SRA Chapter 3 book

Any thought that these were isolated attacks quickly disappeared when, in November 2015, ISIS terrorists carried out a coordinated series of attacks in

France. -The first occurred in a northern suburb in which three suicide bombers initiated an attack outside a sports stadium during a World Cup football match. -This was immediately followed by several mass shootings, as well as a targeting several crowded restaurants in the heart of a Paris entertainment district. -Three gunmen then carried out a mass atrocity at the Bataclan theatre where a crowd of young people had gathered for a heavy metal concert.

On January 7, 2013 two brothers, Saïd and Chérif Kouachi, burst into the offices of the Paris satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo and opened fire with AK-47 Kalashnikov rapid-fire weapons, killing 13 and wounding several others. During the attack the two assailants allegedly shouted

"God is great" and "the Prophet is avenged." They fled, and on exiting the building, the attackers killed a police officer as he lay wounded in the street. Then they carjacked an automobile. The brothers were tracked to a rural area and 2 days later were killed in an exchange of gunfire with the police.

There are more than 1,500 suspected Islamist radicals on France's list of suspected and potential terrorists, a total that has roughly doubled in the past

2 years.

Personalities and Events of Chapter 4

An account of 19th-century revolu-tionary thought and movements is not complete without reference to Karl Marx (1818-1883). Although Marx was not a central figure in the events in this period, his thinking was fundamental to the philosophy that guided the postrevolutionary regime in Russia and has influ-enced a long list of revolutionaries and terrorists across the globe who have claimed to embrace a Commu-nist ideology. A journalist, political philosopher, and activist, Marx has left a rich legacy that has been the topic of tens of thousands of arti-cles and book. A brief discussion cannot do justice to Marx's complex philosophy. Along with his colleague Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), he argued that his-tory is fraught with class struggle. Marx and Engels contended that under industrial capitalism, society was divided between two primary groups, the capitalists (bourgeoisie) who owned the means of production, and a vast proletariat working class who survived by selling their labor and who were paid less than the value that they created through their work. Economic dominance was reinforced by the capitalist-dominated superstructure of media, education, and religion that combined to create a "false conscious-ness" among the working class. This "false consciousness" led workers to believe that the existing system was fair and just and that individuals earned the success or failure that they deserved. Marx believed that this exploitative system would only disappear when the working class rose in revolution and private property was replaced by communism in which the workers own the means of production, wealth is shared among the population, and economic classes disappear. Marx and Engels expressed sympathy and support for the Russian terrorism as a response to the immorality of the country's ruling elite. However, Marx generally was no friend of terrorism—particularly seem-ingly purposeless anarchist attacks. Marx believed that society evolved through various stages which inevitably led to the revolutionary creation of a Communist society. He was skeptical about the revolutionary potential of peasants and advocated organizing the working class in preparation for revolutionary action. Marx was critical of terrorist actions that, how-ever satisfying, often strengthened the patriotic loyalty of workers and the repressive power of the state and in his view did not advance the cause of revolution. Marx believed that political organizing—rather than violence—was the engine of change. He also was an internationalist and was critical of movements that were based on national pride rather than on opposition to economic exploitation and the plight of workers across the globe. Because of his support for workers, Marx was nonetheless denounced as a terrorist. His basic notion that the state is stacked against the peasants and workers and that capitalists are impediments to social change—for better or worse—has inspired revolutionaries ranging from Vladimir Lenin in Russia, Mao Zedong in China, Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, and Fidel Castro in Cuba

ANARCHISM

Anarchism is the rejection of all authority; in political terms, anarchism aspires to eradicate of all government authority. A more moderate wing believed in mutual sharing of power, the reorganization of society, and the ownership of businesses and industries by the worker collectives. Anarchists viewed the concept of private property as a form of theft, and this so-called criminal ownership allowed land-lords and industrialists to exploit others by charging high rents and paying low wages. This, according to anarchism, resulted in the perpetuation of a wealthy class that used their money to control government officialss Anarchist violence was promoted in 1866 by the discovery of dynamite by Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel. Dynamite was nearly 20 times more powerful than black powder, and although dynamite was developed for mining it was quickly employed as the weapon of choice by terrorists. Bombs packed with dyna-mite provided a weapon that transformed terrorists into a significant threat and enabled terrorists to inflict substantial damage. However, the bombs—although now significantly lighter nonetheless—remained bulky and difficult to place adjacent to a target. Johann Most (1846-1906) is viewed as the foremost theoretician of anarchism. A former German member of parliament, Most founded the influential newspaper Die Freiheit (Freedom), which he continued to publish after arriving in New York. He advocated what he termed "anarchist vengeance" and called for the rescue of humankind through "blood, iron, poison, and dynamite" (as cited in Law, 2016). Most argued that terrorist attacks would mobilize the people to revolt against government authority. The best strategy for terrorists to ignite a revolt was to assassinate well-known individuals, thus drawing attention to the anarchist cause, and to place posters at the site of the killings explaining the reason for the violence. Most provided recipes for manufacturing bombs, grenades, and other weapons. The Russian anarchist Pyotr Kropokin (1842-1921) pioneered the notion of propaganda by deed, which was the guiding principle of terrorist groups. This was the belief that revolutionary violence could awaken the awareness and willingness of workers and peasants to act. On July 14, 1881, the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) met in London and various anarchist delegations announced that the time had come to engage in propaganda by deed and insurgent violence Italian anarchists engaged in both mass revolts and in assassinations. Particularly notable was the assassination of Umberto I in 1900 after two previ-ous unsuccessful attempts. This was an act of revenge for Umberto's decoration of a general who had ordered his troops to open fire on a crowd during bread riots in 1898 Anarchists also attracted support from landless agriculture workers in Spain, a country which was divided by regional movements that advocated autonomy from the central government in Madrid. Beginning with an attempt to assas-sinate Alfonso XII in 1878, Spain experienced 20 years of anarchist violence. Terrorists began to target the general population for the first time. In November 1893 an anarchist threw two bombs into the crowd at the Liceu Opera House in Barcelona. Despite a mass crackdown on anarchists, an anarchist ignited a bomb during Barcelona's annual Corpus Christi religious procession, killing more than 40 people. In 1906 an anarchist tossed a bomb onto the carriage carrying Alfonso XIII of Spain and his bride Victoria Eugenie on their wedding day, killing 15 and injuring at least 50 people France experienced a wave of worker unrest and strikes. In 1886 an unsuc-cessful anarchist attack on the Paris Stock Exchange demonstrated the widening targets of terrorist violence. Between 1892 and 1894, 10 bombings were carried out against industrialists, political leaders, and judicial officials. In December 1893 the French government was directly challenged when a bomb was thrown from the gallery of the Chamber of Deputies. A year later bombs were hooked up to the doors of two hotel rooms, killing the officers who were called to investigate a reported suicide In February 1894 prominent French anarchist Émile Henry (1872-1894) ignited a bomb at the fashionable Café Terminus in Paris, killing one person and injuring more than 20 others. Henry explained that in persecuting anarchists, the govern-ment held all anarchists responsible for the work of a few; he was responding in kind by holding the mass of the wealthy, privileged economic class responsible for the crimes committed by the government and its corporate partners. At his trial Henry famously proclaimed that there are "no innocents" (Hubac-Occhipinti 2016, p. 130). As the decade of the 1890s drew to a close, President Sadi Carnot of France was stabbed to death. In 1897 Premier Antonio Canovas of Spain was assassinated, and a year later Elizabeth, the empress of Austria, was murdered. rg, Russia, to agree on a strategy to rid Europe of anarchist violence. They declared that anarchist publications were to be shut down, anarchists were to be swiftly apprehended and prosecuted, and the death penalty was to be imposed for the attempted assassinations of government officials and heads of state. Anarchist violence seemingly had little rhyme or reason. The attacks were sym-bolic statements of protest against the prevailing political system and economic inequality. Anarchists tended to act on their own and did not share a specific goal. Famed criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) explained the violence by pointing to the physical features of anarchists, including their large jaw, curved nose, and high cheek bones. At the time, these features were also associated with criminals, degenerates, and the insane. The anarchists' violent nature had been unleashed by the decline of religion and by the weakening of monarchies.

What lessons does the Charlie Hebdo attack (and other attacks in France) hold for understanding the nature of terrorist targets, attacks, and ideology?

Charlie Hebdo was a senseless attack, the effects of which reverberated across the world. It was viewed as a violation of fundamental democratic values. An armed assault against prominent journalists and cartoonists in the middle of Paris was certain to draw attention and to spread anxiety and fear. There was little likelihood that the civilian victims in the Charlie Hebdo attack were prepared to resist a terrorist attack—particularly when the terrorists employed powerful assault weapons. Attacking Charlie Hebdo made sense to the assail-ants because the magazine was a symbol of Western arrogance and disregard for Islam, and targeting the magazine's headquarters was aligned with ISIS's message that it would strike against enemies of the Islamic faith. The attack sparked a debate over the role of freedom of expression, and it widened the division between Muslims and non-Muslims in France. There was logic, in the mind of the terrorists, to attacking the police who are an arm of the state and a symbol of law and order and public safety.

Three of the weapons of choice relied on by terrorists are outlined below

Explosives: -Bombs have the advantage of being easily deployed, and a rudimentary explosive can be constructed out of household products and only requires limited expertise. In 1988 a bomb that was smuggled onto Pan Am Flight 103 by Libyan agents was detonated, killing more than 200 people. In 1995 a car packed with fertilizer destroyed the Murrah federal building in Oklahoma City, killing 167 individuals. The so-called Unabomber Ted Kaczynski deployed crude mail bombs to kill three individuals and injure a further 23. Al Qaeda pioneered the tactic of detonating a bomb and igniting another explosive in the area to which the individuals targeted had fled. The improvised explosive device (IED) is a crude explosive device regularly used in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other insurgencies. It is concealed in a bag, container, or artillery shell and then enhanced by way of packing the bomb with steel ball bearings or pipes, and it may be ignited using a cell phone or timer. In May 2017 in an ISIS-directed attack 22-year-old Salman Abedi detonated an IED on a public concourse during an Ariana Grande concert, killing 22 people—including children. Assault weapons: -The mass murderers in Charlie Hebdo, San Bernardino, California, and the Pulse night club in Orlando all were carried out with assault weapons. These rapid-fire weapons are equipped with ammunition clips and can fire many bullets very quickly. They are reliable, easily available, can be concealed with a folding stock, and are relatively light and easily transported. The AK-47 Kalashnikov is generally the weapon of choice for terrorists. Portable rockets: -There has been increased access to precision-guided muni-tions (PGMs). Most of these weapons are light and portable, and they can be fired by one or two individuals. Because their trajectory can be corrected in flight, they have been successfully used to bring down helicopters and aircraft. The most popular PGMs are the American Stinger, Soviet Strela, and British Blowpipe. These weapons are equipped with infrared devices that guide the missile to a heat source and have a range of well over a mile. In July 2014 Russian separatists in the Ukraine used a surface-to-air missile to bring down a Malaysian airliner, killing the crew and 283 passengers. Knives: -On June 3, 2017, three assailants drove a car into a crowd on London Bridge, crashed into a pub at the end of the bridge, and exited the car and began stabbing individuals with knives before being shot dead. They killed seven individ-uals and wounded 48. Palestinians stabbed over 84 Israelis and visitors to Israel in 2016; the most common weapon was a kitchen knife. These attacks are difficult to anticipate and to deter, and they spread insecurity and fear.

On the eve of the May 2017 French presidential election, French national Karim Cheurfi killed one police officer and wounded two in an apparent attempt to anger the

French electorate into voting for an extremist candidate who would promote divisions in society. Cheurfi had a criminal history of car theft and shooting a police officer, and he had been released from prison the year before the May attack. He was known to the police—but had no history of militancy. -A year later, Khmzat Azimov, 20, stabbed and killed one pedestrian and wounded four others in a knife attack near the Paris Opera House. Azimov, born in Chechnya, was on the terrorism watchlist. Following the attack, a video was released in which Azimov called for attacks throughout Europe and the United States.

IRELAND ETHNONATIONALIST VIOLENCE

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the British began settling colonists on the most desirable land in northeastern Ireland, designated as the Plantation of Ulster. The influx of English migrants pushed the indigenous population from the land and reduced them to tenant farm-ers. Relations were further strained by the fact that these new settlers were Protestant while the indigenous popu-lation was predominantly Catholic. Yet another division was based on desire of the British settlers to remain part of England (Unionists or Loyalists) and the desire of the Irish to form an independent country (Republicans) Each group sponsored and supported. vigilante groups that persecuted members of the other religion. The primary indigenous Irish resistance group was the Fenian Brotherhood also known as the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood (IRB). In the Phoenix Park murders of May 1882, the Fenians assassinated Thomas Burke—the third most powerful British official in Ireland—along with the nephew of the British prime minister. The British responded by forming the Special Irish Branch of the London Metropolitan Police to hunt down the Fenian terrorists The Fenians retaliated in the 1880s by carrying out what has become known as the dynamite war on targets within England such as Scotland Yard, the House of Commons, and railroad trains and stations. In the 1916 Easter Uprising several thousand Republicans revolted and pro-claimed Irish independence. The British suffered as many as 200 fatalities and only restored order after killing several thousand civilians, damaging property valued at over two million dollars, and executing 15 rebels. The Irish Republicans continued the struggle against British control for 3 decades under the banner of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), formed in 1918. Irish dissidents realized that their guerilla force was no match for the Brit-ish in open combat and organized so-called flying squads or small mobile cells of fighters. The goal was to harass, demoralize, and weaken the British occupation force and the Protestant-dominated Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and drive the British out of Ireland. The decentralization of terrorist operations had the added benefit of making it difficult for the British to gather intelligence on ter-rorist operations. Flying squads carried out roughly 3,000 attacks on the police and army barracks Famed IRA strategist Michael Collins formed a group of assassins, the Twelve Apostles, which focused on attacking the RIC and its informants and spies. In 1920 the Apostles killed 450 members of the RIC, killing 14 on a single day in November 1920 (Law, 2016). The British countered by forming a new military unit comprised of 12,000 army veterans referred to as the Black and Tans because of their mismatched uniforms. The Black and Tans, however, lacked training in counterinsurgency and frequently resorted to tactics of terror and to mass killings. British casualties continued to climb; more than 1,000 police or military were killed or wounded by the IRA in the first half of 1921. By this time, the British had stationed nearly 150,000 troops in Ireland and began interning suspected IRA fighters in concentration camps. The British eventually relented and recognized an independent Irish state within the British Commonwealth. However, the northern portion of Ireland, where the English Protestants had settled, was to remain part of the United King-dom. This temporarily suspended IRA violence, which was reignited in Northern Ireland later in the 20th century.

PALESTINIAN RESPONSE

Israel appeared to be invulnerable to a conventional military attack. In 1959 Yasser Arafat—along with students studying in Cairo, Egypt, and Beirut, Lebanon, and professionals working in the Gulf States—formed a guerilla force, Fatah, to battle with Israel. Fatah was a secular movement dedicated to the reclaiming of Palestin-ian lands and to the creation of a Palestinian state. The small-arms attacks waged by Fatah were viewed by the Israelis as more of an irritant than a threat. In 1964 Arafat merged Fatah into the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which became the leading Palestinian rights organization under his leadership. From roughly 1967 to 1982, the Palestinian movement was divided between various groups which competed for control of the liberation movement. One of the most militant was Black September, a militant Palestinian terrorist group affiliated with Arafat, which retaliated for the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan by assassinating the Jordanian prime minister in 1971. Black September captured the attention of the world when commandos entered the Summer Olympic Village, killing a number of Israeli athletes and taking several more hostage. The Palestin-ian terrorists negotiated transportation to Libya for themselves and the surviving hostages. German forces attacked the Palestinians at the airport, resulting in the death of the terrorists as well as the remaining hostages. The Israelis later tracked down and killed members of Black September who had been released from German custody The year 1974 was a turning point for the PLO, whose terrorist attacks seemingly had placed the plight of the Palestinians on the global agenda. The group was recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Pales-tinian people and the pistol-wielding Arafat was invited to address the UN General Assembly. The terrorist violence nonetheless continued. In June 1976 two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked an Air France flight en route from Israel to France. The terrorists landed the aircraft at Entebbe airport in Uganda. They demanded the release of 53 prisoners associated with various groups held in Israel, France, Kenya, Switzerland, and West Germany. This was an act of international terrorism directed outside the Middle East and demonstrated that terrorism posed an urgent threat to the global community. Over the next 2 days, the terrorists released 148 non-Jews, leaving 94 Jews and 12 members of the Air France crew hostage. In a raid that would contribute to the impressive reputation of the Israeli counterterrorism forces, Israeli commandos rescued the hostages—only three of whom were killed in the raid. A single Israeli commando, the brother of future Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, was killed in the raid (Boot, 2013). In March 1979 the seemingly impossible occurred when President Jimmy Carter succeeded in orchestrating a peace treaty between President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel. In October 1981 Islamic militants exacted revenge by assassinating Sadat at a military parade. In an effort to stop attacks from southern Lebanon by the Palestinians, the Israelis sent their troops into Lebanon in 1982 in an effort to weaken—if not elim-inate—the PLO and found themselves embroiled in a raging conflict between Christian, Islamic, and outside Syrian forces competing for power. Arafat found his forces fighting alongside Shia Muslim militias against Christian forces supported by Israel, the United States, and Syria. The fighting resulted in more than 10,000 dead and left Beirut, called the Paris of the Middle East, in ruins. Arafat, realizing that his situation was precarious, evacuated more than 10,000 fighters to Tunisia. In an event that symbolizes the violence of the Israeli-Pal-estinian conflict, Israeli military commanders failed to prevent their Christian Phalangist allies from entering a Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon and killing several thousand older men, women, and children. The continuous terrorist attacks and counterterrorism responses over the next few decades are too extensive to be easily summarized. An example is October 7, 1985, when four members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine took control of the Achille Lauro, a cruise ship that was traveling from Israel to Egypt. The crew and passengers were taken hostage, and the terrorists later killed Leon Klinghoffer—an elderly wheelchair-bound passenger—and threw his body overboard. In 1985 the Palestinian organization Abu Nidal launched attacks on the Israeli airline El Al at airports in Rome and Vienna. Roughly 16 individuals died and nearly 100 were wounded in the Rome attack; nine were killed and 39 were wounded in the Vienna attack. In 1987 Palestinian anger boiled over in the first Intifada (uprising) which involved demonstrations, strikes, and a series of armed attacks. It resulted in the death of more than 1,400 Palestinians and 185 Israelis. An estimated 18,000 Palestinians were arrested. The Palestinians primarily relied on stones, Molotov cocktails, and crude weapons; Israeli forces, equipped with modern weaponry, too often appeared to be the aggressors. The first Intifada ended with the 1993 Oslo Accords; in 1995 a second agreement was reached. This agreement estab-lished the Palestinian Authority (PA) as an independent Palestinian governing institution in return for recognition of Israel as a sovereign state. The Accords recognized the PA's power to establish governmental and judicial institutions, internal security and health, welfare, and educational services. Yasser Arafat was elected as first president of the PA. The agreement was opposed by con-servative and ultra-religious groups within Israel that resisted any settlement with the Palestinians on the grounds of what they viewed as Israel's biblical claim to the West Bank. In 1995 Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin, who had negotiated the Oslo Accords, was shot dead at a peace rally by a young religious student. Rabin was succeeded in office by Ariel Sharon, an outspoken opponent of Israeli negotiations with the Palestinians. In 2000 at Camp David, Maryland, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barack offered to recognize a Palestinian state with control over East Jerusalem, most of the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Arafat, who was apparently concerned about opposition from militants within the PLO who favored the destruction of Israel, turned down the agreement. The second Intifada was initiated in September 2000, following the visit of Sharon to the Muslim holy site of the Temple Mount, a site with religious import to both Muslims and Jews. In the ensuing months as many as 1,000 Israelis and thousands of Palestinians were killed. The death and destruction in the second Intifada far exceeded the violence in the first Intifada and was marked by suicide bombings and armed attacks. The violence gradually subsided over the course of the 5 years of the second Intifada. Nearly 700 Israelis were killed and more than 4,000 were wounded; roughly 1,300 Palestinians were killed and close to 10,000 were wounded. Israel responded by building a controversial wall separating Israel from Palestinian settlements on the West Bank. The Israelis also launched a military operation on the West Bank, which resulted in the death of 500 alleged militants and in the arrest of nearly 7,000 (Boot, 2013). In July 2006 Israel invaded southern Lebanon to halt rocket attacks from Hezbollah, an Iran-sponsored group loosely aligned with Hamas. The 34-day siege resulted in more than 4,000 rockets being fired into Israel and the death of more than 1,000 Lebanese, and more than 150 Israeli soldiers, and nearly 50 Israeli civilians. Following the Intifada in 1987, the Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat al Muqawama al Islamiyya), or Hamas, was founded to support Palestinian youth involved in the protests. Hamas initially rejected violence, viewing a return to Islam as practiced by the founding figures of the religion as the first step towards liberation from Israel. Hamas was initially supported by Israel, which viewed the religious group as an alternative to the PLO. In the 1990s Hamas became swept up in the global Islamic movement and turned to violent jihad. They opposed peace negotiations and advocated the destruction of Israel. The group emerged as a rival to Arafat and to the more secular PLO. Hamas built a power base on the Gaza Strip by providing social welfare services like health, schools, and health clinics, and the group maintains a separate militant armed wing, Izz el Din al Qassam Brigades. The PLO maintains control over the West Bank, although Hamas exercises a tight grip on Gaza. In August 2005 Sharon withdrew Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip, thinking that safeguarding Israel with security barriers and check-points would provide needed security and protect the lives of Israeli soldiers who were under constant harassment and attack by the residents of Gaza. The wall has become a point of controversy because it separates parts of Palestinian communities and because of the difficulty experienced by Palestinians in entering Israel for work. The possibility of peace between Israel and the Palestinians seemed promising, but Hamas interrupted the momentum toward a settlement by launching rocket attacks on Israel in December 2008. In an effort to eradicate Hamas, Israel invaded Gaza and launched a violent campaign that resulted in the death of thousands of Palestinians and in the destruction of infrastructure. Israeli forces withdrew a month later. After withdrawing its troops, Israel continued to blockade construction equipment and certain other goods from coming into Gaza. The country became an object of severe international criticism when nine Turkish nationals died after Israel seized ships allegedly carrying relief supplies to Gaza (DeFronzo, 2015). In October 2017 the two Palestinian entities reached a reconciliation agreement to form a united Palestinian front in negotiations with Israel. Beginning in April and throughout the summer in 2018, thousands of Pales-tinians protested at the security fence separating Israel and the Gaza Strip. The Palestinians explained that they were asserting their right to return their former homes in Israel and were calling for an end the Israel blockade of the Gaza Strip. Crowds were dispersed by tear gas, and some protestors who attempted to scale the security fence were shot by Israeli troops, who claimed that demonstrators were throwing Molotov cocktails and attaching firebombs to kites in an effort to burn Israeli farmland

Personalities and Events Chapter 4 part 2

Since the country's inception, Israel has relied on a covert strategy of tar-geted assassination to eliminate the leadership of terrorist organizations. This policy is designed to weaken these organizations, deter other individ-uals from participating in terrorist organizations, and to protect Israel by killing those who pose an immediate threat. The logic behind this policy is that these assassinations enable Israel to avoid a larger military response and the resulting loss of human life. In recent years these attacks have extended beyond the Palestinian territories and have taken place across the globe. For example, the individuals who carried out the massacre of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics were hunted down and killed. The message is clear: "If you are an enemy of Israel we will hunt you down and kill you." Targeted killings—termed extrajudicial killings—by Israel are limited to individuals against whom there is "accurate and reliable information" that the individuals carried out attacks or ordered attacks. Assassins are to avoid killing innocents, and attacks are never authorized if there is a risk of killing children. Killings only are to be carried out if there is visual confir-mation of the target's identity. Mistakes, however, have been made—killing the wrong person or killing innocents. In the case of high-profile targets, a dossier is compiled detailing the individual's terrorist activities. Intelligence operatives develop a profile of a target's movements and a plan is developed to kill the individual. The plan and killing is approved by a series of government officials, includ-ing a legal team, and by the Israeli prime minister. Individuals within the Israeli defense establishment have expressed apprehension that the pro-gram which was intended to be used selectively has become a frequently employed counterterrorism tactic. Combating suicide bombing, for exam-ple, required the targeting of potential bombers, their trainers, and bomb makers, along with individuals planning the attack. A series of bold attacks by Israel between 2007 and 2017 targeted several Iranian scientists working on the development of nuclear weap-ons. These killings were intended to eliminate individuals that knew how to create a nuclear weapon and to deter scientists from working on the project (Bergman, 2018). According to Ronen Bergman (2018), Israel has assassinated more people than any country in the world. In recent years, assassinations have become easier to conduct because of the advancement of technol-ogy allowing for aerial drone attacks. Since the second Intifada, Israel has carried out more than 800 targeted killing operations, most of which were conducted against Hamas in the Gaza Strip, against Palestinians in Europe and the Middle East, and against individuals in Syria and Iran. Salah Shehade, a Palestinian social worker from the Gaza Strip, was released from prison by Israel in 2000 as a gesture of good will. A bril-liant strategist, he resumed his terrorist activities and, according to the Israelis, he had direct involvement in attacks that killed 474 individuals and wounded over 2,500 in a period of 1 year. On two occasions, authori-zation to kill Shehade was withdrawn because of the risk of killing a large number of civilians, including his wife and child. In July 2002 the decision was made to bomb Shehade's apartment—regardless of whether his wife was present or whether neighbors might be killed. The elusive Shehade was subsequently spotted in a three-story building in a densely populated neighborhood in Gaza City. On three occasions the mission was cancelled because of the number of civilians on the street or because of the risk of killing Shehade's wife and child. Aerial surveillance indicated that there were shacks surrounding the three-story apartment where Shehade was located, although there was no positive intelligence that they were inhab-ited. On July 22, 2002, an F-16 dropped a bomb on the apartment house. Shehade was killed, along with his wife, his daughter, his assistant, and 10 other civilians—including seven children. One hundred and fifty people were injured. Bergman writes that common sense was overwhelmed by the exciting prospect of killing Shehade. A number of pilots subsequently announced that they were trained to defend the country in times of war and that they would refuse to participate in attacks in the Palestinian terri-tories. On the other hand, Israel asserts that there is no alternative other than to eliminate individuals who pose a continuing threat to the country despite the loss of innocent lives.

These attacks may be indicative of a new pattern of terrorism, in which one attack inspires other attacks by individuals who are independent of one another. Terrorist groups like ISIS are inspiring "stay-at-home terrorism," in which individuals are urged to fight in their own country—rather than traveling to fight in

Syria or the middle east

CHAPTER 4 The Foundations of Modern Terrorism INTRODUCTION

Terrorism is not limited to the modern age. The foundations of terrorism can be traced to three early religious sects, the Zealots, Assassins, and Thugs. Religious rivalries between Catholics and Protestants in Europe characterized the next phase of terrorism, exemplified by the religious conflict in England. In 18th-century France, political ideology—rather than religion—became the fundamental division between rivals for power during the French Revolution. The events sur-rounding the revolution established the beginning of what is termed modern state-sponsored political terrorism. Following the revolution organized terrorist groups emerged in Europe. These groups were committed to violent opposition to ruling monarchies, a development which culminated in violent revolution in Russia. The movement for Irish independence introduced the use of terrorism to achieve ethnonationalist territorial independence.

TERRORIST FINANCING

Terrorist organizations require money for weapons, supplies, travel, and com-munication. Groups differ on the methods they use to generate funds. Al Qaeda reportedly paid their fighters salaries, along with providing health care. Keep in mind that although an individual attack may require limited funds, the terrorist organization requires money to sustain itself. The attack on the U.S.S. Cole in October 2000 may have cost as little as $10,000; the Madrid train bombing in March 2004 likely cost roughly the same amount of money. The intergovernmental Financial Action Task Force in Paris, composed of coun-tries representing major global economies, documented the sources of terrorist financing in 2015. The task force currently has singled out North Korea, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Ethiopia as financing terrorism and has warned Pakistan to take more assertive action to prevent charities from funneling money to terrorists. It is not surprising that a significant number of groups rely on criminal activity to fund their missions. The FARC in Colombia and the Taliban in Afghanistan have engaged in narcotics trafficking to support their operations. Hezbollah in Lebanon has relied on the hashish, opium, and heroin to fund itself and allied rebel groups. It is estimated that as much as one third of the Taliban's funding in Afghanistan is from the poppy trade. Another source of income is in smuggling and selling of cigarettes and tobacco. Additional income is derived from the sale of ancient artifacts that were seized from significant archeological sites. ISIS established a bureau of antiquities and has made tens of millions of dollars selling ancient artifacts. Other illegal sources of income include credit card fraud, the sale of counterfeit goods (such as cigarettes falsely labeled as a major brand), the sale of illegally copied DVDs, obtaining fraudulent bank loans, and bank robberies. Shipping stolen vehicles abroad for sale also is a fairly prevalent source of funding. The Islamic State and al Qaeda affiliates in Yemen and the Sahel have generated huge amounts of cash though taking hostages and demanding ransom payments. Somali pirate networks have made roughly $10 billion by commandeering ocean vessels and holding the ship and crew for ransom. ISIS, the Taliban, and other terrorist groups extract taxes and rents from individuals and businesses in the territories they control and impose fines for violations of their local laws. Eight former company executives of the French company Lafarge SA have been indicted on charges of financing terrorism by paying money to Islamic ter-rorists during the conflict in Syria. In return for the more than $5 million paid to terrorist groups, the company was provided with safe passage for its employees to travel to the company's cement plant. Money also allegedly was paid to move supplies and employees through dangerous areas of Syria. A civil suit alleges that the company acted as an accomplice to the crimes against humanity committed by terrorist groups and placed the lives of its employees at risk (Alderman, 2018). Terrorist organizations also have successfully raised funds from the dias-pora—individuals living abroad who share their nationality or religion. The Irish Republican Army raised significant amounts of money from sympathizers in the United States. This type of funding is often accomplished through use of the Internet. Hoffman writes that the Palestinian group Hamas listed the amount of donations required to purchase a bullet, a kilogram of dynamite, and AK-47s for their fighters (Hoffman, 2006). A lucrative source of funding has been the estab-lishment of charitable organizations which—unknown to donors—either direct funds to terrorist organizations or which devote money to providing medical care or financial support for the wives and children of terrorists. It would be a mistake to view terrorist organizations as relying exclusively on criminal activity to raise money. Many groups are large conglomerates that run businesses, hold stock portfolios, have bank accounts throughout the world, and solicit contributions from wealthy donors in the Middle East. James Adams esti-mates that in the mid-1980s, the PLO presided over a $5 billion financial empire (Adams, 1986). Osama bin Laden was able to devote his personal wealth to the support of al Qaeda. Bin Laden also relied on private donors and the illicit trade of "conflict diamonds" (diamonds mined in areas of conflict), the trade of uranium and tanzanite, and on commercial activity (such as the sale of honey throughout the Middle East). The PLO owned dairy and poultry farms and duty-free stores in several African countries At the height of its influence and power, ISIS was earning as much as $350 million per year in oil sales. Terrorist groups also finance themselves by carrying out attacks on behalf of other groups. The Japanese Red Army (JRA) carried out attacks on American embassies in Indonesia, Spain, and Italy on behalf of former Libyan leader Muam-mar Gaddafi in retaliation for an American air strike against Libya. The air strike was made in response to Libyan involvement in the bombing of a Berlin nightclub that killed an American soldier. Finally, Iran and other countries engage in state-sponsored terrorism—pro-viding financial support to terrorist organizations. Iran has provided support for the Houthi rebels in Yemen who fight against another armed faction supported by Saudi Arabia and the United States. A problem that confronts terrorist organizations is how to move cash around the globe. Banking regulations make it difficult to deposit large amounts of cash into a bank and to transfer the funds. The use of "dummy corporations" (which only exist on paper) is important for money laundering, which involves claiming that money obtained through criminal activity was actually generated by a legit-imate business. This money can then be transferred to other banks and used to establish bank accounts or to purchase houses, cars, and other goods and services. A number of international banks have been fined in recent years for knowingly allowing terrorism-related funds to be deposited and transferred across the globe. Money also is transferred using couriers who personally deliver funds. Islamic groups often rely on the hawala system. This ancient system involves contacting a hawaladar, or an individual involved in arranging for the moving of money. The hawaladar takes a small percentage of the money for himself or herself and contacts a hawaladar in the city in which the money is to be picked up. The second hawaladar then pays the designated recipient. The advantage of this system is that money is not physically transferred across borders and there is no record of the transfer. The two hawaladars keep track of how much each of them has paid the other dealer's clients and periodically settle any debts. In contrast to the ancient hawala system, money is increasingly being transferred using alternative currencies and the dark web.

EARLY RELIGIOUS TERRORISM

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been at the center of terrorism in the 20th and 21st centuries and involves the various themes that historically have motivated terrorist violence. The Zealots (66-73 CE) or Sicari were a Jewish cult. Their name originated from the use of daggers similar to the Roman sicae. They adhered to the creed of "no master above God" to oppose the Romans in the area variously referred to today as Israel, Judea, and Palestine. The Zealots kidnapped public figures for ransom, committed public assassinations, and spread chaos and unrest. In 66 CE they inspired an open revolt against the Romans; the revolt was quickly subdued. The Sicari had already withdrawn to Masada, a mountain fortress, where 1,000 fighters committed suicide rather than surrender to the larger and more powerful Roman forces The Assassins were a Muslim sect in Persia and in Syria. They held a distinctive belief in the required line of succession to the Prophet Muhammad that varied from other groups. They first formed in the 11th century and managed to exist until the late 13th century, when they were subdued by the Mongols. The Assassins operated in secrecy, relied on the dagger, and welcomed death and martyrdom, perpetuating themselves through a series of alliances with dominant regional powers. They are credited with assassinating the Marquis de Montferrat, king of Jerusalem, and in so doing they intimidated the Christian crusaders, who paid tribute to the assassins in order to maintain peaceful relations The Thugs were a Hindu terrorist group that killed wealthy travelers as an act of tribute to Kali, the goddess of death. They believed that the universe could only be kept in equilibrium by engaging in these acts of religiously inspired violence, thus providing the blood required by Kali to create life. The Thugs were known for supporting themselves by infiltrating and attacking groups of travelers, stran-gling their victims, and dismembering the bodies. The killing was prolonged to amuse Kali. The Thugs were active for roughly 600 years between the 12th and 19th centuries. They indoctrinated their children into their beliefs and practices and only were extinguished by the British in the 1830s. Some scholars estimate that the Thugs killed as many as half a million individuals, making them the most lethal terrorist group in history umber of points emerge from this sketch of three early religious terrorist groups. First, terrorism is a tactic of fear and intimidation that was exploited by small, weak sects confronting more powerful opponents. These groups relied on religion as their organizing principle to maintain group cohesion and to inspire attacks which otherwise might be viewed as immoral. In the next foundational phase of terrorism, religion continued to provide the justification for acts of terrorism.

4.1 YOU DECIDE

The assassination of Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) by members of the Roman senate was a vivid example of a question that has been a per-sistent focus of commentators: whether tyrannicide or regicide (killing of royalty) is justifiable. In other words, when, if ever, can assassination of a political leader be justified? Roman philosopher and statesman Seneca wrote that "nothing pleases the Gods so much as the killing of a tyrant" (Laqueur, 1999, p. 10). The revered Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) wrote that there were three primary forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy; the corrupt form of each system diverts soci-ety from the cause of justice. There is therefore a civic responsibility of individuals to rid society of tyranny. The Roman politician and political commentator Cicero (106 BCE-43 CE) proclaimed that it is virtuous to kill a tyrant and that tyrants should be eliminated to prevent them from infecting the entire political system. John of Salisbury (1120-1180), the bishop of Chartres in France, noted that tyrants rule by force. He argued that the killing of tyrants is necessary to allow society to be aligned with God. European philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that government is based on the popular will and that a ruler who deviates from this mandate should be assassinated. As justifications for tyrannicide evolved, commentators argued that it was justified to kill individuals who implemented unpopular and destruc-tive public policies or who misled the population. The problem, of course, is how to distinguish a tyrant from a legitimate leader and whether tyrannicide can ever be justified in a democracy. Does a foreign country have the right to intervene to assassinate or to overthrow a foreign leader? Consider the number of authoritarian rulers in the world who are guilty of documented human rights violations. American law prohibits the American president from ordering the assassination of a foreign leader.

THE ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT

The conflict between Israel and Palestine over the territory constituting modern Israel (or what the Palestinians term Palestine) has been at the center of terrorism in the 20th and 21st centuries. This struggle combines issues of religion, ethnona-tionalism, and state and international terrorism, and has involved issues such as airline hijacking, suicide bombings, and Islamic-inspired violence—which later would challenge the entire global community. This section outlines the enormously complicated issues in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and by no means presents a comprehensive account. In the 1870s a movement called Zionism developed in Europe. Zionists believed that the Jews, like other people, were entitled to live in a single unified homeland. An important event in fueling the Zionist movement was the Dreyfus affair in France. In 1894 captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French officer, was convicted of espionage and imprisoned for life on Devil's Island, French Guiana. He was later exonerated. Jewish intellectual Theodor Herzel was outraged by the entire episode and penned a book titled The Jewish State in which he argued that the Jews would never be accepted in Europe and argued for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. By the early 20th century, nearly 25,000 Jews had settled in Palestine and shared the land with the Palestinian Arab population. The so-called first wave of resettlement was followed by a second wave between 1904 and 1914, increasing the Jewish population to more than 350,000. As the Ottoman Empire was broken up as a result of Turkey's defeat in World War I, Great Britain and France divided vast areas of the Middle East between themselves. Britain assumed control over Palestine, which was experiencing increasing tension between the recently arriving Jews and the Arab population. Beginning in 1921, a series of riots took place. These riots were provoked by Arab fears of the growing Jewish presence, the purchase of Arab lands by Jews, and fears that the Jews were arming themselves in order to prepare to take control of Palestine. The British seemingly were on both sides of the issue. In 1917 British prime minister Arthur James Balfour wrote that his government "view with favor the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish People" (Balfour Declaration, 1917). At the same time, the British has promised the Arabs that they would support an independent Arab state in Palestine in return for Arab assistance in fighting the Turkish Ottoman forces, which were aligned with the Germans during World War I. British control was formally recognized by the world community in 1922 when the soon-to-be-defunct League of Nations recognized a British mandate (or admin-istrative responsibility) over Palestine. The Jews, as well as the Arabs, resented British control; tensions between the two rival religious groups led to the formation of the Haganah, a Jewish defense force. The conflict boiled over in 1929 when an attack against Jewish worshippers resulted in the killing of more than 130 Jews. This led the Jews to form a new and more formidable defense force, the Irgun Zvai Leumi, known as the Irgun (Law, 2016). The Irgun adopted an aggressive terrorist campaign of bombings. In July 1938 Irgun attacks on markets and on homes left 76 Arabs dead and more than 170 wounded. The strategy was to provoke the Arabs into a conflict with the Jews and then to mobilize the necessary military might to drive the Arabs out of Palestine. The British reacted in 1939 by restricting Jewish immigration to Palestine and announcing that it would end Jewish immigration entirely within 5 years. The Irgun responded by initiating terrorist attacks on the British. The Irgun declared a ceasefire in September 1939 with the beginning of World War II. One faction of the Irgun, popularly known as the Stern Gang, continued the attacks on the British throughout the war. The Irgun is said to have provided a model of urban terrorist violence which subsequently served as an example for terrorist movements across the globe. The goal was to weaken the British to the point that they could no longer effectively govern Palestine, resulting in the loss of popular support at home for Britain's continued presence in the Middle East. The British at this point would be left with no alternative other than to leave Palestine. Between 1945 and 1948, the Irgun unleashed an organized campaign of violence against the British in Palestine, destroying infrastructure, launching assaults on hated symbols of British power (such as office on immigration), and assassinating British officials and soldiers. On July 22, 1946, the Irgun bombed the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, the headquarters of the British general staff, leaving 91 dead. The following year the Irgun used what is considered the world's first truck bomb to kill four British soldiers. The British and Jews found themselves locked into a cycle of violence (Law, 2016). The UN adopted a plan on November 29, 1947, partitioning Palestine between the Jews and the Arabs with Jerusalem designated as an international city. The British subsequently left Palestine; in May 1948, the Jews declared the indepen-dent state of Israel. Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon immediately invaded the newly established state. The conflict led to an overwhelming Israeli victory and to a ceasefire rather than to a peace settlement. This was the first of various conflicts between Israel and its Arab neighbors. The two most significant were the 1967 Six-Day War—leading to Israel taking control over Jerusalem and the West Bank—and the so-called 1973 Yom Kippur War. Over 700,000 Arab inhabitants of Palestine—half of the Arab population—flooded out of the territory during the 1948 war in what is called the Nakba or "Disaster." The Palestinians found themselves in UN-sponsored refugee camps, most of which were located in neighboring Jordan.

RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN EUROPE

The controversy surrounding the Protestant Reformation boiled over in the 16th century. The French Calvinist Huguenots comprised nearly 10% of the population in an overwhelmingly Catholic France. On St. Bartholomew's Day in 1572, Charles IX ordered the killing of prominent Huguenots in Paris, sparking the slaughter of thousands of Huguenots throughout the country Across the channel in England, religious rivalry also raged. Mary I (1516-1558) ruled from July 1553 until her death in 1558. Her imprisonment and execution of Protestants led to her being referred to as "Bloody Mary." The return of the English throne to Protestantism with the ascendancy of Elizabeth I (who ruled from 1558 to 1603) following Mary's death was never fully accepted by the Cath-olic population. Protestant king James I (1556-1625) was the target of a daring assassination attempt known as the Gunpowder Plot. A number of Catholic insurgents smuggled 1,800 pounds of gunpowder into the basement below West-minster Palace. Guy Fawkes planned to ignite the explosives on the opening day of Parliament on November 5, 1605. An informant tipped off authorities to the plot which, if successful, would have killed James and the entire parliament and would have ravaged an area a mile in diameter. The plotters were hanged, drawn, and quartered in the yard of Westminster Palace The English Civil War of 1642 led to a parliamentary army headed by Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) defeating the forces of Charles I (1600-1649). Charles's assertion of the "divine right of Kings" and claim to unlimited powers, along with his seeming support for Catholicism, alienated a significant percentage of the pop-ulation. Cromwell and his supporters abolished the monarchy, placed Charles on trial, and executed him as a "tyrant, traitor, and murderer, and public enemy" (Law, 2016, p. 96). Cromwell proved an unpopular leader and found himself involved in a bitter military campaign in Ireland and Scotland. He was succeeded by his son, whose failures in office led to the restoration of the monarchy in England. The events in England and the English Civil War illustrate that religion remained a dramatic dividing line in society. The conflict in England also was one the first expressions of the belief that monarchs are not above the law and that government should rest on the will of the people rather than on royal succession. These very same principles were behind the French Revolution of 1789.

Chapter 4 summary

The foundation of the various categories of modern terrorism can be traced to the historical developments discussed in this chapter. The Zealots, Assassins, and Thugs illustrate how religion can provide a terrorist group with justification for terrorist violence. Religious terrorism continued with the conflict between Protestants and Catholics in England. The French Revolution ushered in an age of politically motivated terrorism. The aftermath of the French Revolution provided an example of state-sponsored terrorism—the use of terrorist violence by a regime to maintain authority and power. Anarchists and various Rus-sian revolutionary groups challenged state authority and engaged in terrorism against the established political order. The Irish, inspired by nationalism and a desire for independence from Great Britain, engaged in a successful terrorist campaign against the occupying English forces. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict involves terrorism and state terrorism motivated by ethnicity, territory, and religion, and it is characterized by both domestic and international terrorism. The conflict set the stage for the various forms of terrorism discussed in the next several chapters.

RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONARY VIOLENCE

The steady growth in politically motivated terrorist violence against government authorities reached its height in 19th-century and early 20th-century Russia. Russia was ripe for revolutionary violence. It was the least developed of the Euro-pean states, and a small landholding elite dominated a vast impoverished peasant population. There was no provision for rights or liberties (Law, 2016). Philip Pomper describes Russia as going through various stages of terrorist violence. The initial phase was nihilism. This was a movement of mostly privi-leged students in the 1860s who rebelled against social conventions. Determined to bring down the existing order, Dmitrii Karakozov attempted to assassinate Alexander II in April 1866 In the period between 1867 and 1868, young student leader Sergei Nechaev emerged as the dominant and charismatic leader of a group of roughly 80 ter-rorists known as the Axe, who were dedicated to the assassination of Alexander II. Nechaev fled abroad and wrote an influential road map for terrorists titled "Catechism of a Revolutionary." He wrote that the terrorist must be dedicated to the movement and must be ready to undergo torture and die. The immedi-ate task was to spread fear among government leaders and to overthrow the regime. The question of what came next could wait until the regime had been eliminated. Nechaev was apprehended in Switzerland and died in prison in 1882 In 1876 student activists known as the Populists (narodniki) established the Land and Freedom movement. The primary focus was on the political organization of the peasantry in preparation for a mass revolutionary uprising. Members of Land and Freedom, however, were willing to engage in acts of violent retribution. In one infamous incident in 1878, Vera Zasulich shot and killed F. F. Trepov, the governor-general of St. Petersburg, in retribution for his ordering of the flogging of a young imprisoned party member who had refused to remove his hat during a prison inspection. Russia's humiliation in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 weakened the government and ushered in what has been characterized as a turning point in Russian terrorism (Pomper, 2001). Various students, frustrated by the inability to mobilize the peasantry and by the effectiveness of government countermeasures, formed a new urban terrorist group, People's Will (Narodnaia Volia), which was active from 1878 to 1882. They believed that their violent attacks would inspire the peasantry to revolt in a mass uprising. A prominent figure in the People's Will was Nikolai Morozov, who called for small groups to carry out the assassination of government officials—which he predicted would inspire escalating violence and lead to overthrow of the regime. He proclaimed that every individual has the right to kill a tyrant and a nation cannot take this right away from its citizens. In 1880 the People's Will infiltrated the Winter Palace and ignited a bomb that killed 12 people and almost killed Alexander II. They finally succeeded in assassinating Alexander on March 1, 1881, which led the government crushing the movement he Socialist Revolutionary (SR) Party emerged in the early 20th century. The SR organized a revolutionary arm, the Combat Organization (CO). The CO assassinated minister of the interior Dmitrii Sipiagin—as well as his successor von Plehve—in 1902. In 1905 a bomb killed the czar's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei, the governor-general of St. Petersburg. CO terrorism culminated in the killing of Prime Minister Peter Stolypin at the Kiev Municipal Theater In 1904 Russia entered a war with Japan. The hardships caused by the war increased discontent. A peace procession of thousands of workers in January 1905 gathered to present the czar with a petition listing grievances and asking for reforms. Soldiers fired on the demonstrators in what became known as "Bloody Sunday." Strikes and peasant uprisings spread throughout the country forcing Nicholas II to issue various progressive reforms, most of which were never implemented. The total number of state officials killed or seriously wounded reached nearly 4,500 by the end of 1907. An additional 2,180 individuals loosely affiliated with the government were killed and 2,530 were wounded. Government records list 20,000 acts of revolutionary violence, which included bank robberies in which millions of rubles were seized by terrorist groups. Sixteen thousand suspected terrorists were brought to trial. Nearly 3,700 were sentenced to death and the others were sentenced to hard labor in Siberia Terrorism and the costs of World War I weakened the Russian regime and laid the foundation for the 1917 revolution and the creation of a Soviet communist state. The monarchy was replaced by an unelected multiparty provisional government. The plan was to hold elections, form a parliament, draft a constitution, and to pro-vide for an equitable distribution of land to the peasantry. The Bolshevik faction of the Social Democrats managed to seize power and established a government based on Marxist principles. In September 1918 the regime implemented a "Red Terror," an edict that proclaimed that in order to protect the Soviet Republic from internal enemies that a policy of terror was required. Experts estimate that the number of individuals killed by the Communist regime range from 500,000 to close to 2 million

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The term "terrorism" became part of the public vocabulary with the French Revo-lution In France under Louis XVI, a small group of his royal brethren along with members of the church hierarchy pros-pered while an overwhelming percentage of the population were condemned to remain landless peasants and factory workers, nearly all of whom lived on sub-sistence wages while paying high taxes and being called on to fight in France's European war campaigns. The middle class found themselves frustrated by their limited opportunities and lack of liberty and freedom. In June 1789 a popular national assembly was declared and less than a month later, a Parisian mob seized the fortress of the Bastille. Peasants burned down man-sions and destroyed government offices that housed records of their debts. In 1792 the monarchy was abolished, and France was declared a republic in which power resided in the populous. Louis XVI was placed on trial; he was found guilty and executed. An event that proved of significant importance occurred in July 1793 when Charlotte Corday stabbed Jean-Paul Marat to death. Marat was a journalist sym-pathetic to the Jacobins, a powerful radical faction in the Convention (France's parliament). The Jacobins responded by establishing a centralized revolutionary command under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre. The Convention quickly issued a decree that terrorism was the new legal order of France and 12 days later passed a Law on Suspects that authorized the arrest of the revolutionaries. This broad law was the basis for the killing of 16,000 individuals in a 10-month period beginning in September 1793. In some instances, arrestees were turned over to local groups who summarily carried out executions—with little concern about conducting a trial The Jacobins openly acknowledged that a totalitarian system based upon fear had been established in France. Terror was regarded by Robespierre as a swift and certain form of justice and as a mechanism to cleanse society of the enemies of the people. In June and July 1794, the killing proceeded at a fever pitch resulting in as many as 1,400 individuals being condemned to death. At this point, even Robes-pierre's supporters began to feel threatened and a group of legislators organized his arrest, trial, and execution In 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France in a military coup. Napo-leon deported and executed thousands of supporters of the monarchy and crowned himself as emperor. He then embarked on a 16-year campaign of European con-quest, and eventually suffered a series of military setbacks as well as a crushing defeat in Russia at the hands of roving bands of guerillas. The guerilla warfare waged against Napoleon in Spain and in Russia, according to some historians, helped to establish terrorism as a "weapon of the weak" that could be effectively employed against a stronger force (White, 2017, p. 9). In 1815 Napoleon was exiled by the European powers to the small island of St. Helena. At the Congress of Vienna, the French monarchy was restored and legitimacy of monarchies across Europe was strengthened The French Revolution was famously denounced and dismissed by conserva-tive English political thinker Edmund Burke as the work of "hell hounds called terrorists ... let loose on the people" (Law, 2016, p. 64). The events of France, however, eroded the legitimacy of monarchies across Europe and unleashed nationalistic and democratic forces throughout Europe. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the struggle was primarily based on a clash of political rather than religious ideologies. The primary dividing line was between individuals supporting (versus individuals opposing) the rule of royal monarchs. A number of secret societies developed in Europe. They were devoted to democratic rule in which ultimate power was invested in the people. The most important was the Carbonari, established in 1807 in Naples, to combat Napoleon in southern Italy and later Ferdinand I who presided over the Kingdom of Naples. The influence of the Carbonari spread throughout Italy and to France, Germany, and Spain, and they were involved in uprisings against the French and Austrians in Italy. Those initiated into the Carbonari underwent an elaborate ritual and received a crown of thorns to symbolize the desire to pierce the head of a tyrant; they also received a cross to symbolize the crucifixion of a tyrant. They were given a cord to signify the desire to lead the oppressors to the gallows. The Carbonari's weapon of choice was the dagger, although adherents were encouraged to employ poison against their adversaries. Historians view the Carbonari as perhaps the first highly organized international insurgent terrorist groups—although their political impact was limited An interesting group in the period between 1811 and 1826 was the Luddites comprised of English artisans who sabotaged textile looms and other newly developed industrial technology that threatened the jobs of skilled knitters and other workers. The group was named after Ned Ludd who—legend has it—destroyed two knitting machines in the 1770s. The British Parliament responded to the Lud-dites by adopting a law punishing economic sabotage and by executing seventeen Luddites in 1813 The spread of the desire for democracy led to a series of political uprisings across Europe in 1848. The revolt included factory workers and landless peasants demanding economic reform. These movements were ultimately crushed, and monarchies were restored across the European continent. In 1849 Karl Heinzen (1809-1880), a radicalized former German civil servant, published the influential essay, Murder, which is considered a foundation docu-ment of modern terrorism. Heinzen argued that although the taking of a human life is a very serious crime, murder has historically been relied upon by regimes to maintain power. Individuals devoted to liberty possessed no alternative other than to resort to assassination and to violence in self-defense. Heinzen argued that governments should not be permitted to possess a monopoly on violence. The weakness of democratic movements for change in terms of willing fighters, as well as resources, could be overcome by employing technological advances in weaponry—primarily the bomb (Miller, 2013). Heinzen concluded by advising that murder was the engine of historical prog-ress. He concluded that an individual who is not ready to sacrifice him or herself to put a million "barbarians in their coffins" does not possess a true commitment to democracy (Miller, 2013, p. 55). The next stage in the development of terrorism was the epidemic of anarchist violence.

WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) are weapons that are capable of inflicting severe, mass destruction. WMDs are commonly defined as chemical and biological weapons, and radiological and nuclear weapons (CBRN). The traditional view was that terrorist groups employed violence to attract attention and supporters and to spread fear. The use of violence was thought to be discriminating and precise, focusing on targets whose destruction reinforced the terrorist groups' political aims. The IRA—with some tragic exceptions—targeted

On Bastille Day 2016, Mohamed Lahoauiej Bouhlel, a French resident from Tunisia with a criminal history of domestic assault, battery, and weapon possession—but no known extremist ties—drove a hijacked semitrailer into

a crowd on the beach in Nice, France, killing 86 individuals. Evidence later revealed that Bouhlel was a radical sympathizer and had possible terrorist connections.

Sabotage. Terrorist plots have targeted nuclear power plants, electrical grids, the Wall Street financial district, and iconic landmarks. Iyman Faris, an Ohio truck driver, in 2003 pled guilty to

an al Qaeda plot to blow up the Brooklyn Bridge and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. Jonathan Matusitz writes that terrorist groups develop a signature method of violence that communicates that the group is strong and is to be feared. -The IRA was known for "kneecapping"—shooting the back of an individual's knee joint, permanently impeding their ability to walk. This method was used against British agents. ISIS, in part, has developed a reputation for ruthless terror by circulating videos of the beheading of Western hostages and of captured enemy combatants. Signature methods are a method of communicating strength and resolve to both the domestic and the global audience

The assault on Charlie Hebdo was apparently coordinated with

an armed attack the next day on a French policewoman and a pedestrian, as well as with a hostage-taking incident at a Jewish supermarket. -These terrorist attacks may have inspired a beheading and attempt to bomb an American-owned industrial gas plant in France later in the summer, as well as the killing of three randomly targeted individuals by a machine gun-toting attacker.

Terrorists have continued to try to outmaneuver technology and in 2017, American and British authorities—fearful of bombs inserted into computers—

banned laptops from the passenger cabins of overseas flights from various countries into the United States and other European countries.

Terrorist organizations that sustain themselves are "learning organizations" that adjust their inner workings to defeat

counterterrorist tactics and pay attention to the experiences of other groups

Hostage taking. The taking of hostages to place pressure on

governments to meet demands or to pay ransom is illustrated by the Italian Red Brigades' abduction of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro in March 1978. When the government refused their demands, Moro was killed and his body was left in an abandoned car. The Nigerian insurgent group Boko Haram notoriously kidnapped 262 schoolgirls in April 2014, and after several years of captivity released roughly 100 of the young women. Other hostages may have been killed, forced to marry insurgents, or have been radicalized. It is estimated that Boko Haram has kidnapped thousands of people and that as many as 20,000 individuals have been killed during the insurgency. The terrorists' ability to force the government to negotiate provides the group status and legitimacy, and it communicates to the public that the group is reasonable and open to a political solution. Governments find themselves under constant pressure to negotiate release of the hostages.

Hoffman uses an analogy of sharks to describe terrorist groups—sharks must

keep moving forward and consuming the fish in the water in order to survive. Similarly, terrorist attacks often occur every few weeks. The worst imaginable fate for a group is to be ignored, and when events overshadow the terrorists' cause, they will resort to more innovative or spectacular attacks. Terrorist groups are in competition for attention, support, and finance. They are under pressure to commit ever more spectacular acts of violence to distinguish themselves from other groups. A gruesome attack may also result from the simple fact that violence is difficult to control once initiated

Crowds and public spaces. Crowded venues like nightclubs and concert arenas allow terrorists to kill

large numbers of people with limited resources. Examples are the massacre at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, the killings at the Bataclan theater in Paris in 2015, and the suicide attack in Manchester, England, in 2017.

Bruce Hoffman writes that terrorist groups focus on targets that reflect their ideology and which they view as

legitimate. These attacks call attention to the group's belief system and reinforce the loyalty of supporters. -Left-wing Marxist groups focus on economic targets that reflect their belief that economic elites exploit the working class. Religious groups target nonbelievers. -Right-wing groups focus their attacks on immigrants and minorities. Hoffman argues that even when an attack is seemingly brutal and bloody, the terrorists view the target as justified based on their worldview and view the attack as advancing their cause

Terrorist violence in France also has increased support for

nationalist politicians who are opposed to immigration and to cultural diversity. This nationalist reaction also may take the form of violence against immigrants. -In 2018, French police arrested members of a vigilante group called Operational Forces Action, which had planned to attack Muslims throughout France as well as mosques and stores owned by Muslims.

The Bojinka plot, by Ramzi Yousef and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, was planned for January 1995 and involved the assassination

of Pope John II, along with the bombing of 11 airplanes in flight from the United States, with the potential of killing 4,000 passengers—as well as crashing a plane into CIA headquarters in Virginia

In response to the Charlie Hebdo attack, hundreds of thousands of Parisians and people throughout the world demonstrated solidarity by

rallying in the streets. Several million copies of the magazine Charlie Hebdo were sold, and journalists across the globe spoke out for the sanctity of freedom of the press—even when the media expressed controversial ideas. -Dissident voices criticized the magazine for irresponsible and unnecessarily provocative coverage that disregarded religious sensibilities and offended Muslims.

Charlie Hebdo was known for poking fun at the rich and powerful politicians and important

religious figures. -The magazine had been a target for Islamic terrorists in the past for its provocative coverage of issues like wearing of veils and Islamic law, and the headquarters had been firebombed 3 years earlier -One controversial cover pictured a weeping Prophet Muhammad under the caption "Muhammad overwhelmed by fundamentalists." In the cartoon, Muhammad is complaining that "it's hard being loved by jerks." Those who adhere to a strict conservative interpretation of Islam consider it blasphemous to produce images of the Prophet, and radicals vowed retribution. -The magazine added fuel to the fire by running a controversial cartoon poking fun at the leader of Islamic State, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. -The Kouachi brothers had been orphaned at a young age. They drifted into a life of only-occasional employment and petty crime. Chérif had spent time in jail and was known to the police for his militant activities. The brothers had been recruited by the Islamic State and were in communication with a French Tuni-sian commander Boubaker Hakim in Syria—who was later killed by an American drone in a retaliatory strike.

Terrorists engage in asymmetrical warfare. They cannot match the firepower or manpower available to the government and seek to accomplish their goals by targeting

soft targets—targets that are accessible, lightly guarded, and which will result in maximum psychological impact. As targets are "hardened," terrorists shift their focus from hard targets to new soft targets. -Targets are selected that have the maximum psychological impact. These targets include the following: Assassinations: -Political leaders are targeted who are in the public eye and lightly guarded and therefore present attractive targets. These assassinations demonstrate the capacity of terrorists to strike at the heart of the government. Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Israeli student who believed that Rabin had made too many concessions to the Palestinians. Pakistani prime minister Benazir Bhutto was killed in 2007 by Islamic militants during her election campaign. Susan Fahey defines assassination as including attacks intended to kill one or more specific individuals. She finds that the period between 2010 and 2014 accounts for 18% of this kind of attack since 1970. Roughly 30% of these attacks were directed against government officials, followed by private citizens, the police, and military officials. Assassinations were successful roughly 75% of the time, and firearms were usually the weapon of choice. Thirty countries account for 90% of attacks—with the United Kingdom, Colombia, Pakistan, Iraq, and India experiencing the greatest number of assassinations. Trains.: -Trains and subways are attractive targets because of the difficulty of protecting these targets. Trains have multiple stops, infrequent checks of baggage, a constant stream of passengers boarding and exiting, and accessible and unprotected tracks. An attack on a train can injure or kill a significant number of people. In 2004 an al Qaeda simultaneous bombing of 10 Madrid subway trains killed 191 people and injured hundreds. In August 2015 three American passengers subdued Moroccan-born 25-year-old Ayoub el Khazzani as he prepared to commit mass murder with an assault weapon on a train travelling between Amsterdam and Paris. Maritime: -In his study of naval terrorism, Bo Jiang recorded 183 maritime attacks on vessels between 1971 and 2013. Virtually all of the attacks relied on either fire-arms, shoulder-fired missiles, or explosives. Although 44 countries experienced maritime attacks, nearly 50% of attacks occurred in Colombia, Nigeria, Philippines, Somalia, and Sri Lanka. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) account for 81% of all maritime attacks in Sri Lanka and 50% in the South Asian region. The group committed more than twice as many attacks as any other terrorist group. LTTE attacks resulted in 113 killed and 26 wounded Airliners and airports: -One of the first major air hijackings took place in July 1968, when three Palestinian attackers affiliated with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)—a group affiliated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)—hijacked an Israeli El Al airliner traveling from Rome to Tel Aviv. This was the 12th hijacking in 1968, although the other incidents were primarily undertaken by individuals who were fleeing the United States and were seeking asylum in Cuba. In contrast, the PFLP incident was intended to highlight the Palestinian cause by hijacking an Israeli plane. The Palestinians also had the strategic goal of holding the passengers hostage and exchanging them for Palestinian prisoners held in Israel

Terrorist groups also must maintain the capacity to respond to the techno-logical advancement of counterterrorism

strategies

The hallmark of terrorism is the unpredictable nature of

terrorist targets. Terrorists may attack an airline, train, subway, power plant, school, concert, or water or power supply -A number of commentators note that the tactics used by terrorists in the past are fairly limited and include hijackings, assassinations, kidnappings, armed assault, barricades, hostage taking, contamination of agri-culture and water, the use of chemical and biological weapons, cyberterrorism, and suicide bombings

As precautions have been taken against attacks on airliners, terrorists moved their attack zone outside of

the screening checkpoints

The Bataclan and Nice attacks contributed to the sense that terrorist attacks are

unpredictable, difficult to anticipate and defend, and may target the most innocent of individuals. -A focus on protecting monumental structures like the Eiffel Tower may leave other targets vulnerable. -Although there may be a lull in terrorist attacks, terrorist violence emerges in a new form, in a new place, and using different tactics. Terrorism attacks—although often dismissed as inconsequential as compared to the number of those killed from drug overdoses or car accidents—are magnified in terms of their psychological impact.

3.1. You Decide

with terrorists that hold hostages, along with a policy of refusing to pay a ransom in return for hostages. The families of hostages and third parties who negotiate with terrorists, in theory, were subject to criminal penal-ties. In practice, this policy has not been followed by every president. There has been an exception for negotiating the return of members of the military. In 2014 President Obama exchanged three Taliban fighters interned at Guantanamo for sergeant Bowe Bergdahl—a negotiation that generated controversy. The refusal to negotiate with terrorists is based on the belief that this would indicate weakness, provide terrorists with undeserved legitimacy, and reward and encourage hostage taking. On the other hand, critics con-tend that it was cruel to abandon Americans—many of whom worked on behalf of the U.S. government in dangerous hotspots around the world. The Obama administration was subject to criticism by the families of four hostages killed by the Taliban in 2014, who argued that their loved ones had been abandoned by the United States. President Obama responded by lifting the prohibition on the families of hostages and third parties negotiating with terrorists. The directive maintained the ban on government payments and concessions to terrorists, although it indicated that the families and other individuals were free to negotiate. President Obama stated that families and the government would work together as partners. The Department of State created a "family engagement" team to maintain contact with the families of individuals taken hostage, to keep them informed, and to assist them with any issues that may arise. European countries, unlike the United States, openly negotiate with terrorists and pay ransoms and, in most instances, obtain the safe return of their nationals who were held hostage

Even an unsuccessful (although bold) attack attracts public attention and creates the perception that a group is powerful and potent. The IRA's nearly successful remote-bomb attack on British prime minister Margaret Thatcher in 1984 rein-forced the perception that the IRA was capable of evading defenses and possessed technological sophistication. Individuals may question the ability of the government to protect them from the terrorist threat and may be persuaded to negotiate

with the terrorists