State and Local test 4

Most of the nation's economic resources are controlled by

institutions (banks, insurance companies, utilities, etc.) but the control of land use is an important power communities have at their disposal.

Auto Insurance

All states currently require drivers to have automobile liability insurance."

Contractors

City governments have control over inspection and permitting and provide services that a contractor can bid for.

Managers as Policy Leaders

City managers have taken wider interest in policy. These policy managers are "city managers who provide community leadership through their recommendations to their city councils on a wide variety of matters.

First Suburbs

Communities which are neither fully urban nor completely suburban. They are usually in the first ring of suburbs that sprung up around central cities right after World War II."

Community Development Block Grants (CDBG)

Consolidated federal grants to cities for planning, redevelopment, and public housing." Established by Congress to fight urban blight, provide low-income housing, and conserve existing housing, the CDBG are available depending on such factors as an area's overcrowding, housing age, and poverty rate. With redevelopment of affordable housing its primary focus, the program is one of the largest federal grants.

Public Services

Consolidation is thought to improve services, but many larger municipal governments do not produce economies of scale in many of their operations. They are uneconomic and fail to provide improved services.

Responsibility

Consolidation reformers claim this will establish clear lines of responsibility for metropolitan-wide problems

Interest group activity

local level can often be more influential because the "arena of local politics is smaller."

A megalopolis is

metropolitan areas that adjoin each other, creating a continuous urban environment over an extended area.

Fragmented governments allow

people to "shop around" for their favored area to live.

Equity?

The interdependence of the cities and suburbs in the metropolitan area is not accounted for in this model

Growth Engines of the U.S. Economy

The largest metropolitan areas generate significant economic output.

Getting Things Done

Machines held power over government contracts and often became very corrupt in their practices.

Assimilation

Machines were highly successful in recruiting recent immigrants into the political party.

Fragmented Government-

Multiple governmental jurisdictions, including cities, townships, school districts, and special districts, all operating in a single metropolitan area

Newspapers, Television, and Radio

Newspapers provide most of the coverage of local politics, but local television and radio programs also highlight local issues.

Traffic Safety

States have instituted programs for licensing drivers and vehicles; enforcing traffic laws, particularly those against drunk drivers; and promoting public safety through mandatory seatbelt laws. The latest area of concern is the running of red lights. Red-light or speed cameras are being used in many localities to catch offenders.

City Councils

Terms and Elections- Most elections are nonpartisan and lack any significant media attention. Most candidates are successful when they are socially acceptable candidates, have personal name recognition in their community, and have access to political resources.

Should a metropolitan area consolidate existing governments or remain a system of fragmented and decentralized local governments?

The debate centers on regionalism versus localism.

Potential for Conflict

The diversity of metropolitan areas is ripe for political conflict.

Splits among Urban Democrats

The division among Democrats in the big cities has intensified with the reduced influence of the party machine.

Personal Attention

The machine effectively used patronage, "rewards granted by government officeholders to political supporters in the form of government jobs or contracts," to solidify its position of power, and dole out services to individuals. Headed by a boss, its leader, the machine personalized government.

Policy Consequences

The major policy consequence of increased minority representation has been the increase in minority employment in the public sector.

Relocation

The relocation of the poor, many of whom are minorities, is sometimes the most difficult problem of redevelopment. Residents are not interested in moving, especially to what is often just another slum, sometimes at a higher rent

A metropolitan statistical area is

a core urban area of 50,000 or more people together with adjacent counties with predominantly urban populations and with close ties to the central city.

The city manager role was created to

accomplish the policy objectives of an elected city council. It was viewed as an administrative role separate from the political.

Suburban areas

account for most of the growth of American metropolitan areas. Many central cities, especially in the Northeast and Midwest, have lost population and jobs over the last two decades, while others are experiencing a rebirth and revitalization.

SUBURBAN "SPRAWL

"A negative reference to the outward extension of new low-density residential and commercial development from the central city."

The NIMBY Syndrome

"An acronym for 'not in my backyard,' referring to residents who oppose nearby public or private projects or developments."

Business Groups

Businesses are generally the most influential groups in local politics and are represented by various groups, such as the chamber of commerce

Planners have come up with some innovative ways to

get around land use regulations

Early municipal reform was linked to

the Progressive Movement in American politics

Incumbents

the main beneficiaries of campaign donations.

Mayors have difficult jobs in dealing with

the major domestic issues of our time (race relations, poor schools, and fiscal crises).

Public regardingness

the tendency of upper-class, liberal voters to support recreational, cultural, and environmental projects."

Local elected office is

where most women and minorities begin their political careers.

The typical council member

represents, legislates, oversees city management (checks the chief executive, city departments and employees) and judges the fairness of government operations." They have more formal power in commission or weak-mayor forms of government. In cities with strong executives, the council's role may be more one of representing community interests.

The takings clause is defined

s "the clause in the U.S. Constitution's Fifth Amendment that prohibits government from taking private property without just compensation." This power of eminent domain has been hotly contested in the courts in recent years.

The metropolitan reform movement

sought to consolidate and reorganize existing multiple local jurisdictions to deal with the metropolitan problems.

"Takings" for Public Use (Economic Development)-

A recent U.S. Supreme Court case approved as constitutional governmental taking of private land for the public use of economic development, even if this land is turned over to private developers. This case prompted several states to pass laws restricting local government use of eminent domain power.

Familism

A reference to a child-centered lifestyle observed more frequently in suburbs than in central cities

The Tiebout Model

"An economic theory that asserts that families and businesses in metropolitan areas can maximize their preferences for services and taxes by choosing locations among multiple local governments.

Councils of Government

"Associations of governments or government officials in metropolitan areas that study, discuss, and recommend solutions to metropolitan-wide problems."

Enterprise Empowerment Zones

"Federal grants, tax incentives, and loans to communities to revitalize distressed areas." Their effect is limited by the tendency of states to create more and more zones, thereby diluting the impact of available funds where needed the most.

The Elite Model

"In community politics, the theory that power is concentrated in the hands of relatively few people, usually top business and financial leaders."

Neighborhood Groups

"In local politics, an organization of the residents of a specific neighborhood that works to protect property values." Referred to as NIMBYS (not in my backyard) they often oppose low-income housing, halfway houses for parolees, and mental health facilities.

Taxpayer Groups

"Interest groups that generally stand for lower taxes and fewer governmental activities and services."

Special Districts-

"Local governmental units usually charged with performing a single function; often overlap municipal and county boundaries."

The Influence of Planners-

"Planners can project the image of the city of the future and thereby establish the agenda of community decision making." Currently, creation of "livable communities' (those focused on protecting neighborhoods and the environment) is popular with planners.

Restricted Growthers (The "Smart Growth" Movement)

"Promotion of higher density growth so more livable communities can be created.

Mobility?

"The major criticism of this model is that many metropolitan residents do not enjoy unlimited mobility."

Urban renewal,

"the original term for federally aided programs carried out by local government agencies to rebuild blighted areas of central cities," has coincided with public housing programs.

"Metro" Government

A federated system of government for metropolitan areas in which powers are divided among a comprehensive government encompassing the entire area and multiple local governments operating within the area."

"Boomburbs" and "Exurbs"

A boomburg is a city with more than 100,000 residents located within a metropolitan area but that is not the central city and which has maintained a double-digit growth rate in recent years." Beyond these "boomburgs" are the "exurbs", or "edgecities". These are suburbs that develop even further out from the central city.

Capital Improvements

A capital improvement program (CIP) is "the planned schedule of new public projects by a local government."

Master plan

A city map showing the location of present and future streets and public facilities

"Brownfields"

Abandoned, idle, or underused industrial or commercial property that may be environmentally contaminated." In declining inner cities, such areas are prone to spawn crime, unemployment, and other problems in the areas surrounding them. A coordinated effort is being made by several federal agencies, including the EPA, HUD, and DOT, to address this issue.

Annexation

Annexing unincorporated suburban areas has been the most obvious way of consolidating the metropolitan area. There is a problem of existing cities "cherry-picking" wealthier areas to annex and leaving poorer areas to be serviced by the counties.

Helmet Laws

As with speed limits, the federal government had required state helmet laws in the 1960s in order to receive federal highway funds. The requirement was eliminated in 1976 but many states initially kept the laws in place. Other states bowed to pressure from motorcyclists and repealed their laws.

Banks

Banks have interests in the property values in a city and other taxation policy.

The New Personalized Machines

Big-city mayors have been able to amass a personal machine within the mayor's office by enlarging their staffs and creating agencies directly accountable to them. If patronage is defined to include a wide range of tangible benefits like contracts, then it is still important in many communities.

Building and Construction Codes

Building codes are "local government regulations requiring building permits and inspections of new construction to ensure compliance with detailed specifications.

Churches

Churches continue to play an important role because of their influence on moral issues and the participation of their leaders in community decision making.

City-Suburban Differences

Cities and suburbs are distinctly different in their operations and the kinds of people who live within them, leading to a metropolitan problem, "the failure to achieve metropolitan-wide consensus on public policy questions affecting the entire metropolitan area and the failure to develop metropolitan government institutions.

when do citizens get involved in local affairs?

Citizens get involved in local affairs when there is a specific issue they want addressed. As the text states, "local politics is often said to be centered on police, potholes, porno, property, pets, pollution, 'problem' neighbors, citizens' pocketbooks, and of course, politicians."

Local Referenda Voters

Citizens have the ability to recall elected officials in 60 percent of cities, the ability to vote on local referenda questions in three-quarters of all cities, and the initiative process in nearly 60 percent of cities. These issues may be wide-ranging, controversial, and inspire higher turnout among the local electorate.

Municipal Employees

City employees have an obvious large personal stake in city politics. Their rate of voter turnout in local elections is high.

Coordination

Coordinated services are also another goal of the metropolitan consolidation movement. Transportation is the most common example of an area with coordination problems.

Fuel Efficiency

Corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards are "averages calculated from highway miles-per-gallon figures from all models of cars and light trucks produced by each manufacturer"- have been instituted by the federal government to increase fuel efficiency.

Representation

Council members do tend to reflect the ideals and the characteristics of their constituents.

Reasons for the Machine's Decline- The decline has been the result of the following:

Decline in European immigration Increase in federal social welfare programs Rising levels of prosperity The spread of middle-class values New avenues of upward social mobility Structural reforms (as discussed above) The rise of self-financed candidates The emergence of television as a means of campaigning

Legislative Powers

Depending on the system, mayors are voting members of the council. Where they are not, they generally have veto power over council-passed ordinances. Most submit policy recommendations and rely on their informal power of office to accomplish these tasks.

Driver Distraction

Driver distractions from cell phones are becoming serious safety concerns and many state and local governments have restricted use of cell phones while driving. Eating, drinking, texting, etc. also cause significant driver distraction.

When Recessions Hit

During recessions, population growth rates slow. The outer suburbs tend to be affected more than the inner city and near suburbs.

Local Control of Land Use

Economic elites are concerned with using land for economic growth and development.

Growth as Shared Elite Value

Economic growth and attracting investors to the community require agreement that economic growth produces positive results

Professionalization

Even at the local level, politics is increasingly being seen as a profession. Elective local office is becoming more time consuming and is attracting career politicians in greater numbers

Reform Goals- The objectives of the reform movement were as follows:

Eliminate corruption Nonpartisanship Manager government At-large districts Short ballot Strong executive Merit system Home rule

Exactions and Impact Fees

Exaction is "a fee that pays local government's costs in connection with new development. This charge can come in the form of money or land given to local government in exchange for approval of land-use plans." Impact fees are "fees required from developers by local governments in exchange for approval of plans, presumably compensating for the increased governmental costs created by the new development."

The Civic Associations

In local politics, an organization of citizens that works to further its own view of the best interest of the community

Federal Highway Money

Federal gasoline taxes have been "earmarked" for maintenance of the federal highway system as the responsibility of Congress. The federal gas tax (currently 18.4 cents per gallon) does not cover the full cost of maintaining the highways, and so the burden also falls to the states.

Economics of Development

Government redevelopment is most economically successful when they have private developers invest in land and develop new housing or commercial/industrial use. Community development corporations (CDCs), "organizations incorporated to provide programs, offer services, and engage in other activities that promote and support a community," have taken on the responsibility of urban development.

The Case for Subsidies

Government subsidies for mass transportation programs are considered more cost-effective than maintaining the existing roads and highways. Only a small share of the operating costs of public transit is covered by fares.

Disaster-Proofing" Disaster-Prone Areas-

Housing advocacy groups call for a proactive approach to dealing with natural disasters. They seek stronger residential building codes, tax incentives for builders to construct disaster-resistant homes, and rebates to homeowners who make home improvements that reduce their risk.

The Pluralist Model

In community politics, the theory that power is widely dispersed with different leaders in different issue areas responding to the wishes of various interest groups as well as voters

Selecting Mayors

In every city governmental system, except that of strong mayor, mayors are usually selected by the council, although some are elected, and perform mostly ceremonial functions. In strong mayor systems, the mayor is elected and has more significant powers. Two to four year terms are the most common in American cities.

Administrative Powers

In weak-mayor systems, the council has the power of appointment and removal and mayors have little control over independently elected and appointed members in charge of running their individual operations.

NEW CONNECTIONS WITH CITIZENS

Interactive websites Social networks Keypad polling at town hall meetings and forums Citywide "wireless" zones or wi-fi "hot spots" Government access cable television stations Appearances by local officials on television and radio shows Kiosks at malls Better use of diverse communication skills Citizen satisfaction surveys Annual performance reports mailed to each household Citizen academies Active volunteer recruitment programs

Environmental and "Growth-Management" Groups

Interest groups that are generally opposed to community growth, highway construction, street widening, tree cutting, increased traffic, noise and pollution, and commercial or industrial development."

Elites Striving for Consensus

It is this common idea that economic growth is a boon to the entire community as a whole that economic elites adhere to.

Growth as Good Politics

Keeping the economic engine of a community alive is seen as a benefit to the community and in line with local politicians' "sense of community responsibility

Comprehensive Planning-

Local government involvement in determining community goals not only in land use and physical development, but also in population growth, health and safety, transportation, the environment, and other areas

Environmental Regulations

Local governments have developed ways to address environmental concerns, including environmental impact statements, "assessments of the environmental consequences of proposed construction or land-use change."

The Causes of Sprawl

Many Americans prefer to live in the suburbs. Many industries and businesses have relocated in the suburbs as well. Urban areas are experiencing changes by attracting upper-class residents and trendy shops and restaurants to the cities through the process of gentrification.

Ethnic and Racial Diversity

Many immigrants have arrived in the U.S. and settled in metropolitan areas and thus there is great ethnic and racial diversity.

Highway Politics

Many interests (e.g., the auto and oil industries, the public, and road builders) are involved in funding and maintenance of highway transportation policy

Campaign Contributors

Many local elections, particularly in more populous urban areas, are very costly and money plays a larger role in a campaign. Much of these donations come from business interests who seek to influence future (or current) policy makers.

Friends at City Hall

Many local officials are first appointed to their term on the city council upon a vacancy, and these appointees are often friends of those in power. Voluntary retirement is the most common exit from community politics.

The Mass Transportation Movement

Mass transportation is seen as the answer to many environmental problems and as a means to stop suburban sprawl.

Limited Powers

Mayors often have limited formal powers at their disposal. Most agencies operate outside their purview. Mayors may also have limited ability to appoint and remove agency officials. Mayors are also restricted in their use of public funds and choice of who fills the bureaucracy.

Heterogeneity

Metropolitan areas are extremely diverse with people who differ in economic, educational, and occupational characteristics.

Metropolitan Transportation

Metropolitan areas have mass transportation systems, most of which drain money from the local government because many Americans still prefer their personal automobiles (only about 5 percent of commuters use buses or trains).

Minority Mayors

Minorities have had increased success in winning the mayor's office, particularly in big cities with larger populations of minorities. Cities are now racially pluralist and tend to focus on creating electoral coalitions.

Minorities on Councils

Minorities who run for city councils have been most successful in larger urban areas. Blacks have increased their proportion on city councils, while Hispanics remain underrepresented.

Opposition to Planning

Most critics contend that individual property owners make better decisions about land use than government bureaucrats. Marketplace prices signal the most appropriate use of land. Imposition of permit requirements adds to the cost of housing, thus putting home ownership beyond the reach of many

Environmental Politics

Most of the costs of environmental regulations are passed on to consumers. Politically speaking, the environmental movement is seen as a white phenomenon, "the perception that the environmental movement is a higher priority for whites than for racial minorities."

why do people run for office?

Most people run for political office, including local office, because of political ambition, although most will say they run out of a sense of civic duty.

Satisfaction?

Most people, even lower-income people living in substandard housing, say they are satisfied with their neighborhoods, which supports the model.

lower voter turnout is expected with

Nonpartisan electoral systems A council-manager form of government Elections held separately from state/national elections Small or middle-sized cities No hot issue on the ballot

Influence

Numerous groups have the opportunity to influence the governmental process under a fragmented system

Schools

One of the most important reasons why suburbanites support fragmented government is the maintenance of the local schools and preventing the possibility of busing children to the inner-city schools.

higher voter turnout is expected with

Partisan elections with competitive parties Strong mayor form of government Elections held concurrently with state/national elections Hot issue on the ballot

Power in "Middletown

Pioneering study by Robert and Helen Lynd in the 1920s and 1930s in Muncie, Indiana. It provided evidence of a monolithic power structure. Floyd Hunter's Community Power Structure, a study of Atlanta, Georgia, found several tiers of community influentials, with business leaders dominating the top tier

PUDs-

Planned urban development (PUD) is defined as "special ordinances, usually negotiated among developers and city officials that approve a mixed use- residential, commercial, and/or industrial- development plan

Real Estate Developers

Planning and zoning issues are of vital interest to the real estate community.

PARTIES IN BIG-CITY POLITICS

Political parties are still relevant in major urban areas. Party identification patterns of the various ethnic groups in cities are diverse and do not always coincide with policy positions, however. Even within each group, there are differences of opinion.

Why Run for City Council?

Politicos- "Those who run because they enjoy politics and hope to move on to another office." Self-regarders- "Those who enter city politics intent on personal enrichment." Community-regarders- "Those who run for office to serve the whole community and seek no personal gain." Locals- "Citizens who run primarily to help friends and neighbors, not parties (partisans) or single-issue interest groups". Particularists- "Those who run because of an overriding concern for a specific issue or issues; they tend to be outsiders- minorities or members of groups long underrepresented in government- and one-termers."

Water Pollution

Primary (utilizing screens and settling chambers), secondary (removing organic wastes), and tertiary (chemical filtration) sewage treatments are used to filter water pollution

A New High-Speed Rail System?

Proposed by the Obama Administration to "foster more livable communities connected by safe, efficient modes of travel", $8 billion was initially budgeted for this project. Debate continues over where to build first.

The Twenty-One-Year-Old Drinking Age

Raising the legal drinking age is another example of the federal government's assumption of power in areas once designated to the states. While states remain free to set their own minimum drinking age, should they lower it below the federally approved 21-year-old limit, they face the withholding of 10 percent of their federal highway funds for noncompliance

Social Bases of Reform

Reform came from the white, upper-class echelons of society, particularly because machines consisted of ethnic working and lower-class citizens. Through reform, the elite sought to recapture control of local government.

The Unintended Consequences of Growth Restrictions-

Restricting land use changes inflates the prices of existing homes thereby limiting the amount of affordable housing.

Power in New Haven

Robert Dahl's Who governs? was a classic study of decision making and evidence of the pluralist model of community power. Dahl found a dispersed system of community power in New Haven, Connecticut

Greening of the States and Cities

Since the establishment of the EPA, the federal government assumed responsibility for environmental protection but all levels of government have taken measures to clean up the environment and continue to pursue "green" policies that help the environment.

Who Solves Community Problems Best?

Solutions come from a variety of sources including organizations, individuals, and government itself.

Managers as Administrators

Some city managers, and city councils, still regard city managers as administrative managers, "city managers who restrict themselves to the supervision of the municipal bureaucracy and avoid innovative policy recommendations, particularly in controversial areas."

How Council Members View Managers

Some elected officials prefer to keep their policy making function intact and do not easily cede power to a city manager. Others prefer that the manager take the lead in initiating concerns that the council will react to. It is a difficult balancing act in some cases for the city manager to have a dual role and have good relations with the council in charge of hiring or firing him/her.

Republican Big-City Resurgence?

Splits among Democrats over huge deficits, violent crime, and racial/ethnic conflicts have opened up opportunities for Republicans who have been successful in getting mayors elected in large urban areas. It is not clear whether these inroads are temporary responses to voter frustration or a more permanent resurgence.

Infrastructure Investment and Economic Growth-

State and local governments are spending less on building and maintaining the infrastructure although both are seen as key to economic development. Accounting for 20 percent of total state and local spending in 1960, by 2006 such spending had dropped to about 5 percent.

State Gasoline Taxes

State gas taxes are used almost exclusively for highway costs, and cover two-thirds of total highway expenses, but debates continue in state houses over these policies.

Subdivision Control

Subdivision regulations are "regulations governing the dividing of land areas into lots."

Costs of Government

Suburban areas do not have as high operating costs per capita as big cities

Parties

Suburban areas tend more towards Republicans while big cities tend towards Democrats

Taxes

Suburban areas tend to have slightly lower taxes than the big cities though their education costs are higher

Poverty

Suburban areas typically have higher income populations, while cities have low income, low-education, unskilled populations and therefore have high poverty rates

Identity

Suburbanites prefer to keep their sense of community identity they say will be lost under consolidation.

There are two basic models of community power that discuss who holds power in making these decisions.

The Elite Model The Pluralist Model

Air Pollution

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through the Clean Air Act of 1970, has limited some air pollutants and improved air quality.

Ethics

The Never-Ending Battle to Combat Corruption- Public or political corruption exists "when government officials use their public office or position for personal gain or benefit." When it occurs, it reduces citizens' trust and has resulted in more attention to public service ethics, ethics training, and ethics codes and commissions.

Auto Safety

The auto industry has made vast improvements in safety (for example, the introduction of air bags), reducing the overall percentage of fatalities from traffic accidents

Cars, Cars, and More Cars

The automobile has had the most significant effect on transportation policy (and American life)

Politics and Development

The concept of redevelopment has been more politically popular than public housing initiatives. Mayors, businesses, planners, the press and good government forces all support urban renewal

Equality

The elimination of inequalities in financial burdens is a goal of the consolidation movement. Suburbanites add to urban traffic congestion and use various city services yet pay no taxes to the municipality.

Speed Limits-

The federal government assumed much authority over the institution of a national speed limit by enticing states with federal money. A controversial national speed limit of 55 was enacted by Congress in 1974 but rescinded in 1995.

The Interstate System

The federal government has control over the interstate system through congressional acts first establishing the interstate highway system and through the U.S. Department of Transportation.

Early Federal Aid

The federal government has exerted considerable authority over highway policies through federal monies to states. In exchange for funds, the federal government instituted mandatory standards.

Federal Mass Transit Aid

The federal government has pumped millions of dollars into mass transit systems in many major metropolitan areas. These have been very costly endeavors, since the fares charged do not cover operating expenses, let alone construction costs.

Accountability- The difficulty in assessing accountability at the local level is associated with:

The frequency of appointment to elected office The effective constituency is very small Limited contact with citizens The infrequency of electoral defeat The frequency of voluntary retirement from elected office

City-County Consolidation-

The merger of a county and a city government into a single jurisdiction.

Professionalism

The occupation as city manager has become professionalized. Most have graduate degrees in public administration. The turnover rate of the position can be significant because the city manager serves at the pleasure of the council.

Social Class-

The occupation, income, and educational levels of a population.

Official Map

The official map shows proposed, as well as existing, streets, water mains, public utilities, and the like."

City planning-

The original term for local government's role in determining the location of street and other public facilities

Developing Political Support for Planning

These comprehensive plans, officially considered advisory, usually need final approval from a city commission before they become law.

The Highway Lobby

These groups have been successful in "the creation of separate highway boards and commissions" and also through "the establishment of separate highway trust funds to receive gasoline tax revenues 'earmarked' for highway construction and maintenance."

Some Political Elites Opposed to Growth

These new political elites have taken a different policy stand on growth and lament the problems that have become associated with growth.

Solid Waste Disposal

The three ways governments have of disposing of solid waste are through landfills, incineration, and recycling.

Interdependence

The urban and suburban areas are interconnected socially and economically.

Conflict over Sprawl-

There are various groups, including environmentalists and smart growth advocates, concerned about how to deal with sprawl. They see "compactness" as synonymous with efficiency. Evidence for this view is scanty and city governments actually tax and spend more than suburbs. Only education costs are higher in the suburbs.

Is Bad News Coverage the Problem?

There is an ongoing debate as to whether inner city news coverage unduly reinforces the negative stereotypes of cities or whether coverage is necessary to spur improvements.

Developer Agreements

These are agreements between local governments and developers giving the municipality some control over the final plan details.

Designing "Livable" Communities-

This concept of "new urbanism" is "a design-oriented approach to planning in which neighborhoods enable all inhabitants to lead healthy and independent lives."

The Urban Sustainability Movement-

This movement is identified as "the imperative to create more sustainable [enduring] communities." The focus is on alternative sources of energy, improved building codes, more mixed-use land, more open space and environmental improvements. Such communities would attract a "creative class", those working in knowledge-intensive industries.

Identifying Suburban Sprawl- Sprawl may be identified by the following:

Unlimited outward extension of new development Low-density residential and commercial settlements Leapfrog development jumping out beyond established settlements Fragmentation of powers over land use among many small localities Dominance of transportation by private automobiles Widespread development of commercial strips Great fiscal disparities among localities Reliance mainly on trickle-down to provide housing to low-income households

Interjurisdictional Agreements

Voluntary contracts among local governments in a metropolitan area to perform services jointly or on behalf of each other."

Volunteering as Civic Participation

Volunteering in civic activities, including at soup kitchens, and domestic violence shelters, has been increasing in recent years.

Voters in Local Elections

Voter turnout in local elections is generally low; turnouts of 25-35 percent are typical. Most of these elections are nonpartisan and group identities tend to be more important voting cues. Issues are based on areas close to the people. The timing of these local elections varies from most general elections and further reduces turnout. In addition, media coverage is far less extensive than for national elections.

Toxic Waste

Waste that is a significant threat to public health or the environment is addressed by the Superfund Laws, "laws that regulate the clean-up of toxic waste. The EPA has developed a National Priority List of toxic waste sites that need to be cleaned up."

"Takings"

When Cities Go Too Far- The U.S. Supreme Court has held that private property owners cannot be denied "all economically beneficial use of land" and when land is taken, there must be just compensation

Political Power

While mayoral authority is often fragmented, mayors can increase their power through leadership and personal attributes. Most have authority and influence as the promoters of public policy.

Governance versus Government Structure

While the debate continues over whether a change in governmental structure or a change in governance will bring solutions to metropolitan problems, urban scholars have indicated there is no hard evidence that the consolidated approach is better.

Race

While this is changing, suburban areas tend to be more white while cities have a greater concentration of minorities.

Access-

With fragmented governments, there are additional access points to redress grievances.

Effectiveness-

With smaller governments, people feel a more personal effectiveness in public affairs.

Suburbanization

With the advancements in transportation, suburbs grew tremendously over the last century. People did not have to live close to their place of employment. This has led to what some deem job sprawl, "the decentralization over time of people, businesses, and industry that spread themselves over the suburban landscape.

Women in Local Politics

Women have been successful in winning city and county commission and school board seats, and occupy nearly 20 percent of mayors' offices in cities with populations over 30,000. Female candidates have not been disadvantaged compared to male candidates in winning elections or raising money. Hispanic females have still lagged behind whites and blacks. Women have placed a higher priority on social issues.

Zoning

Zoning ordinances are "local government ordinances that divide communities into various residential, commercial, and industrial zones, and that require landowners to use their land in conformity with the regulations for the zone in which it is located." A zoning variance is a request for an exception to the rule for a specific property.

A micropolitan statistical area is

a smaller urban area of 10,000-50,000 people with adjacent territory that has a high degree of social and economic interconnectedness with the urban core

A political machine

a tightly disciplined political organization, historically centered in big cities, which traded patronage jobs, public contracts, services, and favors for votes. A machine held power by offering services in exchange for votes.

Local governments have control over

finite amount of land within their jurisdiction. This use of land is heavily debated in communities

Many suburbanites actually prefer

fragmented governments

Political elites, career-oriented politicians

have replaced the economic elites and pursue different policy priorities in office.

A communitarian view

praises the many values of direct citizen participation in community affairs, not just by voting, but perhaps more importantly, by participating in groups and forums, working with neighbors to solve the problems of the community

The size of city councils

range from five to seven members (or much larger in major urban areas) with four-year terms the most common although some council members are elected for two- or three- year terms.

Transportation policy involves

the use of land and is necessary to the economy of a community.