits - Being distinctive in a group makes one more noticeable - ex) a man in a group of women - May lead to self-consciousness, misinterpreted interactions - People often make generalizations about a whole group from a few vivid cases; numerical minorities are often numerically overestimated by the majority - Fosters illusory correlations

Motivational sources of prejudice: social identity theory

- We categorize ourselves and others into groups. - We identify with our in-group and compare our own groups to out-groups. Our in-group bias can consist of basking in reflected glory and cutting of reflected failure. Those lead to a positive self-concept, feeds favoritism, and may foster out-group disliking.

Development of the Social Self

- the roles we play • the social identities we form • the comparisons we make with others • our successes and failures • how other people judge us • the surrounding culture

Preventing groupthink

-Be impartial: dont endorse any position from the start of a discussion -encouraging critical evaluation: assign a devils advocate -subdivide the group and reunite to share viewpoints -welcome critiques from outside of the group -call a 2nd chance meeting before implementing the plan

Institutinal Authority

-In the original experiment the legitmacy of your increasef obedience -when conducted by research associates of bridge

Narcissism

-Inflated sense of self -outgoing and charming -lack of empathy -act aggressively when threatened -unstable relationships

Reducing Dissonance

-change behaviour -change attitude

Deindividualism

-combines arousal and diffusion of responsibilty -individual do things as part of a group they would not do it alone

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

-focus kn incidental, peripheral cues Audience: not analytical or motivated Processing: low effort, used perioheral cues, rule of thumb heuristics Persuassion: cues trigger temporary liking and acceptance

Central Route of Persuassion

-focus on logical, compelling arguements Audience: analytical and motivated Processing: high effort, elaborate Persuassion: solid arguement evoke enduring agreement

Antecedent

-highly cohesive group -isolation from dissenting view points -a directive leader who makes hus or her opinions known -high stress -poor decision making procedures

Symptoms

-illusion of invulnerabilty -unquestioned belief in groups morality -rationalization -stereotyped view of opponents -conformity pressure -self-censorship -ilusion of unanimity -mind guards

Social Facilitation

-mere presence of others -simply having other people around influences our performance

Culture

-more conformity in collectivistic culture -more conformity among working class people -tendency to conform changes overtime

Victims Distance

-participants obeyed the experimenter when they could not see victim -obidence declined when participants were in room and physically shocked

Personaltiy

-predicts tendency to conform in general (rather than in specific situation)

Gender Differences(women)

-priority to connectedness -focus on communication in personal relationships -intimate play in small groups -tend and befriend -work with people -smile more -more empathic

Gender Differences(Men)

-priority to independence -focus on tasks and connectedness in large groups -aggressive play in large groups -work with things

Critiquing

-retrospective evidence: choosing cases that fit the pattern of groupthink -some antecedents of groupthinking might be more predictive -cohesiveness: can make good decisions

Perspective/Situational Awarness

-when we act, the enviornment commands our attention -when others act, they command our attention

List the three main areas of study in social psychology

1) Social thinking 2) Social influence 3) social relations

Explain the "big idea" that summarizes social thinking

1) We construct our own social reality 2) Our social intuitions guide us, but can sometimes deceive us 3) Our attitudes shape our behaviors, and our behaviors shape our attitudes

Describe the components of an ethical psychological experiment

1) obtaining people's informed consent 2) truthful, fully disclosing afterward any temporary deceptions. 3) Protect particpants from harm or signficant discomfort 4) Treat information about the individual participants confidentially 5) debrief participants

Explain the "big idea" that summarizes social relations

1) social behavior is also biological behavior 2) feelings and actions towards other people are sometimes positive and sometimes negative

Explain the "big idea" that summarizes social influence

1) social influences shape our behavior 2) dispositions shape our behavior

Describe some of the problems that may be encountered when conducting survey research.

1) the sample may not be an accurate representation of the sample 2)there can be biases in the order of the question 3) response options can be leading 4) wording of the question can influence answers. (Framing)

Attitudes predict behavior when...

1. Outside influences on attitude and behaviors are minimal 2. When attitudes are specific to the behavior Ex. Workout 3. When attitudes are strong

4 components of self

1. self concept 2. social self 3. self- knowledge 4. self- esteem

Explain 4 ways that our sense of self may be influenced by our social environment.

1. social surroundings affect our social awareness 2. self- interest colors our social judgement 3. self concern motivates are social behavior 4. social relationships help define our sense of self

Group

2 or more people, who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and percieve one another as "us"

2. Explain the differences between explicit and implicit prejudices. Provide examples of each.

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4. Explain the differences between hostile and benevolent sexism and describe modern trends in gender discrimination around the world.

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5. Describe the social sources of prejudice. Include an explanation of social inequalities, socialization effects, and institutional supports.

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6. Compare the Scapegoat Theory and Social Identity Theory. Describe the components of each theory and the explanations they posit for prejudice

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Conformity

A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagine group pressure

Peace

A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships The suppression of open conflict is not the same as peace

Attitude

A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone

attitude

A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone

Stereotype

A generalization; a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people Can be positive or negative, can be more or less accurate Become problematic when overgeneralized

Need to belong

A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interaction

Social sources of prejudice: social dominance orientation

A motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups People high in social dominance orientation tend to view people in terms of hierarchies. Will do anything to stay on top.

Altruism

A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interest. when we act to promote someone else's welfare, even at a risk or cost to ourselves.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals Not always harmful (i.e. the civil rights movement)

Stigma consciousness

A person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination - Seeing oneself as a victim of pervasive prejudice has its ups and downs. * The downside is that those who perceive *The upside is that perceptions of prejudice buffer individual self-esteem. If someone is nasty, "Well, it's not directed at me personally." Moreover, perceived prejudice and discrimination enhance our feelings of social identity and prepare us to join in collective social action.

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A positive stereotype has no prejudice, but a negative stereotype can cause a negative prejudice which can lead to discrimination. Positive discrimination can be giving a male and not a female in an acting role that requires a man to play.

Prejudice (negative attitude)

A preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members

Superordinate goal

A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another

Social dilemmas

A situation in which individual self-interest is at odds with communal well-being In order to study social dilemmas, psychologists use social traps. --------------------- A situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses.

Social trap

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include: the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons

Passionate love

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it. Individualistic cultures value passionate love as a reason for marriage.

Subgrouping

Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

Subtyping

Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule"

Social sources of prejudice: socialization

Acquired values and attitudes, passed from families and cultures. - Those with authoritarian (concerned with security and control) personalities favor obedience to authority, are ethnocentric, intolerant of weakness, intolerant of out-groups, intolerant of those of lower status, have punitive attitudes.

Compliance

Acting in good accord witht he request (implicitly or explicily) Privately disagreeing

Reactance

Acting to protect a sense of freedom

Channel of Communicator

Active experience or passive reception -Active Experience: most effective way to form and stregthen attitudes -Passive Experience: very difficult (but not possible) To change attitudes through passive Personal vs. Media influence -personal:face to face communication -media: (2) flow communication- flows from media to opinion leader -difficult messages more effective if written

Adaptive vs Maladaptive

Adaptive: motivates us to achieve help, help prevent depression Maladpative: may kead us to perceptions of injustice, blamed other for faults

Schachter & Singer adrenaline study

Administered adrenaline to participants and put them in a room with a hostile or euphoric person Those warned about the side effects of the drug -> no emotion Those not forewarned about the side effects -> exhibited anger with the hostile person and amusement with the euphoric person Proved that arousal fuels emotions

Social roles

Adopting to our social roles require conformity

ABC's of Attitude

Affect Behaviour Cognition

Companionate love

Affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined Low-key, deep, affectionate attachment As passionate love diminishes, companionate love can take its place

The Audience

Age- attitudes may change with age -generational effects: people grow older; they hold onto attitudes they adopted when younger What is the audience thinking about the message? -has the audience been forewarned? -if the audience is distracted? -how involved is the audience?

Reducing aggression: culture

Aggression decreases when it is socially unacceptable There has been a decrease in aggression around the world over time

Aggression as a biological phenomenon: evolutionary psychology

Aggression is an adaptive strategy, particularly for men Aggression is used for self-defense and to acquire status

Instrumental aggression

Aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end An example: war

Hostile aggression

Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure An example: murder

Aggression as a biological phenomenon: neural influences

Aggression triggered when "deeper" brain areas like the amygdala are stimulated Individuals prone to aggression have a less developed prefontal cortex

Aggression as a biological phenomenon: biochemical influences

Alcohol, testosterone, and poor diet ("hangry") all enhance aggression

Mediation

An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions An example: marriage counseling

Social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing help. A societal rule that tells people they should help others who need help even if doing so is costly.

Reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. The norm of reciprocity is the expectation that people will respond favorably to each other by returning benefits for benefits, and responding with either indifference or hostility to harms.

Development of the Social Self: The roles we play

As we enact a new role—college student, parent, salesperson—we initially feel selfconscious. Gradually, however, what begins as playacting in the theater of life is absorbed into our sense of self. Role playing becomes reality

random assignment

Assigning participants to the conditions such that all people have the same chance of being in a given condition; Helps infer cause and effect

Why do we have a need to belong?

Attachments enable group survival Pair-bonding helps produce successful offspring

Anxious/ambivalent/insecure attachment style

Attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. ---------------- Children with ambivalent/anxious attachment patterns exist in a state of being suspicious and distrustful while at the same time acting clingy and desperate. They tend to focus intensely on their parent and are hyper-vigilant regarding the parent's availability or unavailability. They vacillate between over-dependent clinging and angry rejection of their parent or caregiver.

Avoidant attachment style

Attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others. ------ They develop a pseudo-independent orientation to life and maintain the illusion that they can take complete care of themselves. As a result, they have little desire or motivation to seek out other people for help or support.

Secure attachment style

Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy. -------------------- Secure attachment is classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves and do something knowing that their caregiver will return. Children with secure attachment feel protected by their caregivers, and they know that they can depend on them to return.

Aggression as a learned social behavior: rewards of aggression

Attention, status, money When aggression is rewarded, it will continue and may increase

When attitudes are potent

Attitudes predict behaviour when they are thinking about them - Ex. Picking up litter

Components of attraction: physical attractiveness

Attractiveness matters in dating - sometimes more than other qualities Individuals across cultures prefer averaged faces and symmetry (asymmetry indicates genetic problems)

Implicit prejudice (automatic/unconscious)

Automatic thought, may change slowly with more experience. Occurs in the amygdala, activates fear and avoidance Ex) Flashing images and associating with stuff without knowing. White with good, hammer with nail.

Cultural Diversity

Becoming more relevant as globolization increases

CH. 4

Behavior & Attitudes

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Belief that leads to its own fulfillment Ex: teacher expectation Bank failures

Ethnocentric

Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, having a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

Acceptance

Both acting and believing in accordance with social pressure

Perceived injustice

Can create conflict Individualistic cultures value equity Collectivistic cultures focus on equality or need fulfillment. ----------------- Defined as an appraisal cognition comprising elements of the severity of loss consequent to injury ("Most people don't understand how severe my condition is"), blame ("I am suffering because of someone else's negligence"), a sense of unfairness ("It all seems so unfair"), and irreparability of loss ("My life will never be the same").

Influences on aggression: pornography

Can lead to distorted perceptions of reality (i.e. that women want to be coerced into sex) Evidence suggests that aggressive pornography increases male aggression towards women

Reducing aggression: catharsis?

Catharsis is an emotional release; "blowing off steam" by releasing anger through socially acceptable aggressive behavior Evidence suggests that catharsis is ineffective: negative actions can lead to negative attitudes, "venting to reduce anger is like using gasoline to put out a fire"

Authority figure

Closeness of authority figure Legitimacy of authority figure

Conflict resolution: cooperation

Common external threats build cohesiveness An example: Following 9/11, patriotism increased, George W Bush's approval rating soared, divorce decreased in NYC. Superordinate goals foster cooperation Cooperative learning can improve race relations

Competition

Competition promotes conflict, especially with limited resources and an out-group competitor

Obidence

Compliance with a direct order or command

Evaluation Apprehenision

Concern for how others are evaluating us

Informative Influence

Conforming because one accepts evidence about reality provided by other people

Normatic Influence

Conforming in oder to fulfill others expectationsor gain acceptance

Explicit prejudice (conscious)

Conscious thought, may change with new information and experience and education Occurs in the frontal cortex, enables conscious thought

Determine whether two variables are strongly correlated and whether they are positively or negatively correlated from their correlation coefficient, r.

Correlation and Causations: When two variables correlate, any combination of three explanations is possible. Either one may cause the other, or both may be affected by an underlying "third factor." - We measure correlations with the coefficient r -1.0 to +1.0 -1 -> as one factor goes up, the other goes down + 1 -> both factors increase or decrease together

The commuinicator

Credibilty -percieved expertise ~appear knowledgeable on the topic ~present their message confidently -trustworthiness ~make eye contact ~are not trying to persuade the audience ~argue against self interest ~talk fast Attractiveness and Liking -physical Attractiveness ~attractiveness increases persuassiveness -similarity ~we are attracted to thise similar to us ~we are more likely to be persuaded by communictaors who are similar to us

Influences on aggression: aggressive cues

Cues of aggression, such as guns, may prime aggressive thoughts and behaviors In the case of a gun, however, the perception of the weapon would matter: instrument of violence or recreational item

Insuffiecent Justification

Decide that attitude really changed

When the need to belong is unmet / ostracism (exclusion from a society or group)

Depressed mood & increased anxiety Self-defeating behaviors Physical pain Aggression Increased affiliation desires

illusory correlation

Finding patterns that aren't there

Group Polarization

Discussion within a group typically stregthens the average inclination of group members

Consencus

Do others behave similarly in this situation?

Distinctiveness

Does this person behave differently in this situation than in others?

consistency

Does this person usually behave this way in this situation

External motivation to avoid prejudice

Doesn't wan't to be perceived as prejudiced

Universal Norms

Friendship norms Unviversal personality Trait Status Norms Incest Taboo

Evolution vs Culture

Evolutionary psychology highight how we are similar Culture highlights how we are different Evolution and Culture are not incompatible

Mimicry

Ex. Checking phones,yawning, laugh

When attitudes are minimal social influence

Ex. Pressure to dislike Taylor Swift

Copycat Phenomen

Ex.Marilyn Monroe

Group-serving bias

Explaining away out-group members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions **While excusing such behavior by one's own group - -- The human tendency to consistently attribute a group's successes to its own efforts, and to attribute failures to outside interference. where success is seen as completely internal (without taking outside support into consideration) and where a "the world is against us" mentality consistently blames the outside world for all failures in families

Diverse Norms

Expressiveness Punctuality Personal space Eye contact Hand Gestures

True or False: People are usually good at predicting their future and how they will feel in the future

False

Social leadership

Focuses in building team work, mediating conflict, and supporting team members -allows team member inputs

Task Leadership

Focuses on organizing work, setting standards and reaching goals -usually gives order

Aggression as a biological phenomenon: instinct theory

Freud thought that aggression is instinctual and must be released Little empirical evidence for that

Attachment

From birth, we are biologically predisposed to attach to other people Formed in infancy, can change across our lifetimes Strong parent-infant bond is consistent in mammalian species because it promotes newborn survival

Frustration-aggression theory revised

Frustration produces anger, which is an emotional readiness to aggress Anger + aggressive cues = aggression

non-zero-sum games

Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose.

Culture and Gender

Gender roles- how we expect men and women to behave Gender roles vary culture by culture

Components of attraction: proximity

Geographical nearness "Functional distance" is how often people's paths cross, makes interaction more likely Proximity breeds liking more than it breeds animosity (strong hostility.); anticipation of interaction results in liking

ORDER OF QUESTIONS

Given a representative sample, we must also contend with other sources of bias, such as the order of questions in a survey.

Influences on aggression: group influences

Group aggression is often greater than individual aggression

Group problem solving

Group decision making isnt always a bad thing Groups are often more accurate than individuals Group generate more and better ideas Optimal brainstorming combines group a d solo brainstorming

Group selection

Groups with altruistic members are more likely to survive More evident in social insects (i.e. ants, bees) compared to humans. ------------------- Refers to the idea that natural selection sometimes acts on whole groups of organisms, favoring some groups over others, leading to the evolution of traits that are group-advantageous

Other factors that influence helping

Helping when somebody does Time pressures -> people in a hurry are less likely to help Similarity -> we help those who we perceive as similar to us Personality traits -> people who are high in empathy & self-monitoring are reliably more helpful Gender -> men are more likely to help in dangerous situations, women are more likely to help in safe situations Religion -> religious people volunteer more and make more donations to charity

Explain why high self-esteem can be problematic.

High self-esteem becomes especially problematic if it crosses over into narcissism, or having an inflated sense of self. Most people with high self-esteem value both individual achievement and relationships with others. Narcissists usually have high self-esteem, but they are missing the piece about caring for others. Although high self-esteem is generally more beneficial than low, researchers have found that people high in both self-esteem and narcissism are the most aggressive. Someone with a big ego who is threatened or deflated by social rejection is potentially aggressive.

Evolutionary Psychology

Humans are more alike than different

Aggression as a biological phenomenon: genetic influences

Identical twins share more similar aggression than fraternal twins Genes and environment interaction matters though

Conformity

If prejudice is socially acceptable/ popular, many people will conform to prejudice ideas. They will act not so much out of a need to hate as out of a need to be liked and accepted.

illusion of control

Illusion that chance events are subject to our influence. Ex) gambling, blowing the dice

Unanimity

In Asch Study, simply having one dissenter decreased conformity -participants reported feelings of warmth but denied that it influenced

misinformation effect

Incorporating "misinformation" onto one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. Memories of an event are altered after recieving misleading information about the event

Informational Influence

Increased number of arguements in favor of dominatnt view point

Cohseion

Individuals in more cohesive groups feel more pressure to conform to group characteristics and behaviuor

Minimal Interaction

Influenced through social facilitation, social loafing and deindividualtion

3. Discuss the changes in prevalence of racial prejudice throughout US history and describe how racial prejudice is likely to manifest today.

It was strong during the 1940's, but as time progressed all races were seeing each other more as equals. There's still racial prejudice, but it's a lot less than back then. It manifests today through subtle prejudice "modern prejudice." Like hiding behind a screen

Components of attraction: mutual liking

Knowing that someone likes us will increase our liking of them

Transformational Leadership

Leadership that motivates others to identify with and commit themselves to group missions -charasmatic, energetic and self confident -characteristic that helps minority position persuassive Ex: common in cults, Martin Luther King

Misperception

Leads to conflict Simplistic thinking -> "we are good, they are bad" thinking Shifting perceptions -> perception of others can change based on whether or not we are in conflict with them

Components of attraction: similarity

Likeness leads to liking; birds of a feather flock together Similarity leads to closer, more intimate relationships Opposites do NOT attract; dissimilarity breeds dislike. We dislike those who hold different views. Friends and couples may become more similar in attitudes over time.

When attitude specific to behaviour

Little correspondence between general attitudes and specific behaviours Ex. Donating to the red cross

Hostile sexism

Negative attitudes towards women. An antagonistic attitude towards women Ex) Viewed as trying to control men through feminist ideology or sexual seduction

Factors that influence the bystander effect

Noticing -> as bystanders increase, we are less likely to notice emergency situations Interpreting -> as bystanders increase, we are less likely to define situations as emergencies Assuming responsibility -> as bystanders increase, we are less likely to assume responsibility for helping

Equity

Outcomes one receives from a relationship are proportional to what on contributes Individuals do not expect immediate equitable exchange but long-term equity is expected Raising children increases perception of inequity

Influences on aggression: aversive incidents

Pain Heat Attacks (drive for retaliation increases aggression)

Milgrim and Obidence

Participants required to deliever shocks of increasing intensity to a confederate

Sherif and Norm Formation

Participants were asked to report how much the light moved Overtime, the participants estimates converged

Driven of Distraction

Paying attention to others distract us from our task

Peer Transmitted Culture

Peer influence is much greater than parental

Public repsonce

People conform more when they have to respond in front of others

Social Loafing

People exert less effort when they pool efforts towards a common goal Ex: tug of war

Terror management theory

People's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality

Behavioral Confirmations

Peoples social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations

Anonymitty

Peopme will behave in unacceptable ways when their identity is concealed Ex: internet comments, baiting suicide jumpers

Relative deprivation

Perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone Distinct from assertiveness

Real-world consequences of the need to belong

Popularity of social networking, cell phones and texting Actual and imagined relationships dominate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Loss of emotional relationships is emotionally devastating

Group Influence

Power in numbers -when additional "teacher" defied

Content of the message

Reason Vs. Emotion -well educated, analytical, involved audiences respond to rational appeals -uninterested, less analytical, audience respond to emotional appeals Association w/good feeling -happt people are more likely to use peripheral cues Association w/neg feeling -fearful messages are most effective when they are accompanied by possible solutions Discrepancy -how different is the message from the audiences previousy held attitude -interacts with credibility -interacts with engagement in the issue One sided or 2 sided appeal -initial agreement ~onesided-most persuasive when audience initially agree ~2sided-most persuasive when audience initially disagrees (most persuasive when exposed to both sides) Primacy vs. Recency -primacy effect-info. presented 1st usually has most influence -Recency Effect- info. presented last sometimes has most influence

Mirror-image perceptions

Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

Displacement

Redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of aggression

How can we increase helping?

Reduce ambiguity Making personal appeals can increase feelings of responsibility and make people more self-aware of altruistic ideals Induce guilt Increase concern for self-image (door-in-the-face technique) Teaching moral inclusion Modeling altruism Attributing helpful behaviors to altruistic motives Learning about altruism

Resolving social dilemmas

Regulation Make groups smaller Encourage communication, which reduces distrust among members Changing the payoff by punishing exploitation and rewarding cooperation Appealing to altruistic norms

Reducing aggression: social learning approach

Reinforcing non-aggressive behavior rather than punishing aggressive behavior Prevent aggression before it occurs by teaching non-aggressive conflict resolution

Consistency

Remains consistent topuc can influence

Research may either be correlational or experimental

Research may take place in controlled, laboratory settings or in everyday situations known as field research

Arbitration

Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement When the neutral party chooses one of two options presented by those in conflict, it's called "final offer arbitration."

Self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Promotes intimacy Expectation of disclosure reciprocity (this promotes liking and excitement) Self-other integration

Bargaining

Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties

Self perpetuating prejudgement

Self-Perpetuating Prejudgment1 = When a member of a group behaves inconsistently with our expectation, we may interpret or explain away the behavior as due to special circumstances, often judging them harshly for behaving inconsistent with stereotypes Self-Perpetuating Prejudgment example = female manager who is not warm, nurturing being seen as cold and bitchy

SUCCESS AND FAILURE

Self-concept is fed not only by our roles, our social identity, and our comparisons but also by our daily experiences. To undertake challenging yet realistic tasks and to succeed is to feel more competent. To do one's best and achieve is to feel more confident and empowered. Self-esteem comes not only from telling children how wonderful they are but also from hard earned achievements. Feelings follow reality. Low self-esteem does sometimes cause problems. Compared with those with low self-esteem, people with a sense of self-worth are happier, less neurotic, less troubled by insomnia, less prone to drug and alcohol addictions, and more persistent after failure But as we will see, critics argue that it's at least as true the other way around: Problems and failures can cause low self-esteem.

Explain the differences between the self-concept, self-schemas, and possible selves.

Self-concept: what we know and believe about ourselves Self-schemas: beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information Possible selves: beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

Do stereotypes bias judgments of individuals?

Short answer: yes - Strong stereotypes can overpower knowledge to the contrary - Stereotypes bias interpretation - Stereotypes usually accurately reflect reality although they may distort it People tend to evaluate individuals separately from group stereotypes. - Stereotypes, especially when strong, can predispose how we perceive people and interpret events.

Social sources of prejudice: institutional supports

Social institutions (schools, government, media) may bolster prejudice through both overt and passive means Overt policies like segregation Passive reinforcement of stereotypes Ex) Governor barred the doors of Central High School in Little Rock to prevent integration, he was both representing his constituents and lending legitimacy to their views.

Define social psychology and explain how it is different from other sciences such as sociology and personality psychology.

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people Sociology is more focused on groups and personality psychology is more focused on individual characteristics

Cultural Differences

Someone else had a different culture

Describe modern trends in gender discrimination around the world.

Still exists but subtle, and gender discrimination as girls won't go to school.

random sample

Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

How does stereotype threat undermine performance?

Stress impairs cognitive functioning and increases emotion processing self-monitoring and worrying about making mistakes disrupts attention Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions: effort involved in regulating thoughts and emotions disrupts cognitive processing

Asch and Group Pressure

Study about people(group) disagreeing with lines

Tragedy of the Commons

The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse - the tragedy - of the commons.

CH. 2

The Self in a Social World

Frustration

The blocking of goal-directed behavior (complete deprivation)

Bystander effect

The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. Refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present. An example: the murder of Kitty Genovese

Examine the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Determine which culture is more likely to focus on the development of of the independent self and the interdependent self.

The goal of social life is to harmonize with and support one's communities, not—as it is in more individualistic societies—to enhance one's individual self. Western individualists like to make comparisons with others that boost their self-esteem. Asian collectivists make comparisons (often upward, with those doing better) in ways that facilitate self-improvement.

Kin selection

The idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

Mere presence

The prescense of others can be arousing even when we are not being evaluated or distracted

Physical-attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well. What is beautiful is good.

Matching phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a good match in attractiveness and other traits. -----------------====--- This hypothesis puts forward the idea that people are attracted to people who are equally socially desirable. This desirability, however, is not limited to physical measures of desirability; some women are attracted to wealth and success rather than physical appearance, while men may be more attracted to youth and physical beauty.

Mere-exposure effect

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them. ------------ The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes called the familiarity principle.

Own-race bias

The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. EX) Trayvon Martin, rape victims

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others behaviours -we tend to persume others are the way they are

Frustration-aggression theory

The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress. ------------------ A psychological theory that aggression is caused by blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to achieve a goal

Social exchange theory

The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs. Bad feelings (distress and guilt) can lead to increased helping. Depression and grief, though, can lead to self-preoccupation that decreases helping. Good feelings can also lead to increased helping; "feel good, do good". ---------------------------------- According to this theory, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships. When the risks outweigh the rewards, people will terminate or abandon that relationship. EX) If you have a friend that always has to borrow money from you, then this would be seen as a high cost. --------- EX) Your friend might be a bit of a freeloader, but he brings a lot of fun and excitement into your life. As you are determining the value of the friendship, you might decide that the benefits outweigh the potential costs.

Motivational sources of prejudice: realistic group conflict theory

The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished An example: the Bobo doll experiment

Components of attraction: reward theory

The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

Two-factor theory of emotion

The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal. In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough; we also must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion. ------------------------------------------------------- 1. I see a strange man walking toward me. 2. My heart is racing and I am trembling. 3. My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear. 4. I am frightened! The process begins with the stimulus (the strange man), which is followed by the physical arousal (rapid heartbeat and trembling). Added to this is the cognitive label (associating the physical reactions to fear), which is immediately followed by the conscious experience of the emotion (fear).

Summarize some of the obvious, and not-so-obvious ways that personal values may influence the study of social psychology.

The values of social psychologists penetrate the study of social psychology Obvious ways: 1) when choosing a research topic 2) types of people who are attracted to certain topics Not obvious ways: 1) the culture can influence their interpretation of human behavior 2) defining what is good 3) forming concepts and labeling

Empathy

The vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

Framing

The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions.

Religion and prejudice

There's a correlation between religion and prejudice, but it tells us nothing about their casual connection. Depends on how we ask the question. - Superficially, there is a positive relationship between religion and prejudice. (assessing superficially) When depth of religious commitment is measured, there is a negative relationship between religion and prejudice. (assessing it with depth)

Natural Selection

Traits will be selected for the offspring with the best traits

Influences on aggression: television and internet

Watching violent TV programs is associated with increased aggression in children and adults Violent TV influences behavior because it increases arousal, disinhibits, and evokes imitation. It can also desensitize, promote social scripts, alter our perceptions of reality, and prime aggressive thinking Violent video games are associated with a decrease in empathy and helping behaviors and an increase in aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Prosocial video games, on the other hand, are associated with helping, sharing, and cooperation.

Role Playing

We adopt attitudes that match the roles we play Ex. Standford Prision Experiment

Sociometer theory

We have self esteem to alert us to others approval

Describe at least two ways in which our self-knowledge is limited. Provide examples of each.

We might not know ourselves as well as we think we do! Explaining past behavior Ex) "I'm in a bad mood because its Monday" - Bad mood may be caused by lack of sleep, weather, etc. Studies of "affective forecasting" reveal that people have greatest difficulty predicting the intensity and the duration of their future emotions. Predicting Future Behavior = the tendency to under estimate how long it will take to complete a task Affective forecasting: predicting future emotions

Noticing differences

We notice how we are distinct from the group

Cognitive source of prejudice: attribution

We tend to make the fundamental attribution error when judging out-groups When we are trying to understand and explain what happens in social settings, we tend to view behavior as a particularly significant factor. We then tend to explain behavior in terms of internal disposition, such as personality traits, abilities, motives, etc. as opposed to external situational factors. This can be due to our focus on the person more than their situation, about which we may know very little. But not external factors, like lack of resources.

Prior Commitment

When people make public comments

Other people's judgments

When people think well of us, it helps us think well of ourselves. The looking glass-self: noting that what matters for our self-concepts is not how others actually see us but the way we imagine they see us. People generally feel freer to praise than to criticize; they voice their compliments and restrain their gibes. We may, therefore, overestimate others' appraisal, inflating our self-images. Selfesteem, he argues, is a psychological gauge by which we monitor and react to how others appraise us. (ancestors example to belong in a tribe for survival, and also about social exclusion.)

Empathy-based altruism

When their empathy is aroused, people will help. If you feel empathy towards another person you will help them, regardless of what you can gain from it. Relieving their suffering becomes the most important thing. When you do not feel empathy, the social exchange theory takes control.

Other social norms of helping

Women are more likely to seek help and receive help; they help men and women equally Men are more likely to help women rather than other men

availability heuristics

a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. We judge how likely things are based on how readily available they are in our memories

implicit association test

a computer driven assessment of implicit attitudes

self esteem

a person's overall self- evaluation or sense of self worth

role

a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position out to behave

social representation

a society's widely held ideas and values, including assumptions and cultural ideologies that help us make sense of the world

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions

heuristics

a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements

People are most likely to define their identity in relation to others when they are part of

collectivist society

priming

activating particular associations in memory

deception

an effect by which participants are misinformed about the study's methods and purposes

spontanoues trait inference

an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior

As a result of random assignment, the people in both groups of an experiment...

are more likely to be about the same in every way

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment, Acting a certian way becuase of the situation

dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits. Acting a certain way because of who they are

The cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their accessibility memory is called the _____ heuristic

availability

self monitoring

being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression

Dissonance theory explains attitude _________ and self-perception theory explains attitude ____________

change; formation

When we are eager to seek information that verifies our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove our beliefs, the _______ has occurred

confirmation bias

What three types of information do we use when we make attributions for other people's behavior

consistency, distinctiveness, consensus

independent self

construing one's identity as an autonomous self. Western

interdependent self

construing one's identity on relation to others. Asians

The tendency to imagine alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but did not is called

counterfactual thinking

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

dual attitude system

differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes towards the same object

independent variable

factors that are manipulated

controlled processing

explicit thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious

social neuroscience

explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviors, and how these processes and behaviors affect our brain and biology

When people were told to sit straight and to push their chest out, they felt more confident. This is an example of

facial feedback

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of ones group and defining ones identity accordingly. More common in cultures native to Asia, Africa, Central and South America**

researchers formulate predictions, otherwise known as ______________.

hypotheses

Theory

ideas that summarize and explain facts and predict future events. an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events

spontaneous trait interference

if we say something good of bad about someone, people associate that trait with us

counterfactual thinking

imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't

automatic processing

implicit thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness

misattribution

mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source

Explain why social psychological findings sometimes seem to be common sense

outcomes are obvious after the fact

external locus of control

outside forces control your fate

impact bias

overestimating the enduring impact of emotion- causing events. Impact bias is important because people's "affective forecasts"—their predictions of their future emotions—influence their decisions. If people overestimate the intensity and the duration of the pleasure they will gain from purchasing a new car or undergoing cosmetic surgery, then they may make ill-advised investments in that new Mercedes or extreme makeover.

self- affirmation theory

people often experience a self- image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior and they compensate by affirming another aspect of the self

low ball technique

people who agree to an initial request will ofter still comply when the requester up the ante

belief perseverance

persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group because it resembles a typical member is referred to as the _______ heuristic

representative

field research

research done in natural, real life settings outside the lab

In an experiment on ___________________, people preferred to hear information that supported their views as opposed to challenging information by a two to one ratio.

selective exposure

A person's answer to the question "Who am I?" comprises his or her

self concept

When people make the fundamental attribution error, they tend to underestimate the

situational constrains on people's behavior

The extent to which we evaluate our abilities and opinions by comparing ourselves to others is called

social comparison

experimental research

studies that seek clues to cause and effect relationships by manipulating variables. Adavantage: Can explore cause and effect by controlling variables and by random assignment Disadvantage: Some important variables cannot be studied with experiments

cognitive dissonance

tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistence cognitions

hypothesis

testable predictions that describe a relationship that may exist between 2 events

self presentation

the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideas

defensive pessimism

the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action

culture

the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted through generations

spotlight effect

the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are. Ex) Lisa was sure that everyone saw her humiliating moment, when in actuality, not that many people noticed.

individualism

the concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals. **More common in Western cultures

experimental realism

the degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants

mundane realism

the degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations

sociologists tend to focus on _____________, whereas social psychologists tend to focus on ____________.

the group as a single unit; individual members within a group

immune neglect

the human tendency to underestimate the speed and strength of the "psychological immune system" which enables emotional recovery and resilience after a bad thing happens

illusion of transparency

the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by other

embodied cognition

the mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments

over justification effect

the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing

learned helplessness

the sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

regression towards the average

the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return to average

correlational research

the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables. -determine whether 2 or more factors are naturally associated -variables are measured, not manipulated Advantage: Often uses realworld settings Disadvantage: Causation often ambiguous

foot in the door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a smaller request to comply later with a larger request

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings

self serving attributions

the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors

over confidence phenomenon

the tendency to be more confident than correct. The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of ones belief.

hindsight bias

the tendency to exaggerate, after learning the outcome, your ability to have foreseen the results. I knew it all along

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors

self serving bias

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

representative heuristics

the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member

selective exposure

the tendency to seek information and media that agrees with one's views and to avoid dissonant information

false uniqueness effect

the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors

attribution theory

the theory of how people explain other's behaviors by either internal dispositions or external situations

self-perception theory

the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us- by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs

Explain why we cannot conclude cause and effect from correlational research

the variables are not controlled and you cannot conclude what cause what

explain the relationship between hypothesis and theory

theories help form and summarize hypotheses

Murray and his colleagues (2003) found that among married couples, the self-fulfilling prophecy occurred when one person interpreted slight hurts as rejections. The person who felt rejected was then motivated to

value their partner for his or her honesty