SPCH 1315 Mid-Term (CH. 1-3, 6-8, 14-16)

How To Organize Main Points

1) listing speech content ideas and 2) mapping speech content ideas. Brainstorming to Generate Main Points: Speech Topic: Listing Ideas: Main Points: Mapping to Generate Main Points: Remember that main points should be: Worded as declarative phrases (no questions) Succinct (no lists) Determining the Order of Main Points: Focus on the specified topic area to be expounded upon One technique that you can use for the wording of your main points is parallelism. Parallelism is when you use similar sentence structure and repetition to enhance the style of the speech and memory of the main points

How to Outline the Speech Introduction

A speech introduction should both psychologically and logically orient the audience to the speech; therefore, you need to accomplish multiple steps or parts of an introduction to achieve this goal. The introduction should motivate the audience to listen to the speech. So, let's learn how to outline the parts of the introduction. Introduction: Attention Strategy Topic Statement Relevance to Audience Credibility Thesis Preview of Main Points

Chapter 1.3

According to Tilley, the first major consideration to be aware of when examining the ethicality of something is the issue of intent. To be an ethical speaker or listener, it is important to begin with ethical intentions. For example, if we agree that honesty is ethical, it follows that ethical speakers will prepare their remarks with the intention of telling the truth to their audiences. Similarly, if we agree that it is ethical to listen with an open mind, it follows that ethical listeners will be intentional about letting a speaker make his or her case before forming judgments. One option for assessing intent is to talk with others about how ethical they think a behavior is; if you get a variety of answers, it might be a sign that the behavior is not ethical and should be avoided. A second option is to check out existing codes of ethics. Many professional organizations, including the Independent Computer Consultants Association, American Counseling Association, and American Society of Home Inspectors, have codes of conduct or ethical guidelines for their members. Individual corporations such as Monsanto, Coca-Cola, Intel, and ConocoPhillips also have ethical guidelines for how their employees should interact with suppliers or clients. Even when specific ethical codes are not present, you can apply general ethical principles, such as whether a behavior is beneficial for the majority or whether you would approve of the same behavior if you were listening to a speech instead of giving it. In addition, it is important to be aware that people can engage in unethical behavior unintentionally.

Chapter 1.2

Although we cannot predict how all our audience members will interpret specific words, we do know that—for example—using teenage slang when speaking to the audience at a senior center would most likely hurt our ability to convey our meaning clearly. Russian scholar Mikhail Bahktin notes that human interactions take place according to cultural norms and rules (Bakhtin, 2001a; Bakhtin, 2001b). How we approach people, the words we choose, and how we deliver speeches are all dependent on different speaking contexts and social situations. On September 8, 2009, President Barack Obama addressed school children with a televised speech (http://www.whitehouse.gov/mediaresources/PreparedSchoolRemarks). If you look at the speech he delivered to kids around the country and then at his speeches targeted toward adults, you'll see lots of differences. These dissimilar speeches are necessary because the audiences (speaking to kids vs. speaking to adults) have different experiences and levels of knowledge. Ultimately, good public speaking is a matter of taking into account the cultural background of your audience and attempting to engage your audience in a dialogue from their own vantage point. Considering the context of a public speech involves thinking about four dimensions: physical, temporal, social-psychological, and cultural (DeVito, 2009). The physical dimension of communication involves the real or touchable environment where communication occurs. For example, you may find yourself speaking in a classroom, a corporate board room, or a large amphitheater. Each of these real environments will influence your ability to interact with your audience. Larger physical spaces may require you to use a microphone and speaker system to make yourself heard or to use projected presentation aids to convey visual material.

When a speaker is working ideas for the main points of the speech, the speaker is focusing on the _____ cannon.

Arrangement

Receiving Constructive Criticism

Be an active listener or reader. Passive listening does not attend to the perceptual process of meaning making not does it seek to learn and use what is learned to make changes. Whereas, active listening attends to how meaning in made through communication, seeks to learn, and uses what is learned to improve. Be an active listener when receiving constructive criticism so that you may glean what is useful in the feedback and integrate that knowledge into action. Prepare yourself for criticism by having an open mind. It is easy to assume a defensive listening posture, but rather than being defensive be open minded to learning from the person and their perspective, even if it is different from the other person. Remember that not everyone who provides constructive criticism is trained on how to communicate it effectively. However, that does not mean you take away something of value from it. Ask questions. Asking clarifying and follow-up questions enables you to learn more that should, in turn, help you apply the constructive criticism in the future. You can ask questions to help you better understand the feedback like, "When you said that I need to work on verbal clutter, did you mean eliminating when I said 'um' or did you mean something else?" You can ask questions that will help you apply the feedback such as, "When you said that I need to work on verbal clutter, do you have any suggestions as to how I can do that?" Act on the constructive criticism. In other words, take what you learned, determine how it could improve your speaking skills, and make appropriate changes.

Chapter 1

Communication is processed through meaning which is generated at different interaction levels (including interpersonal, group/team, organizational, public speaking and mass communication)

Chapter 1.3

Every day, people around the world make ethical decisions regarding public speech. Is it ever appropriate to lie to a group of people if it's in the group's best interest? As a speaker, should you use evidence within a speech that you are not sure is correct if it supports the speech's core argument? As a listener, should you refuse to listen to a speaker with whom you fundamentally disagree? These three examples represent ethical choices speakers and listeners face in the public speaking context. In this chapter, we will explore what it means to be both an ethical speaker and an ethical listener. To help you understand the issues involved with thinking about ethics, this chapter begins by presenting a model for ethical communication known as the ethics pyramid. We will then show how the National Communication Association (NCA) Credo for Ethical Communication can be applied to public speaking. The chapter will conclude with a general discussion of free speech. The word "ethics" can mean different things to different people. Whether it is an ethical lapse in business or politics or a disagreement about medical treatments and end-of-life choices, people come into contact with ethical dilemmas regularly. Speakers and listeners of public speech face numerous ethical dilemmas as well. What kinds of support material and sources are ethical to use? How much should a speaker adapt to an audience without sacrificing his or her own views? What makes a speech ethical? Elspeth Tilley, a public communication ethics expert from Massey University, proposes a structured approach to thinking about ethics (Tilley, 2005). Her ethics pyramid involves three basic concepts: intent, means, and ends. Figure 2.1 "Ethical Pyramid" illustrates the Tilley pyramid.

Chapter 1.3

Examples of ends might include persuading your audience to make a financial contribution for your participation in Relay for Life, persuading a group of homeowners that your real estate agency would best meet their needs, or informing your fellow students about newly required university fees

Chapter 1.3

For example, suppose we agree that it is unethical to take someone "else's words and pass them off as your own—a behavior known as plagiarism. What happens if a speaker makes a statement that he believes is his own, but actually quoted radio commentator whom he heard without clearly remembering doing so?The plagiarism was unintentional, but does that make it ethical? Tilley describes the means you use to communicate with others as the second level of the ethics pyramid. According to McCroskey, Wrench, and Richmond (McCroskey, Wrench, & Richmond, 2003), "means" are the tools or behaviors we employ to achieve a desired outcome. We must realize that there are a range of possible behavioral choices for any situation and that some choices are good, some are bad, and some fall in between. For example, suppose you want your friend Marty to spend an hour reviewing a draft of your speech according to criteria, such as audience appropriateness, adequate research, strong support of assertions, and dynamic introduction and conclusion. What means might you use to persuade Marty to do you this favor? You might explain that you value Marty's opinion and will gladly return the favor the next time Marty is preparing a speech (good means), or you might threaten to tell a professor that Marty cheated on a test (bad means). While both of these means may lead to the same end—having Marty agree to review your speech—one is clearly more ethical than the other. The final part of the ethics pyramid is the ends. According to McCroskey, Wrench, and Richmond (McCroskey, Wrench, & Richmond, 2003), ends are those outcomes that you desire to achieve.

Recommended Advice and Exercises to Reduce and Manage PSA:

Get started early. Procrastination is your enemy. Divide out your work in shorter segments over a longer period of time and make sure the days leading up to your speech are focused on good practices. Prepare by spending time thinking about, brainstorming, researching, developing, organizing, and outlining your speech. Practice! Practice! Recreate speaking environment during practice to increase realism. Use visualization. Imagine delivering speech to your audience successfully. Make last practice great. KNOW your intro and last line by heart. positive self-talk. Remind yourself of all the work you put into the speech and your successful practices. Test out your speech. Get friends together to give speech a run. Use their feedback and the experience to refine your speech and build your confidence. Use controlled breathing. Before you give your speech, pace your inhale and exhale several times in a row to slow down the respiration and heart rates. Muscle relaxation exercises releases excess energy. Go first will be completed soon may calm extra nerves. Dress the part. Wear clothes that fit the audience, occasion, topic, and person. You want to feel confident and comfortable in your appearance. Take care of yourself. Be alert on speech day. That means having a good night's rest, drinking water to keep from getting dry mouth, and eating nourishing food. Come to class early. Running late is sure fire way to rev up nerves. Plan schedule to arrive early, get situated, and glance over notes. You'll feel prepared and relaxed. Know your audience. You want to relate to your audience and connect with them. So, visit before and after class. Pay attention to their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and values. Enjoy being friendly face to audience, likely your classmates will return.

Types of Plagiarism

Global Plagiarism - the act of copying or stealing a speech from one source entirely and presenting it as your own. Patchwork Plagiarism - taking ideas or language from more than one source, incorporating them into your own work, and presenting all of it as original. Incremental Plagiarism - Neglecting to cite or give credit to specific parts of a speech originating from other sources.

Chapter 1.2

How the room is physically decorated or designed can also impact your interaction with your audience. If the room is dimly lit or is decorated with interesting posters, audience members' minds may start wandering. If the room is too hot, you'll find people becoming sleepy. As speakers, we often have little or no control over our physical environment, but we always need to take it into account when planning and delivering our messages. According to Joseph DeVito, the temporal dimension "has to do not only with the time of day and moment in history but also with where a particular message fits into the sequence of communication events" (DeVito, 2009). The time of day can have a dramatic effect on how alert one's audience is. Don't believe us? Try giving a speech in front of a class around 12:30 p.m. when no one's had lunch. It's amazing how impatient audience members get once hunger sets in. In addition to the time of day, we often face temporal dimensions related to how our speech will be viewed in light of societal events. Imagine how a speech on the importance of campus security would be interpreted on the day after a shooting occurred. Compare this with the interpretation of the same speech given at a time when the campus had not had any shootings for years, if ever. Another element of the temporal dimension is how a message fits with what happens immediately before it. For example, if another speaker has just given an intense speech on death and dying and you stand up to speak about something more trivial, people may downplay your message because it doesn't fit with the serious tone established by the earlier speech. You never want to be the funny speaker who has to follow an emotional speech where people cried.

Is PSA a trait or a state?

If PSA is a trait, then a student is not just nervous about having to give a speech in class (Beatty & Friedland, 1990). The student would also be nervous about having to speak in other public situations. This is helpful to learn about yourself. Do you think your nerves, regardless of the intensity, are a trait or state? In any case, research indicates that you can learn to manage those nerves and become an effective speaker (Hunter et al., 2014).

Chapter 1

If you want people to follow you, you have to communicate effectively and clearly what followers should do. According to Bender, "Powerful leadership comes from knowing what matters to you. Powerful presentations come from expressing this effectively. It's important to develop both" (Bender, 1998). One of the most important skills for leaders to develop is their public speaking skills, which is why executives spend millions of dollars every year going to public speaking workshops; hiring public speaking coaches; and buying public speaking books, CDs, and DVDs. Even if you are not in an official leadership position, effective public speaking can help you become a "thought leader." Joel Kurtzman, editor of Strategy & Business, coined this term to call attention to individuals who contribute new ideas to the world of business. According to business consultant Ken Lizotte, "when your colleagues, prospects, and customers view you as one very smart guy or gal to know, then you're a thought leader" (Lizotte, 2008). Typically, thought leaders engage in a range of behaviors, including enacting and conducting research on business practices. To achieve thought leader status, individuals must communicate their ideas to others through both writing and public speaking. Lizotte demonstrates how becoming a thought leader can be personally and financially rewarding at the same time: when others look to you as a thought leader, you will be more desired and make more money as a result. Business gurus often refer to "intellectual capital," or the combination of your knowledge and ability to communicate that knowledge to others (Lizotte, 2008).

Chapter 1

In addition, you will learn specific strategies for overcoming the challenges of speech anxiety. We will discuss this topic in greater detail in Chapter 3 "Speaking Confidently". Once you've learned the basic skills associated with public speaking, you'll find that being able to effectively speak in public has profound benefits, including influencing the world around you, developing leadership skills, becoming a thought leader. If you don't like something about your local government, then speak out about your issue! One of the best ways to get our society to change is through the power of speech. Common citizens in the United States and around the world, like you, are influencing the world in real ways through the power of speech. Just type the words "citizens speak out in a search engine and you'll find numerous examples of how common citizens use the power of speech to make real changes in the world—for example, by speaking out against "fracking" for natural gas (a process in which chemicals are injected into rocks in an attempt to open them up for fast flow of natural gas or oil) or in favor of retaining a popular local sheriff. One of the amazing parts of being a citizen in a democracy is the right to stand up and speak out, which is a luxury many people in the world do not have. So if you don't like something, be the force of change you're looking for through the power of speech. Have you ever thought about climbing the corporate ladder and eventually finding yourself in a management or other leadership position? If so, then public speaking skills are very important." Hackman and Johnson assert that effective public speaking skills are a necessity for all leaders (Hackman & Johnson, 2004).

Werkbook

In terms of the anxious feelings associated with having to give a speech, research has helped us understand what is going on physiologically, cognitively, and behaviorally. This research has used terms like stage fright, speech fear, social speech fright, speech anxiety, audience anxiety, and performance anxiety (see Bodie, 2010). When considering PSA, it is good to break it down into documented symptoms or signs. Bodie (2010) identifies physiological, behavioral, and cognitive components to PSA.

Chapter 1

In today's world, we are constantly bombarded with messages both good and bad. No matter where you live, where you work or go to school, or what kinds of media you use, you are probably exposed to hundreds. if not thousands, of advertising messages every day. Researcher Norman W. Edmund estimates that by 2020 the amount of knowledge in the world will double every seventy-three days (Edmund, 2005). Because we live in a world where we are overwhelmed with content, communicating information in a way that is accessible to others is more important today than ever before. To help us further understand why public speaking is important, we will first examine public speaking in everyday life. We will then discuss how public speaking can benefit you personally. Every single day people across the United States and around the world stand up in front of some kind of audience and speak. In fact, there's even a monthly publication that reproduces some of the top speeches from around the United States called Vital Speeches of the Day (http://www.vsotd.com). Although public speeches are of various types, they can generally be grouped into three categories based on their intended purpose: informative, persuasive, and entertaining. One of the most common types of public speaking is informative speaking. The primary purpose of informative presentations is to share one's knowledge of a subject with an audience. Reasons for making an informative speech vary widely. For example, you might be asked to instruct a group of coworkers on how to use new computer software or to report to a group of managers how your latest project is coming along. A local community group might wish to hear about your volunteer activities in New Orleans during spring break, or your classmates may want you to share your expertise on Mediterranean cooking.

Physiological Symptoms of PSA

Increased heart rate Increased respiration rate Increased blood pressure Shaking Galvanic skin response (e.g. sweaty palms or under arm sweat)

Poor listening habits undermine communication goals.

Interrupting a speaker Avoiding eye contact Hijacking the speaker's message with interrupting comments like "That reminds me..." Making assumptions Reacting emotionally Faking attention Succumbing to distractions

Five Cannons of Rhetoric

Invention (generation or invention of ideas) Arrangement (order of ideas and parts of a speech) Elocution or Style (verbal expression of ideas through language) Memory (techniques to improve memory) Delivery (nonverbal cues) In subsequent chapters, more attention will be given to elocution, memory, and delivery. For now, attention focuses on invention and arrangement as speakers invent content and decide how to best arrange content through outlining

Public Speaking

It is important to remember that our nerves are more obvious to us than to our audience. In some cases, the audience does not even know that we are nervous at all. We often magnify the signs and symptoms of our nervousness to ourselves when the actual manifestations of our nervousness are minimal or invisible to our audience. Nevertheless, managing PSA is important to building confidence and becoming a more competent speaker.

Good listening habits contribute to communication goal fulfillment.

Make eye contact with the speaker. Orient your body toward the speaker. Sit up assuming a good posture. Resist psychological, physiological, physical, or semantic noise that distracts you from listening. Remove distractions, in as much as you can (e.g. put phone away, clear off desk/table...). Use the speech-thought differential (you can process information faster than a speaker can speak) to summarize, paraphrase, and repeat key ideas from the speech. Resist bias in favor or against the speaker or message. Tip eight will help put this into practice. Reserve evaluative judgment of the message until you have listened to the message in its entirety. Listening does NOT equal agreement. Instead, of seeking to find areas of agreement and disagreement in the message, focus on understanding the message. Take notes. Write down questions that you have to ask the speaker when the speech is done rather than interrupting the speaker. Remember the Golden Rule of Listening: listen to others as you would have them listen to you.

Chapter 1.2

Most of the time in a speech class, you will have no advance notice as to what the speaker before you will be talking about. Therefore, it is wise to plan on being sensitive to previous topics and be prepared to ease your way subtly into your message if the situation so dictates. The social-psychological dimension of context refers to "status relationships among participants, roles and games that people play, norms of the society or group, and the friendliness, formality, or gravity of the situation" (DeVito, 2009). You have to know the types of people in your audience and how they react to a wide range of messages. The final context dimension Joseph DeVito mentions is the cultural dimension (DeVito, 2009). When we interact with others from different cultures, misunderstandings can result from differing cultural beliefs, norms, and practices. As public speakers engaging in a dialogue with our audience members, we must attempt to understand the cultural makeup of our audience so that we can avoid these misunderstandings as much as possible. Each of these elements of context is a challenge for you as a speaker. Throughout the rest of the book, we'll discuss how you can meet the challenges presented by the audience and context and become a more effective public speaker in the process.

Chapter 1

Motivational authors and speakers, such as Les Brown (http://www.lesbrown.com), make millions of dollars each year from people who want to be motivated to do better in their lives. Brian Tracy, another professional speaker and author, specializes in helping business leaders become more productive and effective in the workplace (http://www.briantracy.com). Whether public speaking is something you do every day or just a few times a year, persuading others is a challenging task. If you develop the skill to persuade effectively, it can be personally and professionally rewarding. Entertaining speaking involves an array of speaking occasions ranging from introductions to wedding toasts, to presenting and accepting awards, to delivering eulogies at funerals and memorial services in addition to after-dinner speeches and motivational speeches. Entertaining speaking has been important since the time of the ancient Greeks, when Aristotle identified epideictic speaking (speaking in a ceremonial context) as an important type of address. As with persuasive and informative speaking, there are professionals, from religious leaders to comedians, who make a living simply from delivering entertaining speeches. As anyone who has watched an awards show on television or has seen an incoherent best man deliver a wedding toast can attest, speaking to entertain is a task that requires preparation and practice to be effective. Oral communication skills were the number one skill that college graduates found useful in the business world, according to a study by sociologist Andrew Zekeri (Zekeri, 2004). That fact alone makes learning about public speaking worthwhile. However, there are many other benefits of communicating effectively for the hundreds of thousands of college students every year who take public speaking courses

Cognitive Symptoms of PSA (Ayres & Hopf, 1993)

Negative intrusive thoughts before, during, or after speaking Obsessing over anticipated behavioral or physiological symptoms

Behavioral Symptoms of PSA (Bodie, 2010)

Pacing Nervous mannerisms and fidgeting Increased rate Verbalized pauses

Peer Constructive Criticism

Peers are equal status learners in the classroom (Ion et al., 2018). As such, their constructive criticism reflects their perspectives in the learning process, which can be very helpful in the collective construction of public speaking knowledge and skills. Furthermore, when you have to assess, formulate, and communicate constructive criticism, it means that you must understand and accurately use terms related to public speaking. It means that you must be able to recognize and value public speaking competencies. It means that you must be able to help a peer identify behaviors that need to be improved and suggest competent behaviors to develop. In other words, giving peer constructive criticism is a way of assessing your own public speaking knowledge and a way of improving your communication about that knowledge.

Chapter 1

Personal Benefits of Speaking Courses are developing critical thinking skills, fine-tuning verbal and nonverbal skills, overcoming fear of public speaking. One of the very first benefits you will gain from your public speaking course is an increased ability to think critically. Problem solving is one of many critical thinking skills you will engage in during this course. For example, when preparing a persuasive speech, you'll have to think through real problems affecting your campus, community, or the world and provide possible solutions to those problems. You'll also have to think about the positive and negative consequences of your solutions and then communicate your ideas to others. At first, it may seem easy to come up with solutions for a campus problem such as a shortage of parking spaces: just build more spaces. But after thinking and researching further you may find out that building costs, environmental impact from loss of green space, maintenance needs, or limited locations for additional spaces make this solution impractical. Being able to think through problems and analyze the potential costs and benefits of solutions is an essential part of critical thinking and of public speaking aimed at persuading others. These skills will help you not only in public speaking contexts but throughout your life as well. As we stated earlier, college graduates in Zekeri's study rated oral communication skills as the most useful for success in the business world. The second most valuable skill they reported was problem-solving ability, so your public speaking course is doubly valuable! Another benefit to public speaking is that it will enhance your ability to conduct and analyze research. Public speakers must provide credible evidence within their speeches if they are going to persuade various audiences.

Why Ethics Matter to Public Speaking

Peter Parker's uncle once famously stated, "With great power comes great responsibility." That saying is true for Spider-man, but it is also applicable to the realm of public speaking. As a public speaker, you have the powerful opportunity to use your communication in a way that can directly impact your audience. Therefore, your decisions of what you should or should not say carries a great deal of consequence. At every stage of your preparation for your speech it is vital to consider whether your communication is ethical. Ethics are the philosophical examination of whether human actions can be considered right or wrong. Unlike morals which mainly focus on whether someone's actions are good or bad, ethics examine the rightness or wrongness of a course of action. We face ethical dilemmas on a daily basis, but the context of public speaking creates unique situations that you should be aware of before delivering your first speech. This chapter starts with a brief overview over some foundational ethical systems. Then, it discusses how to apply these considerations into your public speaking. Finally, the chapter closes with a case study that applies some of these ethical principles in a real world scenario.

Giving Constructive Criticism

Point out positives or strengths of the speaker Use concrete, specific language Identify a limited number of areas of improvement to help the speaker do even better in the future. Resist bias in constructive criticism While there are different approaches to structuring feedback like the sandwich approach (say a positive, a negative, and a positive, in that order), generally it is recommended that you are transparent and frame your feedback as goodwill toward the speaker (Schwarz, 2013). Afterall, the purpose of constructive criticism is to help improve performance.

Chapter 1

So your public speaking course will further refine your ability to find and utilize a range of sources. A second benefit of taking a public speaking course is that it will help you fine-tune your verbal and nonverbal communication skills. Whether you competed in public speaking in high school or this is your first time speaking in front of an audience, having the opportunity to actively practice communication skills and receive professional feedback will help you become a better overall communicator. Often, people don't even realize that they twirl their hair or repeatedly mispronounce words while speaking in public settings until they receive feedback from a teacher during a public speaking course. People around the United States will often pay speech coaches over one hundred dollars per hour to help them enhance their speaking skills. You have a built-in speech coach right in your classroom, so it is to your advantage to use the opportunity to improve your verbal and nonverbal communication skills. An additional benefit of taking a public speaking class is that it will help reduce your fear of public speaking. Whether they've spoken in public a lot or are just getting started, most people experience some anxiety when engaging in public speaking. Heidi Rose and Andrew Rancer evaluated students' levels of public speaking anxiety during both the first and last weeks of their public speaking class and found that those levels decreased over the course of the semester (Rose & Rancer, 1993). One explanation is that people often have little exposure to public speaking. By taking a course in public speaking, students become better acquainted with the public speaking process, making them more confident and less apprehensive.

tips to help remain ethical when attempting to avoid any of the three styles of plagiarism:

Start preparing for your speech EARLY! The temptation to plagiarize always intensifies the closer you are to a due date. Use your syllabus and schedule to practice time management. Paraphrase, or summarize a source's information in your own personal words, instead of direct quoting. Taking ideas from other sources and transforming into language you are more comfortable with is an excellent way to increase your credibility while also maintaining your preferred style of delivery. Ask your instructor questions. Students often apologize when they have a question about how to cite a source properly, but they should not feel apologetic at all. Your Communication Studies instructor's job is to assist with any confusion or concerns you have. Ask away, it is our job to answer! When in doubt, CITE, CITE, CITE! Again your job is not to be an expert on your topic, but to be an informed reporter offering credible knowledge to your audience.

Instructor Constructive Criticism

Students are being primed on how to communicatively give and receive constructive criticism as it is explicitly taught and modeled in the communication course, which is essential in the learning process and also sets students up for how to give and receive constructive criticism as professionals once they graduate (Harms & Roebuck, 2010). In other words, there are short-term and long-term benefits from constructive criticism instruction and practice. Let's begin with instructor constructive criticism. Instructor feedback is aimed at reinforcing a positively assessed speech behavior or altering a negatively assessed speech behavior (Book, 1985). Informally, public speaking faculty offer feedback in exercises in class, interpersonal interactions with students, and on drafts or rehearsals of speeches. Assessing communication informally, faculty direct student preparations for formal assessments by identifying competencies to develop further. Formally, public speaking faculty assess speaking presentations, aids, and outlines to not only help students determine how they are progressing toward public speaking benchmarks, but also help students identify strengths and areas for improvement for future speech events.

Why Organization Matters

Studies indicate that preparation time, number of rehearsals, and quality of preparation positively impact the quality of speech performance (Menzel & Carrell, 1994). Consider the following benefits represented below. Organizing and outlining a speech is like preparing a road map to guide you on a trip. Think for a moment about a road trip. Even with technology today like GPS and your favorite map application that is easily accessible in you in a car, it is the map that is represented on the navigation system or electronic device that helps you see where you are going. Now, imagine that it is not just you that is going on the road trip. There are several cars behind you that are dependent on line of sight to follow you and arrive at your destination. If they had a map too, wouldn't it be easier for them to travel? Your outline is not only your road map for your speech, but clearly communicating that road map to your audience during your speech helps them to be better listeners. To continue with the metaphor think about Siri telling you a right turn is coming up or to veer left and remain on the interstate. Those verbal call outs are life savers when it comes to keeping you on track and preventing unnecessary detours!

Outlining Relationships of Ideas

THE BODY SECTION OF YOUR OUTLINE DEMONSTRATES THE RELATIONSHIP OF MAIN POINTS AND SUPPORT THROUGH THE USE OF OUTLINING SYMBOLS AND INDENTATION. Coordinate relationships between ideas demonstrate a similar relationship back to the speech topic and are at the same level in the outline. For example, main points are coordinate to one another; therefore, they are at the same level in the outline - Roman numerals. Subordinate relationships between ideas demonstrate a relationship of difference, specifically level of specificity and development, and are at different levels in the outline. For example, support at the Arabic numbers are subordinate to sub-points and main points. The support helps to explain, clarify, illustrate, and prove the main point. The subordinate relationship is easy to see because of indentation and the use of different symbols based on the level of structure. The outline becomes a visualization of this because of the symbol system and indentation Adequacy is less about the relationship between points and more about the sufficient development of points. An easy way to ensure that you adequately develop a main point is to always have two or more of each level. That means you need at least an A and B sub-points for a main point with at least a 1 and 2 support at the sub-sub-point level under the A and B.

Outlines Become Visualizations of Ideas and Relationships

THE OUTLINE BECOMES A VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF YOUR IDEAS, THUS, HELPING YOU TO SEE THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN IDEAS.

Listening is a Communication Process.

The International Listening Association provides a standard definition for listening that is helpful. They explain that listening is "the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages." Notice that the emphasis is on meaning. The goal of communication is shared meaning. In as much as possible, speakers should consider listeners as they communicate for shared meaning, and, likewise, listeners should consider the speaker as they receive and respond to messages for shared meaning. In other words, communication is cooperative process. In public speaking, that cooperative process is between speakers and audiences.

How to Outline the Speech Conclusion

The conclusion should wrap up your speech by fulfilling logical and psychological closure. In some ways the conclusion is an inverted introduction minus a few parts. Let's learn how to outline the conclusion. The parts of the speech conclusion are demarcated by symbols in the outline in a similar fashion as the parts of an introduction. Conclusion: Signal Summary of Main Points Reinforcement of the Purpose/Relevance Impact

Chapter 1.2

The dialogic theory is based on three overarching principles: Dialogue is more natural than monologue, Meanings are in people not words, Contexts and social situations impact perceived meanings (Bakhtin, 2001a; Bakhtin, 2001b). The first tenet of the dialogic perspective is that communication should be a dialogue and not a monologue. Lev Yakubinsky argued that even public speaking situations often turn into dialogues when audience members actively engage speakers by asking questions. He even claimed that nonverbal behavior (e.g., nodding one's head in agreement or scowling) functions as feedback for speakers and contributes to a dialogue (Yakubinsky, 1997). Overall, if you approach your public speaking experience as a dialogue, you'll be more actively engaged as a speaker and more attentive to how your audience is responding, which will, in turn, lead to more actively engaged audience members. "Part of the dialogic process in public speaking is realizing that you and your audience may differ in how you see your speech. Hellmut Geissner and Edith Slembeck (1986) discussed Geissner's idea of responsibility, or the notion that the meanings of words must be mutually agreed upon by people interacting with each other (Geissner & Slembek, 1986). If you say the word "dog" and think of a soft, furry pet and your audience member thinks of the animal that attacked him as a child, the two of you perceive the word from very different vantage points. As speakers, we must do our best to craft messages that take our audience into account and use audience feedback to determine whether the meaning we intend is the one that is received. To be successful at conveying our desired meaning, we must know quite a bit about our audience so we can make language choices that will be the most appropriate for the context.

Workbook

The first term that needs clarification is anxiety. Anxiety is a term that is used in the labeling of disorders that induce excessive anxiety that can interfere with daily activities. The National Institute of Mental Health (2022) identifies several types of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and phobia-related disorders. In a given year in the US, approximately 19% of adults have one anxiety disorder, with a greater prevalence among females. The second term that needs clarification is phobia. Phobias are distinguished by the impact the phobia has on a person's social participation and daily life (Winderman, 2005). Because of the impact phobias have on a person, they are classified as anxiety disorders similar to the way post-traumatic stress disorder or panic disorder are classified. The National Institute of Mental Health explains that phobias are "intense, irrational fear of something that poses little or no actual danger" that affect about 9% of the US adult population (2022, para. 1). That 9% includes all types of phobias - needles, small spaces, spiders, heights, flying, social gatherings, etc..., which means that an even smaller percentage of the adult population would have glossophobia. If you get nervous before a speech, you are not alone. Richmond and McCroskey's (1998) research on PSA reports that over 70% of the US population experiences real or anticipated apprehension across all speaking situations, with 20% reporting reporting high levels of apprehension. In other words, those that do not experience apprehension at the thought of having to give a speech are in the minority.

Chapter 1.2

The interactional model of public speaking comes from the work of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). The original model mirrored how radio and telephone technologies functioned and consisted of three primary parts: source, channel, and receiver. The source was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with listening to a telephone conversation, which they called noise. Although there are a number of problems with applying this model to human communication, it does have some useful parallels to public speaking. In public speaking, the source is the person who is giving the speech, the channel is the speaker's use of verbal and nonverbal communication, and the receivers are the audience members listening to the speech. As with a telephone call, a wide range of distractions (noise) can inhibit an audience member from accurately attending to a speaker's speech. Avoiding or adapting to these types of noise is an important challenge for public speakers. The interactional model of communication developed by Wilbur Schramm builds upon the linear model (Schramm, 1954). Schramm added three major components to the Shannon and Weaver model. First, Schramm identified two basic processes of communication: encoding and decoding. Encoding is what a source does when "creating a message, adapting it to the receiver, and transmitting it across some source-selected channel" (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond, 2008). When you are " Encoding is what a source does when "creating a message, adapting it to the receiver, and transmitting it across some source-selected channel" (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond, 2008).

Chapter 1.2

The last part of decoding is "responding to a source's message," when the receiver encodes a message to send to the source. When a receiver sends a message back to a source, we call this process feedback. Schramm talks about three types of feedback: direct, moderately direct, and indirect (Schramm, 1954). The first type, direct feedback, occurs when the receiver directly talks to the source. For example, if a speech ends with a question-and-answer period, listeners will openly agree or disagree with the speaker. The second type of feedback, moderately direct, focuses on nonverbal messages sent while a source is speaking, such as audience members smiling and nodding their heads in agreement or looking at their watches or surreptitiously sending text messages during the speech. The final type of feedback, indirect, often involves a greater time gap between the actual message and the receiver's feedback. For example, suppose you run for student body president and give speeches to a variety of groups all over campus, only to lose on student election day. Your audiences (the different groups you spoke to) have offered you indirect feedback on your message through their votes. One of the challenges you'll face as a public speaker is how to respond effectively to audience feedback, particularly the direct and moderately direct forms of feedback you receive during your presentation. "One of the biggest concerns that some people have with the interactional model of communication is that it tends to place people into the category of either source or receiver with no overlap. Even with Schramm's model, encoding and decoding are perceived as distinct for sources and receivers. Furthermore, the interactional model cannot handle situations where multiple sources are interacting at the same time (Mortenson, 1972).

Ethics in PS

The study of ethics is a complex field and we barely scratched the surface of it in this chapter. Hopefully you have a better understanding of how ethics relates to communication, and more specifically how vital that relationship is to your job as a public speaker. Scholar bell hooks stated that "as a classroom community, our capacity to generate excitement is deeply affected by our interest in one another, in hearing one another's voices, in recognizing one another's presence." Building community in your public speaking classroom is a goal that both the students and instructor have a responsibility in creating. It takes every person in the classroom to ensure students feel their voices are valid and important. But, it is ultimately your individual responsibility to be ethical in your communication, so that when voice is heard and your presence is recognized by others, they see and hear your honest, authentic self.

Chapter 1.2

To address these weaknesses, Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 2008). The basic premise of the transactional model is that individuals are sending and receiving messages at the same time. Whereas the interactional model has individuals engaging in the role of either source or receiver and the meaning of a message is sent from the source to the receiver, the transactional model assumes that meaning is cocreated by both people interacting together. The idea that meanings are cocreated between people is based on a concept called the "field of experience." According to West and Turner, a field of experience involves "how a person's culture, experiences, and heredity influence his or her ability to communicate with another" (West & Turner, 2010). Our education, race, gender, ethnicity, religion, personality, beliefs, actions, attitudes, languages, social status, past experiences, and customs are all aspects of our field of experience, which we bring to every interaction. For meaning to occur, we must have some shared experiences with our audience; this makes it challenging to speak effectively to audiences with very different experiences from our own. Our goal as public speakers is to build upon shared fields of experience so that we can help audience members interpret our message. "Most people think of public speaking as engaging in a monologue where the speaker stands and delivers information and the audience passively listens. Based on the work of numerous philosophers, however, Ronald Arnett and Pat Arneson proposed that all communication, even public speaking, could be viewed as a dialogue (Arnett & Arneson, 1999).

Chapter 1

What all these examples have in common is the goal of imparting information to an audience. Informative speaking is integrated into many different occupations. Physicians often lecture about their areas of expertise to medical students, other physicians, computer software or to report to a group of managers how your latest project is coming along. A local community group might wish to hear about your volunteer activities in New Orleans during spring break, or your classmates may want you to share your expertise on Mediterranean cooking. What all these examples have in common is the goal of imparting information to an audience. Informative speaking is integrated into many different occupations. Physicians often lecture about their areas of expertise to medical students, other physicians, and patients. Teachers find themselves presenting to parents as well as to their students. Firefighters give demonstrations about how to effectively control a fire in the house. Informative speaking is a common part of numerous jobs and other everyday activities. As a result, learning how to speak effectively has become an essential skill in today's world. A second common reason for speaking to an audience is to persuade others. In our everyday lives, we are often called on to convince, motivate, or otherwise persuade others to change their beliefs, take an action, or reconsider a decision. Advocating for music education in your local school district, convincing clients to purchase your company's products, or inspiring high school students to attend college all involve influencing other people through public speaking. For some people, such as elected officials, giving persuasive speeches is a crucial part of attaining and continuing career success. Other people make careers out of speaking to groups of people who pay to listen to th

Foundational Ethical Systems

When faced with difficult choices in preparing and delivering a speech it is helpful to consider one of the many ethical perspectives to help decide your course of action. Listed below are three (and there are many more) perspectives that we can apply to issues that specifically occur in public speaking. Considering these various perspectives can help build your credibility with your audience and better craft your communication to fit the attitudes, beliefs, and values of your audience. Each of these perspectives has strengths and weaknesses when trying to determine whether actions or behavior are ethical or not. However, it's important to consider at least one of them when making ethical decisions which can be defined as choices that consider the outcomes of your actions in relation to an ethical perspectives. The study of ethics is a complex field, and the above chart is a small simplification of just a few of the perspectives available. But how does this apply to our job as ethical communicators? The following sections will demonstrate how to apply your ethical decisions to specific instances that can occur.

Chapter 1.2

When you are at home preparing your speech or standing in front of your classroom talking to your peers, you are participating in the encoding process.The second major process is the decoding process, or "sensing (for example, hearing or seeing) a source's message, interpreting the source's message, evaluating the source's message, and responding to the source's message" (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond, 2008). Decoding is relevant in the public speaking context when, as an audience member, you listen to the words of the speech, pay attention to nonverbal behaviors of the speaker, and attend to any presentation aids that the speaker uses. You must then interpret what the speaker is saying. Although interpreting a speaker's message may sound easy in theory, in practice many problems can arise. A speaker's verbal message, nonverbal communication, and mediated presentation aids can all make a message either clearer or harder to understand. For example, unfamiliar vocabulary, speaking too fast or too softly, or small print on presentation aids may make it difficult for you to figure out what the speaker means. Conversely, by providing definitions of complex terms, using well-timed gestures, or displaying graphs of quantitative information, the speaker can help you interpret his or her meaning. "Once you have interpreted what the speaker is communicating, you then evaluate the message. Was it good? Do you agree or disagree with the speaker? Is a speaker's argument logical? These are all questions that you may ask yourself when evaluating a speech.

Chapter 1

Whether standing before a group of executives discussing the next great trend in business or delivering a webinar (a seminar over the web), thought leaders use public speaking every day to create the future that the rest of us live in. As noted earlier, all of us encounter thousands of messages in our everyday environments, so getting your idea heard above all the other ones is a constant battle. Some speakers will try gimmicks, but we strongly believe that getting your message heard depends on three fundamental components: message, skill, and passion. The first part of getting your message across is the message itself. When what you are saying is clear and coherent, people are more likely to pay attention to it. On the other hand, when a message is ambiguous, people will often stop paying attention. Our discussions in the first part of this book involve how to have clear and coherent content. The second part of getting your message heard is having effective communication skills. You may have the best ideas in the world, but if you do not possess basic public speaking skills, you're going to have a problem getting anyone to listen. In this book, we will address the skills you must possess to effectively communicate your ideas to others. Lastly, if you want your message to be heard, you must communicate passion for your message. One mistake that novice public speakers make is picking topics in which they have no emotional investment. If an audience can tell that you don't really care about your topic, they will just tune you out. Passion is the extra spark that draws people's attention and makes them want to listen to your message. For our focus on public speaking, we will introduce two widely discussed models in communication: interactional and transactional.

If a main point only has an A with no B, what is the main point lacking?

adequacy

Main points have what relationship to one another?

coordinate

When you spend time organizing, formatting an outline, focusing on goals, and revising an outline, you should experience better _______.

evaluation and perceptions of your speech performance

What organizational pattern uses five steps to achieve persuasion?

motivated sequence

Ethical Language

ook around your classroom and you might notice that your classmates are diverse in terms of their race, identity, and culture. Part of the responsibility of an ethical public speaker is to consider that your personal cultural norms and language might not be the same as your audience's. Therefore, it is vital to avoid ethnocentrism, or the assumption that your personal group or culture is superior to others. Conducting audience analysis before a speech can help alleviate concerns of ethnocentrism. But another way to practice an ethical orientation to your diverse audience is to communicate using inclusive language. The Linguistic Society of America (2016) defines inclusive language as communication that "acknowledges diversity, conveys respect to all people, is sensitive to differences, and promotes equal opportunities." In practice this would mean avoiding language in your speeches that demeans, stereotypes, or degrades people based on their gender, class, ethnicity, age, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, country of origin, etc. Some might say this approach to communication is positive, but it infringes on their freedom of speech. This is why an understanding of communication ethics is helpful. In the United States of America you are free to state whatever you would like, though there can be some consequences (financial, legal, etc). However, communicating ethically does'nt remove freedom. It asks you to examine what should or should not state publicly based on the affect your relationship with your audience. Considering your actions influence or shape attitudes of audience is the goal of ethical communication, regardless of perspectives you choose. If your goal is to build credibility, or ethos, with your audience considering the impact of your language choices will only help your success as a public speake

Andie has to give a speech and notices the following: racing heart, fidgeting with speaking notes, and thoughts of forgetting parts of the speech. Andie is experiencing

physiological, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms

If Martin gets nervous whether having to lead a group discussion or give a speech in class, Martin likely experiences

state PSA

Support at the sub-sub-point level have what relationship to main points?

subordinate

The impact strategy that ends the speech is similar to ____.

the attention strategy in the introduction

Ethics and Plagiarism

the most important power you have is your honesty. Being an honest public speaker not only builds goodwill with your audience, but also strengthens the possibility of your audience to be well-informed. Living in the internet era, it is very tempting and increasingly easy to borrow or outright steal other people's ideas, quotes, or intellectual property. Sometimes with the pressure of being a student, working a job, and dealing with the difficulties of daily life the idea of plagiarizing your speech might seem like a reasonable choice. However, the consequences of being dishonest in your work as a public speaker is unethical no matter what perspective you take. Plagiarism is not only unfair to the students who work diligently and ethically, but it is also unethical to yourself. Presenting other people's ideas as your own devalues your reputation and puts your personal principles into question. The SFA Student Academic Dishonesty policy defines plagiarism as presenting the words or ideas of another person as if they were one's own. The consequences of plagiarism outweigh the short term rewards, as the policy notes you could potentially be dismissed from the university if the offense is serious. If you are ever in doubt of whether or not you could potentially be found guilty of plagiarism, always ask your instructor for help or advice. Our Communication Studies faculty would much rather help you fix a speech under a pressing deadline than file an academic dishonesty report later.

How to Transition from the Formal/Full Sentence Outline to a Speaking Outline

you are encouraged to gesture and move while speaking. Additionally, by developing the speaking outline using key words rather than full sentences, you are encouraged to be extemporaneous and make eye contact with your audience. To transition to your speaking outline, simply reduce each sentence by a symbol on the outline to a few key words. I Practice with your speaking outline in advance.