Stevens Final Exam
Who was meant to be Alexander's heir?
"the strongest"; all of the generals interpreted this to mean them
mos maiorum
"the ways of our ancestors; qualities that Romans were always striving for- frugal industry, toil, and courage, etc; about tradition and following what their ancestors did
Athena Promachos
'Athena the Champion'; an enormous statue of Athena located in the Parthenon; it was completely destroyed
Chang'an
'Everlasting Peace'; the new capital built by Liu Bang at the beginning of the Han Dynasty
Hippocrates
'Father of Medicine'; a physician who taught at a school on Cos; made progress through careful observation but also came up with many false theories
Magna Graecia
'Greater Greece'; the colonized area of southern Italy and Sicily that had great Greek influence
Tarquinius Superbus
'Tarquin the Proud'; Rome's last king; Etruscan; considered himself above the law; father of Sextus Tarquin; overthrown by Brutus and aristocratic Romans
contrapposto pose
'counterpoise'; a style of statue that showed movement using angled hips, bent knees, and the s-curve; showed relaxation
orchestra
'dancing place'; the circular area in the middle of Greek theaters where the chorus danced and sang
deux ex machina
'god from the machine'; a term in drama for awkward, unconvincing ways that playwrights abruptly tied up a complicated plot (often with divine intervention)
andron
'man room'; one of the 2 main rooms in Greek houses; used by men for symposia
krypteia
'period of hiding'; a test for young Spartan men involving hiding alone in the countryside for a couple weeks and killing helots while surviving on their own
Reciprocity
'reverse/easier golden rule'; do not do unto others that which you would not wish done to you
Hieroglyphs
'sacred writings'; the Egyptian written language; mostly political or religious texts written on papyrus or stone; written by scribes trained by priests; follows strict guidelines; consistent for centuries
skene
'scene building'; the structure facing the theatric; used as a background and as a backstage for the actors
SPQR
'senatus populusque Romanus'; the Senate and the Roman People; an abbreviation representing Rome
Peloponnesus
'the island of pelops'; the part of southern mainland Greece that is almost completely separated; where Sparta was located; also separated culturally from the north
theatron
'viewing place'; the place where the audience sat
gynaeceum
'women's quarters'; rooms located in the back of the house where Greek women went to spin, weave, and talk to female guests
Year of Four Emperors
(69 CE) a period of near-anarchy in which Galba, Otho, Vitelius, and Vespasian all marched on Rome with armies
Cleopatra VII
(69-30 BCE); daughter of Ptolemy XII; last Ptolemy; took the Egyptian throne with help from Caesar; ambitious, bold, and talented; ruled Egypt effectively; lover and ally of Mark Antony; committed suicide with him after Octavian defeated them
Eastern Zhou Dynasty
(770-221 BCE) the second half of the Zhou dynasty; a period of time in which the kings had little power and the hegemons gained control; began with King Ping in the new capital at Luoyang
How did Romans borrow from other cultures?
-from the Greeks: their gods, their alphabet, architecture, frescoes, houses, etc (with changes) -from the Etruscans: toga, gladiatorial games, the view of marriage as a partnership
Spring and Autumn Government
1) 200+ tiny states all trying to expand and conquer each other 2) Vulnerable to attack from nomadic invaders 3) Sometimes (5x) the states would unite under a hegemon to lead them through times of military crisis; the hegemon was elected by a council of lords 4) The king was simply a religious figure, with no political or military power
Four Noble Truths
1) All existence is suffering 2) Suffering is caused by wanting things 3) Therefore, if you stop wanting things, you'll stop suffering 4) This can be achieved using the Eightfold path- being right in one's view, behavior, speech, thought, means of making a living, effort, mindfulness, and concentration
2 Parts of Ritual Sacrifice
1) Food was prepared in a religious ceremony (made holy) 2) A feast in which the descendants ate the holy food and shared it with their guests; it was a costly but special process, and meat was often eaten (expensive)
Contents of Fu Hao's Tomb (1200 BCE)
1) ritual bronze vessels, tools, and bells 2) jade ornaments and objects 3) 7000 cowry shells 4) beheaded captives and dead servants (drank poison to follow her in death) 5) stone sculptures and objects 6) bone hairpins
Role of Women in Persia
1) secluded from the rest of the world 2) no freedom of movement from the women's quarters 3) not educated 4) considered inferior 5) not allowed to do any work 6) raised children- boys to 5, girls to marriageable age
Athens's Punishments
1) tear down the Long Walls 2) fleet destroyed except 12 ships 3) council of 30 people (Thirty Tyrants) would govern Athens 4) lost her empire and allies and became a subject-ally of Sparta
How was Spartan decision making different from the other city-states?
Assembly meetings in poleis such as Athens involved long speeches and deliberation, with people trying to convince the crowd and different options being proposed. In Sparta, the apella was simply presented with 2 options from t
Nineveh
Assyria
Persia's provincial system (satrapies)
Assyria
Persian sparabara
Assyria
c. 1100-625 BCE
Assyria
Persian war chariots
Assyria and Egypt
Coming of Age Ceremony for Girls
At 15, girls had their hair pinned up to represent they had become women. They were also given adult names and responsibilities
Coming of Age Ceremony for Boys
At 20, boys had their hair changed to a bun style underneath a cap, signifying they were adult men. They were also given adult names and responsibilities
Why were the Warring States interested in improving agriculture in particular?
Better agriculture meant more efficient farming and more food. This meant more room for specialized workers, namely soldiers, who could be used to get an edge on the other states
What was Darius's message to Alexander while he was in Egypt?
Darius offered everything west of the Euphrates (which Alexander already had) and Darius's daughter in exchange for peace. Alexander, of course, did not accept, and continued to conquer
Diocletian's Economic Edict
Diocletian's edict that placed caps on cries and wages to stop the rise of inflation and make goods more affordable; failed
Common Egyptian Jobs
Farmer, soldier, fishermen, miners, quarrymen, carpenters, stone masons, metalsmith, jewelers, painters, sculptors, potters, glassmakers, merchants, leather workers, barbers, launderers, cloth makers,
Takeaways from Xerxes's Failed Invasion of Greece
Greece- We're great Persia- We're still fine; that's a minor setback
Impact of the Persian Wars
Greece: they saw it as proof that they were superior; the Golden Age began Persia: they lost some soldiers, but the setback was negligible; Xerxes was assassinated
hoplites
Greek citizen-soldiers who bought their own cheap armor and weapons; common foot soldiers who fought in phalanxes
Ionian city-states
Greek city states located on the Aegean coast who were once subjugates of Lydia and were later conquered by Persia; had to pay tribute; very unhappy under Persia but did not unify because of jealousy and sharp class divisions
What were Greek homes made of?
Greek homes were made up sunbaked bricks with a stone foundation and tile roofs. Floors were dirt that sometimes had mosaics. They were simple, with sparse furnishings
What did Caesar do upon returning to Rome?
He cleared the slate for everyone. He didn't attempt proscription lists for those who had been against him. Then, he forced the Senate to make him dictator
How did Augustus show he intended to maintain peace?
He closed the doors to the Temple of Janus, which meant peace in Rome. He built an altar to peace
How did Augustus maintain popularity?
He controlled the grain dole, provided free entertainment (gladiators, animal combat, executions, chariot racing), allowed auxilia to gain citizenship, and built public works
What did Constantine do regarding Christianity?
He converted to Christianity and legalized it. He convened the Council of Nicaea to write the Nicene Creed. He built churches and built a new capital where Christianity could grow. He spent a lot of money on Christianity
How did Pericles increase democratic participation?
He created more government positions for lower-class citizens and more compensation for working these positions
Jerusalem
Israel, Judah
Why did Augustus reduce the size of the military?
It cut costs and reduced the risk of military revolts
What happened to the Han Dynasty after Wang Mang?
It declined slowly but surely. It overextended and the centralized control drastically weakened. Nomadic invaders (the Huns) overthrew the dynasty eventually, and China entered the 6 Dynasties Period
Pompeii
Italian city buried under ash from Mt. Vesuvius's eruption in 79 CE
First Jewish Revolt against Rome
Jewish rebellion in Judea; Vespasian was winning but left, and his son Titus finished the job except for Masada
Who did Pompey and Crassus back for consul?
Julius Caesar
Mentuhotep IV
11th Dynasty; a pharaoh who lived a long time and whose death and succession was a mystery- either he outlived all of his children and simply passed on his throne to his vizier, or he was murdered, overthrown, his children were murdered, etc
Golden House
Nero's luxurious and wasteful palace built in the heart of Rome after the Great Fire; contained gardens ,ponds, waterfalls, a mile walkway, and other luxuries; ridiculous and unnecessary
The Five Good Emperors
Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius
Assyrian Capital
Nineveh; known for its library of clay tablets
Why couldn't any of the lords/kings during the Warring States Period claim the title 'Son of Heaven'?
No one was strong enough to overcome the strength of the other 6 combined, which is what each would face if it tried to claim this title
Carthage
North African trading city; grew from a Phoenician colony into a prosperous empire; dominated the sea and coasts of the Western Mediterranean; rivals with Rome
Jugurtha
Numidian prince who rejected Rome's settlement in Numidia and started massacring Italians
What happened to Caesarian?
Octavian killed him
Octavia
Octavian's sister and wife of Mark Antony; hated Mark Antony after he fell in love with Cleopatra, so she asked Octavian to help her
Bessos
Persian satrap who was frustrated with Darius and killed him; he offered Alexander his head, and Alexander was insulted so he killed him
satraps
Persian-born leaders of satrapies; similar to kings but reported to the Great King; Darius made checks on power to limit their ability to revolt; had no military power
Social Classes in the Old Kingdom
Pharaoh Vizier Top priests and nobles, pharaoh's family, nomarchs Skilled Workers (traders, artisans, shopkeepers, scribes) Farmers and herders Unskilled laborers
Which way were pharaohs facing on temple walls? Which way did gods face?
Pharaohs faced in towards the temple; gods face out to welcome the pharaohs
Advantages and Disadvantages to the Lost-Wax Methods
Pros: 1) No limits to design extravagance/intricacy 2) One of a kind Cons 1) No mold means it requires a skilled artisan and cannot be easily reused 2) Expensive
What were the pros and cons of Liu Bang's reforms?
Pros: The people (especially lower classes) were very happy and relieved Cons: The rate of achievement was drastically slowed
Sekhmet
Protector of divine order; punishes humans who don't honor the gods; shown as a lion-headed woman
Hellenistic Cities
The Greek people and culture were mostly centered in the cities, while the rural areas were a sea of locals and their traditions; for example, cities were filled with theaters, agoras, Greek sculpture, architecture, council buildings, gymnasia etc
What happened in 1453 CE?
The Ottoman Turks defeated the Byzantine Empire/the remains of the Eastern Roman Empire
How did Augustus foster the illusion of the Republic?
The Senate continued to function- overseeing provinces, administering funds, and advising Augustus. However, nothing happened that Augustus didn't approve of. He created the consilium. He didn't claim any special title or call himself a king. He showed respect to the Senate. He used propaganda
Who did the Senate back after Caesar crossed the Rubicon?
The Senate decided to back Pompey, who promptly left Rome to get a bigger army in Greece, followed by anxious Senators
How did the civil war between Sulla and Marius begin?
The Senate gave consul Sulla command of an army to stop Mithridates in Pontus. Marius, feeling threatened, petitioned the pleb assembly to grant him an army, which it did. Sulla, upon hearing about this, turned back his army to intercept Marius, beginning the civil war. However, Marius backed down
How did Tiberius Gracchus die?
The Senators saw Tiberius as a political threat because of the amount of clients he was amassing and the fact that he attempted to run for a second term as tribune, so they spread rumors that he wanted to be a king. Soon, though, they lost patience and mobbed him and killed him with pieces of benches they had broken off with their own hands
What did the Senators decide to do following the assassination of Domitian?
They chose the new emperor Nerva from the Senate to rule, instead of returning to the Republic
Domitian
Vespasian's second son and successor to Titus; ruthless and effective but arrogant and despised the Senate; refused to consult them; used treason trials, informers, and book burnings; assassinated by his wife and guards without a successor; demanded he was called dominus (lord)
Titus
Vespasian's son and successor; ruled for 2 years and best remembered for the Arch of Titus and completion of the Colosseum; ended the Jewish Revolt; the eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred during his reign, as well as another fire; died of illness after 18 months
The Flavians
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian
c. 475-225 BCE
Warring States Period
What was Plato's ideal state?
The philosophers would rule as the Guardians/kings. Social classes would not be based on wealth or gender, but rather intellectual capacity. Underneath the kings were the intellectual aristocrats, then the warriors (Auxiliaries), and then the farmers and craftsmen. Both men or women would be guardians. Jobs were given based on ability. There was also communal marriage and child-bearing
What happened to Athens after Thermopylae?
The people abandoned it to fight a naval battle instead, and Xerxes burned the city to the ground
2nd Intermediate Period
The period of time during which the Hyksos controlled Lower Egypt and the Egyptians controlled Upper Egypt
How did the plague affect Athens?
The plague killed one third of the population, including Pericles
How were playwrights chosen for the City Dionysia competition?
The playwrights each submitted 3 tragedies and 1 accompanying satyr play, and the archon chose the ones that would compete. If they were chosen, they were "granted a chorus," meaning they had a choregos and actors payed for by the city
Tamped-earth method
a method of building walls that involved using wooden slats as the frame and then filling the space with dirt, earth, rock, etc; then, the earth was pushed down with rods until more could be added; the wooden slats were removed when the wall was finished
Piece-Mold Method
a method of crafting bronze first used in the Shang Dynasty; first, a clay model of the final product was made; this was covered with clay, which, when dry, was removed and baked, then reassembled into a mold; molten bronze was poured into the mold, which cooled and was finished
Lost-Wax Method
a method of crafting bronze first used in the Spring and Autumn Period 1) A clay core was built 2) This clay core was covered in a wax version of the final product and then a clay outside 3) Molten bronze was poured over the wax, which rose and melted ('lost') 4) Break off mold
triumph
a military procession after a victory; award by a Senate; a great honor for a general; the only time an army was allowed to enter Rome; a grand spectacle in which the victorious general, his army, captured leaders, and treasures would parade through Rome
Sun Wu
a military strategist chosen for his skill during the (Warring States Period); wrote The Art of War, a book about warfare and strategy still widely used and praised today; known as 'Master Sun' or Sunzi/Sun Tzu; he believed in deception in warfare, knowing the enemy and yourself, knowing when to fight and when not to, being unexpected, breaking the enemy without war, etc; his tactics and leadership led to warfare improving but also death tolls climbing rapidly
Nomarch
a ruler of a nome; appointed during the Old Kingdom, hereditary during the Middle and New; answer to pharaoh and vizier; first existed during the Old Kingdom; amassed wealth and holdings; oversaw collection and redistribution
Shi Huangdi
a ruler of the Qin state during the Warring States Period who unified China; he changed his name to mean 'First Emperor (Majestic God); he standardized Chinese writing, established centralized rule across his empire, standardized measurements and axel-widths for carts; appointed non-family member officials in order to ensure his absolute power; created a uniform law code and uniform coinage (Qin coins); he centralized China by ending feudalism and making transportation/communication efficient; he also connected the Great Wall and fortified it against nomadic groups; he built a massive tomb/mausoleum for himself including a terra cotta army and much more; he completely controlled his children so when he died his dynasty quickly ended
Ying Zheng
a ruler of the Qin state during the Warring States Period; had a ferocious demeanor, appearance, and personality; conquered the states surrounding Qin, including Yan (Prince Dan and Jing Ke); conquered the rest of China and became the first emperor, changing his name to Shi Huangdi
tyrant
a ruler who gained power by force
Natron
a salt found in the desert that contained minerals that helped dry out and preserve the body, as well as get rid of some of the odor; the body was immersed in it for 35 days
Phidias
a sculptor and friend of Pericles that helped build the Parthenon and built the Athena Promachos
Abu Simbel
a second memorial temple for Ramses II; located south, towards Nubia, as a warning and sign of his greatness to Nubians; has 4 massive statues of Ramses carved from a cliff; contained an inner sanctuary with statues of Ramses and 3 gods, with a 'window' that would 2 times a year line up with the sun, shining light directly on the statues (making Ramses a living god)
2nd Triumvirate
a second triple dictatorship made up of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian
Valley of the Kings
a secret hidden valley in Egypt where the pharaohs were buried during the New Kingdom; 63 tombs are there; the kings were later moved to an even more secret hidden cache so their bodies would be safe
vault
a series of arches side by side
Dynasty
a series of rulers from a single family (usually progressed from father to eldest son)
satyr play
a short comic play involving satyrs
Qin Dynasty
a short-lived dynasty (15 years) during which Shi Huangdi accomplished much using legalism but his successor failed and was weak
Cyrus's Tomb
a simple, modest, well-constructed stone tomb
Demotic
a simplified way of writing hieroglyphs
geometric style
a style of pottery that came from the Dark Age and used bands, circles, and patterns to decorate vessels; also used geometric stick people and slowly became more advanced
Gautama
a supposed impostor claiming to be Bardiya; except it could have actually been Bardiya; closely resembled Bardiya; gained support in Persia and took control for 7 months; then killed by Persian nobles for either being a harsh tyrant rapid reformer
Justinian's Law Code
a synopsis of Roman law made by Justinian; either the Institutes (long) or the Digest (short); became important to medieval and, much later, American law
'rule of law'
a system in which the ruler/monarch is held responsible by the law just as the people are
ostracism
a system that allowed voters to vote out any unpopular or too powerful man for 10 years by voting on ostraka
strike action
a tactic used by the plebs to gain political power by refusing to fight in wars when the patricians needed them
Papyrus
a tall reed plant that grows in marshy, wet areas such as the Nile delta; used to make papyrus paper- harvest, split, soak, layer, and dry
glazed brick technique
a technique of firing mud bricks, painting them with glaze, and retiring them; used as decoration in the Near East in lieu of stone or wood; usually had carved dimension; used (for example) by Nebuchadnezzar II for the Ishtar Gate in Babylon
Parthenon
a temple built on the acropolis in 447 BCE; temple to Athena containing Athena Promachos; later blown up and used for different purposes and is now ruin
Karnak
a temple complex which began construction in the Middle Kingdom with Senusret and was majorly added to by most of the New Kingdom pharaohs; Ramses II specifically built a grand hypostyle hall with 134 columns
Luxor
a temple to Amun Ra built by Amenhotep III and added to by Ramses II (avenue of sphinxes, gateways, statues); Ramses also added two grand obelisks to the from made out of red granite that were brought all the way from Aswan and put in place using sand hydraulics
Hegemon
a temporary (though they often lasted much longer) military leader in times of crisis; elected by a council of lords; temporarily united the states
Pharaoh
a term used to title Egyptian kings; comes from Greek form of Egyptian 'Per-Aa', meaning 'great house'; Egyptians themselves used it 17 centuries after Narmer
geocentric theory
a theory developed by Aristotle that places the earth at the center of the universe with the sun and the other planets orbiting it
Treaty of Kadesh
a treaty between the Egyptians and the Hittites that happened a while after the Battle of Kadesh; a nonaggression pact between Egypt and the Hittites; was the start of a decline in power for both nations
Nonaggression Pact
a treaty in which, if one country does not attack, the other will not attack (both agree not to attack each other as long as the nonaggression remains)
Arch of Titus
a triumphal arch decorated with scenes of the defeat of the Jews by Titus
lacquer
a type of plastic used to create durable items for wealthy Chinese; comes from the milky resin from the lac tree that dries stick y and is spread into later after layer in order to shape an object; lightweight, hard, water-resistant; also could be used as a long-lasting paint
Homeric epic poetry
a type of poetry composed during the Dark Age consisting of very long poems that were originally performed by bards; used meter and epithets; written down at the end of the Dark Age by one compiler, but were not composed by one person; showed values of the warlike Mycenaean culture of a previous age (ex. personal honor, legacy, kings, etc)
myriad
a unit of 10,000 Persian soldiers; further divided into decimal units
Aspasia
a very intelligent and successful hetairai and the unofficial wife of Pericles; friends with Socrates; skilled in rhetoric
imago
a very lifelike mask with wax skin and a wig of a dead, famous ancestor; held in a cupboard next to the lararius in wealthy houses; used to impersonate the ancestor in dancing at funerals
Pyrrhic Victory
a victory that is not worth its losses/the toll it costs
Why did the Minoans decline?
a volcanic eruption on nearby Thera caused a tsunami that considerably weakened Crete; this did not destroy the Minoans, but the Mycenaeans took advantage of their weakness and most likely conquered them
Jugurthine War
a war between the Numidian prince Jugurtha and Rome; began with Jugurtha massacring Italians in Africa; Rome won, with Sulla capturing the victory after some frustration
Peloponnesian War
a war fought between Athens and her allies (the Delian League) and Sparta and her allies (the Peloponnesian League between 431 BCE and 404 BCE; ended in a Spartan victory
choregos
a wealthy citizen who undertook the payment for a chorus's training and costumes for the City Dionysia as a liturgy; could win a prize in the competition
Lady Li
a wife the Duke of Xian brought back from his battles with the Rong; wanted her sons on the throne, so she plotted to get Shensheng killed (above), which ended up working; however, after her husband died, she was killed by supporters of her stepsons
Cincinnatus
a wise farmer who took command as a dictator over Rome's forces in 458 BCE; stepped down after defeating the enemy in 2 weeks, returning to be a farmer; the model of what a Roman crisis dictator should be
Deir al-Medina
a worker's village on the mountain that dug and constructed the tombs in the Valley of the Kings; secretive with a hidden location because they knew the locations of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings
Instruction
a written piece of advice from father to son (pharaoh to heir); began in the Middle Kingdom; after Amenemhat was murdered his on Senusret asked his vizier to write what advice his father would have given him; later, they were actually written by the pharaohs
demagogue
an effective and persuasive public speaker; a speaker that impacted voting in the boule and ekklesia; ex. Themistocles; acted with the interest of the city in mind
The Immortals
an elite Persian myriad that was always at full strength; served as the king's guard; covered their faces in combat
Assyria
an empire that conquered everything in the Near East except for Judah under a series of militaristic kings (Babylonia, Northern Kingdom of Israel, Egypt, Phoenicia); known as the 'Land of Ashur' (the king god); ruled by fear and into intimidation; used advanced siege tactics and superior soldiers/weaponry; polyglot society; capital was Nineveh; eventually conquered by the Babylonians and Medes working together
Hittites
an enemy of Egypt during the New Kingdom, first fought by Horamheb; Ramses II made peace with them after the Battle of Kadesh
Li Bing
an engineer for the Qin state who redirected the Min River as a water control project, which allowed a new plain to be farmed and reduced dangerous flooding
signal lights
flames/beacons lit in sentinel towers close together when an attack was coming; needed because the Zhou were often threatened by attackers
urban cohorts
force of 3000 well-armored police created by Augustus; couldn't fully patrol the large city at night
Republic art was more ___________ while Empire art was more ______________
realistic; idealistic
Hieratic Scaling
in art, when relative power is shown with relative size; ex. pharaohs are shown as large while soldiers are small, viziers are medium-sized
Middle Kingdom Burials
in mud brick pyramids that were less expensive and time-consuming than the stone ones; but they fell apart quickly because water dissolved them
Euclid
influential HHellenistic mathematician; wrote 13 books of geometry
What feature from Amarna art remained after the Egyptians reverted back to their traditional style?
intimacy
Hero of Alexandria
inventor and scientist who created the first steam engine and used it to power other small entertaining devices; also worked on military weapons; used the steam engine to design temple doors that opened automatically
praetor
judges who carried imperium and presided over the courts
Odysseus
king of Ithaca; fought in the Trojan War after pretending to be insane to avoid it; came up with the idea for the Trojan Horse; his journey home is detailed in the Iliad
Mithridates IV
king of Pontus who poisoned Roman prisoners, leading to the Senate sending and army against him
Priam
king of Troy; father of Paris and Hector; killed in the Trojan War
Nubia
land south of Egypt; hunter-gatherers with no writing that were not a serious threat to Egypt; ultimately conquered Egypt many, many years later
spear-won lands
lands conquered by the Seleucids; paid tribute
insulae
large apartment buildings that each contained several families; means 'islands'; where the lower class poor of Rome lived
krater
large bowl/basin used for mixing thick wine with water
ballistae
large cross-bow contraption that launched a heavy spear towards phalanxes
basilica
large roofed buildings used for legal matters
sestertius
large token brass coin; 1/4 of a denarius
villa
large, comfortable house for the Roman wealthy; located in the countryside; often centers of small farms; usually large and luxurious
Marcus Aurelius
last Good Emperor; ruling at a time when the cracks in the Empire were becoming clear (barbarians attacking on borders, plague from the East, struggling economy); dealt with this by raising taxes and brining back conscription; educated Stoic philosopher who wrote Meditations; did not adopt a successor- instead left the throne to his own son Commodus
keystone
last stone block inserted at the stop of an arch; held the arch in place
Elagabalus
later Severan emperor from Syria who did some very questionable things
Cynics
members of a philosophical movement founded by Antisthenes in the 4th century BCE; believed happiness came from virtue; believed men and women were equal
red-figure pottery
more advanced and detailed pottery made in the Classical Period; the whole vessel was painted black and then it was scraped off to create red figures
Alps
mountain range in Italy north of Europe
Apennines
mountain range that splits Italy; the mountains go down the length of the peninsula
Cult of Isis
mystery religion centered around the Egyptian goddess Isis; promised its followers immortality; interested Greeks
Isthmus of Corinth
narrow strip of land connecting northern Greece to the Peloponnesus
Improvements in women's status varied based on _________ and ___________ differences
regional; class
Marius's mules
new brand of soldier who carried all his gear himself
How is the Roman army classified?
not standing; not professional
Verres
notorious corrupt provincial governor of Sicily who extorted the province and its goods for 3 years; tried by Cicero
augury
observing birds for divination
Senators
officials appointed for life by the censor; usually paterfamilia; made up Rome's council/Senate; set the foreign policy to ensure continuity; controlled the money, set the budget, and distributed funds; debated and passed resolutions
Didius Julianus
old Senator who won the auction to be emperor for 25,000 sesterces per Praetorian Guard; later assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
Persepolis
one capital of Persia; built by Darius; a massive palace complex was located here, elevated in the mountains; later burned to the ground by Alexander
Fu Hao
one of Wuding's wives; an impressive women as all sources refer to her in some way; possibly a female military commander who led her family into battle; her grave was stocked with luxuries and left intact by robbers (cowry shells, servants and captives, bronze vessels, jade, etc); 3 oracle bones refer to her (her childbirth, possibly leading into battle, and sacrifice for her)
Qin State
one of the 7 Warring states looking for an advantage that would allow it to conquer the others
Lucius Junius Brutus
one of the aristocrats who overthrew Tarquin and established the oligarchic republic; one of the first consuls; ancestor of Marcus Brutus
patron
someone who "adopted" a client and protected them as a member of the family; gaining clients helped patrons gain status; usually a wealthy person
Caracalla
son and successor of Septimius Severus; paid barbarians to leave; in 212 CE granted citizenship to every freeborn inhabitant of the Empire, which devalued it and angered many people; later murdered
Nero
son of Agrippina and successor of Claudius; started out somewhat good but then became frivolous and murderous; tutored by Seneca and Burrus; egotistical emperor for 13 years; preferred musical contests and chariot racing to ruling; had his mother, stepbrother, and wife killed; built the Golden House and blamed the Great Fire on the Christians; committed suicide after the arm revolted
Caesarian
son of Cleopatra and Caesar; killed by Octavian
Constantine
son of Constantius and commander who unseated Maxentius to become emperor; started as one of the tetrarchs but conquered the rest to become sole emperor; first Christian emperor after he converted; established Constantinople; baptized before his death
Hannibal
son of Hamilcar; skilled Carthaginian general and tactician; took Saguntum and crossed the Alps to defeat Rome at Cannae; brilliant general; defeated by Scipio in 202 BCE after destroying the Roman Army
Step Pyramid
the first pyramid tomb; not a true pyramid because the sides were not filled in; made up of several mastabas of decreasing size stacked
Pisistratus
the first tyrant of Athens (560 BCE); restrained and successful with his reforms; allowed councils, helped trade, and fostered the arts; improved the economy; popular with Athenians; his unpopular son was later overthrown
the Subura
poorest and most densely populated section of Rome; located east of the forum; made up of many insulae where many foreigners, Jews, poor freedmen, merchants, and actors lived; dismal, dangerous, and unsanitary
ostraka
pottery shards that voters wrote names on to vote for them to be ostracized
Lepidus
powerful general but the weakest member of the 2nd Triumvirate; Caesar's cavalry commander
Ankh
powerful symbol of eternal life
auger
priest who practices augury
haruspex
priest who practices haruspices
Aeneas
prince of Troy who escaped the city after the Trojan War, sailed west, and established Lavinium, Rome's parent city; immortalized in the Aeneid; ancestor of Romulus and Remus
domus
private house of the wealthy located in the city; open courtyard in the center with the house facing inward to block out city noise; had an impluvium to collect water
allotment
process of random selection (done with allotment machines)
Tiberius Gracchus
quiet and composed plebeian who had high connections (his father was a victorious general and consul and his mother was the daughter of Scipio Africans and mother-in-law of Scipio Aemilianus) and could have been a nobiles; but, he angered the Senators by negotiating a peace treaty with barbarians to save his men from death- the Senate sent the consul in command to the barbarians naked and in chains; he later found support among the soldiers' families and supported the populares; then, he was elected tribune; it is unclear whether his motivation came from a genuine heart or a greed for power; in 133 BCE proposed land reforms through the plebiscites; clubbed to death by offended Senators who ripped apart the benches
What were the main topics of friezes?
races, battles, and processions/parades; all of the people were always headed towards the front door
c. 1050-775 BCE
Western Zhou Dynasty
1046
Western Zhou takes over/end of Shang Dynasty
Isis
Wife of Osiris, queen of the gods, mother of Horus; represents the faithful wife and devoted mother; powerful magician; shown as a woman with a throne on her head
Winners and Losers of the Commercial Revolution
Winners: 1) Merchants and investors who succeeded- they gained profit and became the new business class 2) Artisans whose products were traded and exported (ex. wine, olive oil) Losers: 1) Aristocrats who didn't venture into trade and focused on agriculture (but then bought international products, causing profit to decrease) 2) Merchants and investors who failed (ex. sunken ship)- they became debt slaves
How could the Spartans ultimately win the war?
With help from the Persians, who hated the Athenians more than the Spartans did, Sparta could defeat Athens at sea and break the naval barrier
magi
Zoroastrian priests who practiced orthodox Zoroastrianism; used rituals of dreams, astrology, and magic; believed some animals were 'good' and some were 'bad'; left their dead outside to be scavenged
False Door
a 'door' (painting) on the wall inside a mastabas that allowed the ka/spirit to enter and eat offerings
Nomes
a 'province' composed of a cluster of villages and their shared farmland; small and close together; ruled by a nomarch; Egypt had 42
Cartouches
a 'sacred rope of protection' surrounding a name to protect it, because names and writing have power
Pliny's Natural History
a 37-volume compilation of scientific anecdotes written by Pliny the Elder; extremely well-organized but not always factual; about nature's wonders
Justinian
a 6th century eastern Empire who wanted to reunified Rome and was able to conquer 3/4 of the old Empire; studied law and compiled it into Justinian's Law Code; died in 565 CE
Feudal System
the government/social system used by the Shang and Western Zhou; the king gave estates to his family members and they had peasants farm the land
Trajan's Market
the greatest, largest forum in Rome; created by Trajan and built by Apollodorus; had libraries, temples, markets, etc; impressed all those who came to Rome
atrium
the hall/main living area of Roman houses; living room; open to the sky; foyer/front room
Augustus (tetrarchy)
the head emperor (there were 2)
acropolis
the hill that was the center of the city; where temples and important buildings were located; used to defend the city
Democratization of the Afterlife
the idea that came about in the Middle Kingdom that everyone could have a chance to go to the afterlife, not just the pharaoh and his elite
cosmopolitanism
the idea that the whole world is your city-state, so you could belong anywhere; different from classical Greece, where the identity came from the polis
Commercial Revolution
the transformation of the Greek economy with the revival of international trade; led to the creation of the new middle class- 'the new rich'
Nile Delta
the triangular portion at the top of the Nile where the river splits into tributaries and then into the Mediterranean; swampy, marshy land with a high population density because of the extra farming and irrigation
septuagint
translation of the Torah into Greek; definitive version because 70 scholars translated it all identically; commanded by Ptolemy II due to a large Jewish population in Alexandria, some of whom couldn't read Hebrew
Trial of Roscius
trial of Roscius, accused of killing his father; prosecuted by an associate of soldier and defended by Cicero; Cicero won, angering Sulla
Trial of Verres
trial of Verres, a corrupt provincial governor of Sicily who extorted money; tried by Cicero , who defeated the greatest orator of al time
pediment
triangular section above the frieze on the front and back of temples; 'shelf' with statues
Gauls
tribe of people from Western Europe (France_ who defeated the Roman army and sacked Rome but eventually left in return for 450kg of gold
the Latins
tribes of people living in Latium; originally lived in small, poor communities; were ruled by Etruscan kings along with the Romans
Carving something in stone makes it ________________.
true (this is significant because pharaohs can attempt to change history with this)
aqueducts
tall stone pipes/waterways that carried water to Rome across the countryside; moved at a slight downward slope and were dug through mountains or built over valleys
Obelisks
tall structures carved each from a single block of stone; always in pairs; they were located on either side on of the doors to the temple, representing the worship of the sun because the sun rose between them; later stolen by Europeans and Americans (ex. Washington Monument)
publicani
tax collectors; employees of financial companies that taxed the provinces
Capitolium
temple of Jupiter located on the top of Capitoline Hill; beautiful sacred temple erected by an Etruscan king; final version was made of white marble and contained statues of the Capitoline Triad; symbol of the Roman spirit
Pantheon
temple to all the gods; a concrete dome
What did Sparta give up in exchange for Persian help?
the Ionian city-states on the Persian coast
Israelites
the Jews who fought the Philistines for Israel/Palestine until under King David (c. 1000 BCE) the took it and established the nation of Israel
zealots
the Jews who revolted against Rome
KV 5
the tomb of Ramses's many sons
KV 17
the tomb of Seti I; the most elaborate and well-preserved (the 'best') of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings; has a long, descending passageway at the back of it, possibly trying to connect to the Nile?; has a large pit in the entrance used to catch water and protect the burial chamber; contained passageways representing the journey to the afterlife, with odors representing hours of the night; decorative art all over
agora
the town center used for markets, political assemblies, and ceremonies; surrounded by government buildings, temples, and stoai
Why did Socrates dislike sophists?
He thought they didn't care about Athens because they didn't prioritize truth, justice, and wisdom. He also believed the common people were not wise enough to make decisions because they were easily manipulated by sophistry
How did Shi Huangdi stop the other states and rulers from revolting?
He took the leaders of the defeated states to his capital and kept them all in a fancy house together. This way, the people would never revolt to save them and they were too busy with petty problems to plot against him
How did the Confucian historians portray Liu Bang's virtue (and therefore right to rule)?
He treated the captured capital respectfully and did not allow burning or pillaging. Xiang Yu, on the other hand, burned, sacked, and destroyed the city
How did Eratosthenes calculate the circumference of the earth?
He used the known distance between two cities and the angel of the sun (7°) to create a proportion with 360° to find the distance around the earth
Why was Liu Bang's ascent to the throne surprising?
He was a peasant bandit, and no one from the lower classes had ever won the throne like he did.
Why did Cleisthenes need to create the tribes?
He was afraid that if he simply allowed people to vote without creating tribes, they would simply follow the lead of their local aristocratic oligarchs. So he created an alternate allegiance, which he hoped would eventually lead to people making decisions and thinking for themselves
What did Caesar do in Egypt?
He was angered by Ptolemy's gift of Pompey's head. Then, Cleopatra presented herself to him in a large carpet. She seduced him, and he joined her side in the civil war. Together, they crushed Ptolemy in the civil war and put Cleopatra on the throne. They had a child (Caesarian) and both returned to Rome.
How did Sulla and Marius's rivalry begin?
Sulla captured Jugurtha in the Jugurthine War, even though Marius had been leading the army to victory the whole time. And, Sulla further taunted this insult by wearing a ring commemorating the victory
Cinna
Sulla's weak-willed co-consul; controlled by Marius
Djed Pillar
Symbol of stability and peace; symbolically Osiris's backbone
Crook and Flail
Symbols showing the pharaoh's authority; the crook is used to guide and protect and the flail is used for punishment
Corinthian
a style of column that had leafy capitals and an undecorated frieze
civil service exams
exams instated by Emperor Wudi that tested students at the bureaucracy school on history, philosophy, literature, and manners; very difficult (1 in 3000 passed); the top scoring people could gain government positions because of their merit
Barter
exchanging of goods and services without currency
palaestrae
exercise courts located along the thermae block
greaves
expensive bronze shin guards sometimes worn by hoplites
mercenaries
expensive hired soldiers; often foreign; better trained, but costly and not always loyal
In Confucianism, your obligations radiate outward, starting with your _____________ and ending with ____________.
family, (friends), society
Government in Fars
feudal, with spearlands and bowlands; provided troops based on what their land was called
quaestor
financial officials who oversaw spending of money; must have been this to be a Senator; there were many, and each oversaw a specific area (ex. one army, one neighborhood); they spent the Senate's allotted money; if they overspent the budget, they had to pay the extra themselves
Ptolemy I
first Ptolemaic king/pharaoh; built the Library of Alexandria with his son Ptolemy II
latifundia
huge, industrial farms of the wealthy; worked with slave labor
At the end of the Shang Dynasty (last 250 years), the rulers made more than 13,000 _________________.
human sacrifices
Knossos
the Minoan palace where King Minos lived
Linear B
the Mycenaean Language; based on Linear A; deciphered today
Hellenistic
"Greek-like"; "Greek plus"; combination of Greek/Macedonian culture and local/regional tradition; varied by area
Pax Romana
"Roman Peace"; 200 years of relative peace for Rome, beginning with Augustus
Constantinople
"city of Constantine"; Constantine's new Roman capital located in the east on the Bosporus Strait where Byzantium had been; dedicated to the Holy Trinity and Virgin Mary; moved to the East for a better economy, proximity to military issues, and distance from traditional Roman religion
pater patriae
"father of his country"; heartfelt title given to Augustus; showed the respect, love, and duty the Romans felt for him; supposedly his highest ambition
princeps
"first citizen"; Augustus's unofficial, modest, and chosen title
Danube River
"natural" boundary of the Empire to the north according to Augustus
novus homo
"new man"; the first person in a family to hold an elected position; not a nobiles (ex. Marius)
mare nostrum
"our sea"; Roman name for the Mediterranean
1st Triumvirate
"rule of 3"/triple dictatorship; devastatingly powerful political alliance of Julius Caesar, Marcus Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompey
Hyksos
"shepherd kings"; foreigners who settled in Egypt from the eastern Mediterranean; they were originally accepted and their soldiers were added to the Egyptian military because of their superior technology; eventually, they realized they could take over and did, causing the 2nd Intermediate Period and ruling over Lower Egypt for a few dynasties
Quintus Fabius Maximus
"the Delayer"; Roman general and politician; war hero; dictator; saved Rome during the Second Punic War; carried out the Senate's instructions to gain time to regroup against Carthage; delayed Hannibal
Strato
"the Physicist"; scientist who studied at the Lyceum and tutored the crown prince of the Ptolemies; later managed the Lyceum and began the Museum; wrote 40+ works; believed that atoms and voids existed and that all objects have weight; wrote about acceleration
koine
"the common tongue"; easy, colloquial Greek spoken across the Hellenistic kingdoms
Ammit
"the devourer of souls"; made up of a hippo, crocodile, and lion
Mentuhotep II
(11th Dynasty); pharaoh from Thebes who reunited Egypt after the 1st Intermediate Period; focused on trying to retain pharaoh because hew knew chaos could happen; compromised with nomarchs by allowing them to be hereditary; told people he ruled with forgiveness and justice, portrayed himself as caring/close
Senusret I
(12th Dynasty); son of Amenemhat I; built the beginning (a tiny building) of the temple complex at Karnak
What happened in the 3rd Punic War?
(146 BCE) Roman soldiers razed Carthage and sowed salt in the ground. 50,000 Carthaginians were enslaved, and Carthage became a Roman province.
Shang Dynasty
(1500-1046 BCE) the first Chinese dynasty proven to have existed; a Yellow River valley civilization that developed the first Chinese writing, built walled cities, carved jade, made bronze and silk, and used irrigation; a dynasty made up of hereditary male rulers from the Zi clan; consulted oracle bones and believed the royal ancestors were important and controlled life in China; sacrificed (including humans) to these ancestors; capital was Anyang
Amenhotep III
(18th Dynasty); a pharaoh who ruled during a time of great peace; he made peace with the Mitanni by marrying a Mitanni priestess; instead of conquest, he turned to building, expanding Karnak and building Luxor to Amun Ra; he also ran an efficient bureaucracy by dividing the government into departments, creating specialization and expertise in the government
Hatshepsut
(18th Dynasty); female regent to Thutmose III; wife and half sister of Thutmose II; held on to power and ruled basically as a pharaoh for 20 years; didn't want to seem less than the male pharaohs, so she portrayed herself as male in art; did not focus on conquest or expansion, but turned to trade because sending her army away could mean overthrow from Thutmose III; sent a trade expedition to Punt for exotic goods down the Red Sea; added to Karnak and built herself a large mortuary temple (deir el-Bahari); her successor attempted to erase her from history
Horamheb
(18th Dynasty); the successor to Ay; a military general and traditionalist who was ashamed of the rulers Egypt had had, so he declared that he was the rightful successor to Amenhotep III, a blatant lie, but people went along with it because they hope it would restore ma'at; he reverted to traditional ways by returning to worship of the traditional gods and reopening the temples, erasing the names of Akhenaten, Tut, Smenkhare, and Ay from lists, monuments, temples, etc, and turning back to imperialism and conquest, but with a new enemy, the Hittites
Seti I
(19th Dynasty); son of Ramses I; an ambitious young pharaoh who wanted to conquer; he captured key port cities in the eastern Mediterranean, but failed to get the Hittites out of that region; he claimed to be successful in all of his military ventures with extensive propaganda, but most of this seems to be untrue
Ramses II
(19th Dynasty); son of Seti I; Egypt's most prolific and impressive pharaoh, in building and military; battled the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh to a draw after a mistake on his part pushed them to the brink of loss; his army was strong and made up of four divisions with divine patrons; he rallied his troops to fight the Hittites until they ceased fighting and a temporary peace was established; built KV 5, KV 7, Pi-Ramesse, Ramesseum, Abu Simbel, added to Karnak and Luxor (hypostyle hall and sphinxes); lived for a very long time and was the last great pharaoh of Egypt; thought to be the pharaoh during the Exodus (note for this, Kent Weeks has begun excavating KV 5, the tomb of Ramses's sons, and only one mummy has been found, near the entrance, which may line up with the Bible story about Moses and the 10 plagues)
Battle of Zama
(200 BCE); battle between Scipio and Hannibal in Africa; Roman victory
Ramses III
(20th Dynasty); the last great/strong pharaoh of the New Kingdom; pushed the Sea Peoples out of Egypt, although Egypt was weakened by this and would never recover
What happened in the 2nd Punic War?
(218-201 BCE) Carthage took lands in Spain, so Rome took an area of Spain to compensate. Then, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps to get to Rome with war elephants. Rome terribly lost the Battle of Cannae, but Hannibal couldn't actually take Rome. Rome took cities in Spain and drove Carthage out. Then, Scipio invaded Carthage to draw Hannibal back home. Rome won at the Battle of Zama. Afterwards, Spain was a Roman province, and Rome was the dominant power in the western Mediterranean.
6 Dynasties Period
(220-589 CE) a period of time during which China was in disarray and political chaos; Buddhism flourished
Eratosthenes
(230 BCE) Alexandrian astronomer who calculated the circumference of the earth to within 200 miles; realized you could sail west from Spain and reach India
Aristarchus
(250 BCE); Hellenistic astronomer; tried to estimate the relative masses of the earth, moon, and sun; came up with the first heliocentric view of the universe and the idea that the earth rotates on its own axis; his ideas were rejected because Aristotle had posited the geocentric view
What happened in the 1st Punic War?
(264-241 BCE) Rome and Carthage started to fight over Sicily. Carthage was winning at first due to their superior navy, but Rome copied a Carthaginian ship and defeated Carthage. Afterwards, Sicily became a Roman province and Carthage paid a fine.
Principate
(27 BCE- 284 BCE) the first half of the Roman Emperor; when emperors at least pretended to honor the institutions of the Republic; followed by the Dominate, beginning with Diocletian
Battle of Actium
(31 BCE) a massive sea battle between Octavian and Mark Antony; involved 2 Roman fleets and Cleopatra's fleet; Cleopatra sailed away though, and Mark Antony was defeated and fled; the end of Rome's civil wars
Han Feizi
(3rd century BCE);an Qin official who supported and advocated for Legalism (not its founder)
Battle of Marathon
(490 BCE); a battle in the Persian wars; a complete Greek victory with the hoplites and phalanxes; the Persians fled
Great Fire
(64 CE) destructive fire that destroyed 2/3 of Rome; began in a racing stadium,; continued for 9 days and destroyed all but 4 districts; afterwards, Nero rebuilt but people still claimed he started it; he blamed the Christians for the fire
Spring and Autumn Period
(770-481 BCE) the first half of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty; called the Spring and Autumn Period because the most famous history written during this period is titled using the seasons and the historian wrote about events based on the season during which they occurred; during this period, China was split into 200+ tiny states all trying to expand and conquer each other but all failing
the Italian War
(90 BCE) revolution of Rome's Italian allies; they established their own capital and coins; Rome's allies were winning; the war ended when Rome granted citizenship to all free, male Italians- except they were all placed in one tribe, so they had little power; Sulla won an important battle in this war
Battle of Pharsalus
(August 9, 48) battle in east-central Greece between Caesar and Pompey; victory by Caesar because he hid his cavalry and outflanked the unprepared Pompey
Colosseum
(Flavian Amphitheater) enormous amphitheater for public entertainment begun by Vespasian and completed by Titus; built with money and loot from Judea; contained lots of arches and underground mechanisms; had lights, tunnels, awning, passages, stairways, etc
Confucius
(Kongfuzi (Great Master Kong)/Kong Qiu) a man who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period (550 BCE)who was seeking peace during chaos; he had ideas and beliefs (his philosophy) that he wanted to have lords follow, but everywhere he went he was fired; he was a government officials but later opened a school; he had many followers and ran a school but he died believing he was a failure; he came from a rising social class but he despised the social change and looked back on the Western Zhou Period as an ideal time; he taught literature and the 6 Arts; his main principles were relationships, virtue, continuity with ancestors, ren, propriety, reciprocity, filial piety, etc; a wise teacher and thinker who provided sayings and ideas still prominent in China now
Livy
(Titus Livius); a Roman historian who wrote a 142-volume history of Rome from 30 BCE-17 CE
Tutankhamun
(Tutankhaten) (18th Dynasty); the son of Akhenaten; his name originally meant 'living image of Aten', but he changed it to please the traditional worshippers to 'living image of Amun'; he ruled young from the age of 9-19 and died from possibly a head injury; he attempted to allow worship of Aten and the traditional gods to make everyone happy, but this did not work, it angered people; his regent was Ay; he is only famous because in 1922 Howard Carter discovered his small tomb filled with riches, intact with only the outer seals broken; his tomb was possibly meant for Ay but because he died young it became his
Predynastic Egypt
(until 3100 BCE)took place during the Neolithic Period and the transition to civilization; farming and herding was developed and the earliest hieroglyphs were beginning to be used; no pharaohs (not united); government was made up of nomes and the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt
Western Zhou Geography
1) Allied chieftains joined under Wu during his revolt and when the Zhou dynasty began they were part of the kingdom; though they tried to hold onto tribal identities, they soon dissolved into Chinese culture 2) Rulers conquered to the Sea along the Yellow River Valley as well as south to the Yangtze River
3 Religious Practices of the Han Dynasty
1) Ancestor Veneration- Confucianism meant continuity with the past and tradition; houses kept altars; festivals 2) Burial practices- the wealthy were buried with food, clothing, possessions to use in afterlife and some had burial chambers resembling some space from life, indication they were actually going to live there in the afterlife 3) Jade suits- suits made out of blocks of jade that were wrapped around the dead because it was believed the jade would preserve the body
4 Hellenistic Kingdoms
1) Antigonid 2) Ptolemaic 3) Seleucid 4) Attalid (Pergamum)
3 Things that Remained the Same in Amarna Art
1) Aspective View 2) Symbols 3) Cartouches/hieroglyphs
What two groups of women experienced less improvement to their status in the Hellenistic Period?
1) Athenian women 2) Poorer women
Zhou Technology/Culture
1) Bamboo books- books made of bamboo or wood slats for writing and record-keeping; written in with vertical columns in ink 2) Bronze bells- enormous sets of bells used for ritual and court music collected by lords; each bell was a different note (bigger = lower, smaller = higher)
2 Geographical Similarities between China and Egypt
1) Both have natural barriers (desert, sea, mountains, etc), leading to isolation 2) Both are river valley civilizations (Nile River and Yellow/Yangtze River)
5 Valuable Materials during the Eastern Zhou
1) Bronze 2) Lacquer 3) Jade 4) Silk 5) Gold
Technology of the Shang Dynasty
1) Bronze (piece-mold process) 2) Carving jade (using wet string of abrasive sand) 3) Harvested silk from silkworms (gathered cocoons, soaked in boiling water, causing the glue to dissolve, combed out silk fibers, spun them into silk thread) (a lightweight but strong material (tensile strength)) 4) Irrigated the Yellow River 5) Built walled cities (estates)
3 New Ideas in Egypt Around 3400 BCE
1) Building brick tombs above ground 2) Techniques needed to build them 3) Writing using symbols and pictures -Some scholars think that these ideas came from a mass invasion of Egypt by people from Mesopotamia, but the lack of evidence makes some scholars theorize that the Egyptians developed these ideas on their own (and similarities are nonexistent or coincidental)
2 Parts of Greek Temple Architecture
1) Column 2) Entablature
3 Sources of Information about Ancient China
1) Confucian historians' writings/histories 2) Oracle bones 3) Artifacts/other things archaeologists dig up
Old Kingdom Military Technology
1) Copper (weak) tipped spear 2) Simple bow- range of 30 feet 3) No armor 4) Nubian archers
Pericles's 3 Goals
1) Create an Athenian Empire using the strong navy to protect trade 2) Build great projects in Athens (ex. Parthenon) 3) Increase participation in democracy
7 Characteristics of Amarna Art
1) Curvy and feminine (distorted) 2) Sun disk (Aten) featured, with rays extended as hands 3) Elongated skull, neck, face 4) No canon of proportion 5) Curvy lines 6) Open temples and architecture 7) Openness and informal intimacy/lovingness between family
3 Things Written on Oracle Bones
1) Date 2) Diviner 3) Statement(s) SOMETIMES/RARELY (4) Interpretation (5) Result
3 Rights Slaves Had
1) Earn money 2) Own property 3) Marry freely
2 Problems With Mastabas
1) Easy to rob 2) Could deteriorate easily because they were made of mud bricks
What caused tyranny in the Archaic Period?
1) Economic discontent among the new rich unhappy with their lack of political power and also among the debt slaves 2) Hoplite warfare meant aristocrats did not have the advantage militarily anymore; the common people did
Persepolis Palace
1) Elevated 2) Plumbing/irrigation through canats underneath 3) Modeled after nomadic tents 4) Apadana hall 5) Paradaisia
Han Social Classes (by Han value)
1) Emperor- absolute power but relied on government officials 2) Civil Servants- status varied; well-educated, took civil-service exams 3) Farmers- traditional, honorable work and off-season labor; not this high money-wise 4) Craftsmen- respectable because knowledge was passed down 5) Merchants- didn't add value to products and profited off of others' needs 6) Slaves- tiny percentage of the population (1%); couldn't be killed by masters
Wang Manu's 5 Reforms and Who They Upset
1) Ended slavery (upsets slave owners) 2) Brought back Confucian rules limiting merchants (upsets merchants) 3) Established national bank with fair interest rates (upset money lenders) 4) Attempted to bring back well-field system but failed (upsets everyone) 5) Established new coinage system with 28 coins (upsets everyone)
Zhou Worldview
1) Everyone's ancestors matter in the collective of Heaven (tian) (no oracle bones/human sacrifice) 2) Mandate of Heaven is legitimacy + dynastic cycle + king is 'Son of Heaven' 3) Natural disasters show tian disapproves of the ruler's morals and revolt is coming unless change happens
Old Kingdom Military Events
1) Expeditions to Nubia to gain goods 2) Uprooting of rebel brigands in the desert
2 Things that Unified the People in Assyrian Cities
1) Fear of the king 2) Worship of Ashur (except for Jews)
3 Geographical Differences between the Near East and Egypt
1) Floods were disruptive, unpredictable, and dangerous (this affected religion, and the Mesopotamian gods were seen as temperamental and unreliable 2) No natural barriers- led to trade and contact with other cultures but also conquest as different cultures overran others 3) Fewer natural resources (no stone or wood)- mud-brick or kilned brick were used, leading to the glazed brick technique in Babylon
Shang Military
1) Fought with neighboring nomadic tribes 2) Fought with bronze dagger-axes, spears, and daggers (NO SWORDS); also composite bows and light 3-man chariots 3) sacrificed war captives for the ancestors 4) no standing army- the army was formed when called of warrior nobility (professionals) and peasants/commoners; called in by lighting signal fires/beacons 5) Oracle bones were consulted for military plans 6)
Who were Athenian voters? What were they expected to do?
1) Free, over 18 year-old males who had two Athenian parents could vote 2) Voters were supposed to vote in the assembly, hold government positions when they were allotted them, be jurors when necessary, and serve in the army
4 Ways Cyrus was Lenient Towards the Medes
1) Gave their officials positions as general and officials in Persia 2) Persia was known as 'The Land of the Medes and Persians' 3) Left Ecbatana intact 4) Spared and honored Astyages - Cyrus's good treatment gave him a good reputation and support; it also supported Zoroastrianism- be good- and it prevented rebellion
Unconfirmed Contents of Shi Huangdi's Tomb
1) Grave of childless wives and concubines 2) Grave of craftsmen who worked on it 3) Royal burial chamber with miniature city and river of mercury
Persian Social Structure
1) Great King 2) Satraps- Persians; 20 3) Key Officials (reported to Darius)/spies 4) Nobles (mostly Persians in Fars; supplied troops; fought in cavalry units) 5) Skilled Laborers (Middle Class- merchants, artisans, etc) 6) Unskilled Laborers (freemen, slaves, serfs- mostly in Fars, could almost never get freed)
7 Developments from a Settled Civilization
1) Great knowledge of a certain place (along the river) 2) Farming 3) Easier control of livestock 4) Villages 5) Pottery/kilns 6) Written language and complex art 7) Cemetery and beliefs about the afterlife
Hellenistic Social Classes
1) Greek king/queen 2) small ruling class of Greek speakers who intermarried with the local nobility 3) locals who mostly lived in rural areas and often rebelled; some assimilated with Greek culture and others resisted the change
Other Important Han Inventions
1) Gunpowder- fireworks 2) Armillary Sphere- measured movement of planets and stars 3) Moxibustion- pain treatment by burning herbs onto the skin 4) Peony anesthetic- saved lives of people in surgery who used to die of shock from pain
What were the 3 virtues valued for Chinese women?
1) Hard work 2) Humility 3) Religious observance
What were Sulla's reforms?
1) He reduced the power of the tribunes and plebiscites. They had to get Senate approval before acting 2) He enlarged the Senate and put Equestrians in the Senate 3) He gave the law-courts to the Senate
2 Challenges Alexander Faced in Persia
1) He was almost always outnumbered by massive Persian forces- he overcame this with his skill, inspired by the March of the Ten Thousand; also, he (correctly) anticipated that some Persian subjects would view him as a liberator and join him 2) He could not protect or maintain supply lines through Persia, due to its size- he overcame this by supplying his army off the land (like the March of the Ten Thousand) and not staying in one place for too long
Alexander's 3 Advantages
1) He was inspirational; he wanted to be out there on the front lines with his men 2) He was an innovative strategist who was brilliant with planning, timing, and execution 3) Darius III was incompetent in military engagements
7 Things Asked about on the Oracle Bones
1) Health 2) Harvest 3) Weather 4) Births (lucky-boy or unlucky-girl) 5) Military 6) Sacrifice 7) Ancestors/gods
2 Steps by Pharaohs to Ensure Middle Kingdom Stability
1) Hereditary nomarchs 2) Told their people they ruled with forgiveness and justice (ex. tale of Sinuhe, Eloquent Peasant)
4 Enemies Fought During the New Kingdom
1) Hyksos (defeated by Ahmose, 18th Dynasty) 2) Mitanni (fought by 18th Dynasty pharaohs, defeated by Thutmose III) 3) Hittites (fought starting with Horamheb, Ramses II faced off with and then signed a peace treaty) 4) Sea Peoples (defeated by Ramses III, 20th Dynasty)
4 Elements of Hellenistic Sculpture
1) Individuality- the sculptures portrayed specific people 2) Emotion 3) Realism 4) Drapery
Assyrian Siege Tactics
1) Instead of waiting for the city's inhabitants to die, the Assyrians attacked the walls; they broke in using their army 2) Always sent a warning first for the city to surrender to be spared (as they conquered more cities and grew a reputation, this snowballed into easier conquest) 3) 3 Methods a) sappers- dug holes in mud-brick wall to make it collapse, then soldiers ran in over the top b) battering ram- chop through mud-brick wall c) siege tower- rolling tower covered in animal skins with archers on top and ladders inside; used to go over the wall
Assyrian Military
1) Iron (from Hittites) 2) Heavy 3-Man Chariot- attacked with shock tactics, put blades on the wheels to inflict more damage 3) Sparabara- advantage for conquering cities
6 Technological Advances of the Warring States Period
1) Iron working- specifically the heavy iron plow that was more efficient in turning soil 2) Collar harness- a harness that allowed horses to pull more weight by looping a tube around the horse's neck 3) Coinage- iron coins that were standardized in each state (bad for trade between them) and could be strung together on necklaces (wallets) 4) Fallow Fields- an early version of crop rotation that meant leaving half of the field 'fallow' (with no crops) and letting animals graze there to restore nutrients 5) Water control- Li Bing, an engineer in the Qin state, redirected the Min river to a plain that they had not been able to farm before 6) Rice cultivation/crop diversification- rice was cultivated by the states that expanded south into the Yangtze river valley; because they now had two different types of crops, if one died, they were still safe
2 Parts of Egyptian Farming
1) Irrigation- brings water from Nile to the fields 2) Shaduf- lifts water using a counterweight and lowers it into field -during the farming season, construction progressed slowly on major projects such as the pyramids because there were fewer workers available
What were the advantages of a cavalry?
1) It allowed for easy attacks on the enemy's rear and flanks 2) It could be used to chase down fleeing enemy troops
Why do scholars still not completely trust the Confucian accounts (about the Xia Dynasty)?
1) It is still extremely improbable that the Confucian scholars could have detailed accounts of events that happened thousands of years ago, before writing was invented 2) It is unlikely and unrealistic that the kings taught their people farming/irrigation/etc and that each dynasty fit the perfect dynastic cycle. These are morals/messages that the Confucian scholars want to convey, so that taints their accuracy
2 Theories about the Sphinx
1) It was built by Khafre (4th Dynasty) as protector of the tombs at Giza 2) It was built in the predynastic period- this theory comes from climatologists who looked at the erosion patterns around the Sphinx, indicating it was built at a time with more rain- historians are skeptical about whether the Egyptians were organized enough at that point to build it
3 Aspects of the Soul
1) Ka 2) Ba 3) Akh
3 Pyramids at Giza
1) Khufu 2) Khafre 3) Menkaure
Western Zhou Government
1) King was a hereditary male from the Zhou clan 2) Feudalism (same as Shang) (+ well-field system)
5 Disadvantages of Being a Soldier
1) Lack of food or water 2) Difficult physical labor 3) Walks/marches that lasted days 4) Little sleep 5) Harsh discipline/treatment
Role of the Pharaoh
1) Living god Horus on Earth 2) Has absolute power 3) Owns all of the land 4) Redistributes food and goods 5) Dies and becomes Osiris
6 of Liu Bang's Reforms
1) Lowered taxes dramatically 2) prevented his army from looting the common people 3) significantly lessened the labor obligation 4) kept Qin Centralization, but lessened the harsh Qin legalism 5) applied Confucian principles in the justice system 6) gave government positions to sons of landowners
3 Different Burial Practices of Zoroastrianism
1) Magi- left dead outside to be scavenged 2) Kings- buried in stone tombs 3) People- dipped in wax and buried
Order of Persian Conquest
1) Medes 2) Lydia 3) Babylonia 4) Egypt
3 Ways Power was Measured during the Warring States Period
1) Military (number of chariots and professional warriors) 2) Wealth (and SHOWING it) (bronze, jade, clothing, jewelry) 3) Prestige (ties to the Zhou king)
3 Places Egypt Traded with in the Middle Kingdom
1) Minoans (Crete) 2) Byblos (Lebanon/Syria) (timber, gold, etc) 3) Nubia
Aspects of the Ptolemaic Kingdom
1) Monarchy with monogamous brother-sister marriage for royalty 2) center of learning (ex. Library, Museum, searched all incoming ships for books, septuagint) 3) Egyptian architectural styles 4) Cult of Isis became popular 5) Greeks and Egyptians practiced mummification 6) many mercenaries; Egyptians were only allowed to be auxiliaries
Shang Economy
1) Mostly barter 2) Wealthy people used currency of cowry shells for bigger purchases 3) Wealthy people also collected jade, bronze, and silk items 4) Very large gap between wealthy and poor 5) Agricultural
4 Important Geographical Features of China
1) Mountain ranges (north and west) 2) Deserts (north and west) 3) Rivers/river valleys (Yellow River- north; Yangtze River- south) 4) Seas (south and east)
Old/Middle Kingdom 2-Pronged Military Strategy
1) Natural Barriers (keep people out) 2) Swarm (attack quickly with massive numbers) -works until Hyksos come along
2 New Social Classes in the Archaic Period
1) New business class/new rich 2) debt slaves
4 Facets of Alexander's Vision
1) New cities (ex. Alexandria) 2) Mixing of cultures (ex. intermarriage, adopting Persian practices, polygamy, claim to divinity) 3) Colonize his lands 4) non-hereditary rule
9 Advantages of the Nile
1) New, fertile silt after every inundation 2) Large-scale agriculture was possible 3) Population increased 4) Society developed 5) Crop irrigation 6) Water source for drinking and bathing 7) Natural means of transportation 8) Papyrus (used for paper) along banks 9) Stimulated growth of villages, cooperation, and new ideas/technologies
Shang Education
1) No schools (all education was family-based) 2) Trade knowledge ('secrets') was passed down through clans (ex. bronze-working, shepherd, executioners, silk workers, etc); this included the ruling Zi clan
3 Causes of Old Kingdom Decline
1) Nomarchs became more independent- building mastabas far from the pyramids, in their nomes, showing they could get to the afterlife on their own 2) The pharaohs were less respected (didn't build pyramids as huge) and eventually lost control 3) Emphasis on Ra (5th Dynasty)
6 Ways Shi Huangdi Centralized China
1) Non-family member appointed officials owed everything to Shi Huandgi, guaranteeing loyalty 2) Made transportation and communication easy and efficient- dirt roads with standardized axel-widths for carts, canals, and quick communication/messages 3) Uniform law code- same rules everywhere meant efficient governing 4) Standardized writings- all documents could be read, specifically government documents 5) Standardized weights and measures- important for pricing 6) Uniform coinage- everyone now used Qin coins; improves trade
4 Natural Barriers of Egypt
1) North- Mediterranean Sea (sea invasion is more difficult) 2) South- cataracts 3) West- desert (Deshret) 4) East- desert (Deshret)
2 Halves Israel Split Into
1) Northern Kingdom of Israel 2) Judah (the temple in Jerusalem was located here)
4 Ways One Hieroglyphs Could Be Used
1) Object (ex. a duck (bird)) 2) Idea (ex. Duck!) 3) Sound (ex. 'd' sound) (usually in names) 4) Determinative
3 Ways for the Ka to Eat
1) Offerings were left by priests and mourners 2) Wooden models would hopefully come to life and make food 3) Pictures or drawings of food on the walls of the tomb (last resort)
What powers did Augustus have?
1) direct oversight of strategically important provinces 2) permanent consul powers (preside over Senate, lead armies, run government) 3) permanent tribune powers (veto)
2 Views of Egypt
1) Old View- a backwards, bizarre society with strange customs that was perpetually conquered- held by Greeks because the Egypt they saw was after the pharaohs and their great achievements 2) New View- an impressive ancient civilization with great achievements before it was eventually, way later, conquered by everyone- held by historians now - the New View was caused by the deciphering of the Rosetta Stone!
6 Rules
1) Old and Middle Kingdoms come before everything else 2) Han Dynasty is after everything else 3) Shang Dynasty and New Kingdom line up 4) New Babylonians were during Spring and Autumn Period 5) Battle of Thermopylae was at beginning of Warring States Period 6) Sea Peoples arrived 1200 BCE, totally changing up the map
Shang Worldview
1) Only Shang ancestors matter (oracle bones and human sacrifice) 2) King is ruler because he is oldest male of Shang clan 3) Natural disasters show Zi ancestors' disapproval, and the king appeased them with sacrifices
6 Rights Egyptian Woman Had
1) Own, inherit, and give away land 2) Ask for a divorce (by leaving the house) 3) Travel freely 4) Enter legally binding contracts 5) Sue someone in court 6) Work outside of the home (in fabric weaving shops, hairdresser's shops, as entertainers, assistants, etc)
12 Main Inventions of the Han Dynasty
1) Paper- armor, writing, kites 2) Fishing reel- efficient fishing 3) Seed drill- planted seeds at correct depth efficiently 4) Kites- signaling during warfare 5) Poison gas- combining deadly chemicals; used during sea warfare 6) Wheelbarrow- used in warfare to carry supplies and bodies across rough terrain 7) Compass- used to navigate on land and interpret omens 8) Rudder- steering device for a sailboat 9) Fore and Aft Rigging- sail rigging that catches the wind in many directions 10) Acupuncture- pain relief through a treatment with needles on certain points on the skin 11) Seismograph- device that measure from which direction tremors of the earth come 12) Suspension bridges- bridges supported from above that carried heavier objects by distributing the weight
3 Religions in Persia
1) Persian Kings: Zoroastrianism 2) Persian people in Fars: Zoroastrianism 3) Conquered peoples: whatever religion they practiced before (polytheism/Judaism/etc)
2 Reasons to be a Soldier
1) Pharaoh distributes part of plunder/loot from foreign countries to the army 2) You were allowed to keep any people you found or captured as slaves/servants
Cyrus's Conquests
1) Rebelled against the Medes and takes Ecbatana 2) Claimed Median Territories (eastern, mountainous) 3) Takes Lydia (defeated Croesus)- brought camels to spook the Lydian cavalry, leading to Croesus believing the gods were against him and returning to Sardis; Cyrus besieged Sardis and took it 4) Conquered Ionia- they tried to get Greek help against Persia, so Sparta wrote a threatening letter to Cyrus, which he ignored; the Spartans then decided that Persia was too far for them to fight 5) Truly took control of the eastern regions 6) Conquered New Babylonia- first defeated Nabonidus in an easy battle, and the Babylonians threw open the gates to welcome him 7) Died before conquering Egypt, but his son Cambyses conquered it
4 Ways for the Ka to Find the Body
1) Recognize the corpse (mummification) 2) Recognize ka statue 3) If the statue was destroyed, there were backup/reserve heads 4) The person's name was written all over the walls of the tomb (last resort)
3 Keys to Confucianism
1) Relationships define people and everyone must know and fulfill their role and job 2) Virtue comes from above and it is the responsibly of the people with higher social status to teach those below them 3) People must follow the lessons and traditions of ancestors (ritual and education are important)
2 Purposes of Ancient Egyptian Art
1) Religion 2) Political -these two were also closely connected because the pharaoh was ruling as Horus, a god
5 Key Relationships in Confucianism
1) Ruler-subject 2) Parents-child 3) Friend-friend 4) Older sibling-younger sibling 5) Spouse-spouse
Shang Social Structure
1) Shang king 2) Warrior nobility (family members) 3) Skilled workers (craftsmen, artisans, priests) 4) Farmers (majority)
3 Checks on Satraps' Power
1) Spies 2) No military power- no army per each satrapy + generals reported to Great King 3) Top officials all reported to the Great King
5 Accomplishments of the Middle Kingdom
1) Stability and peace 2) Growth of Middle Class 3) Golden Age of culture, literature, education (ex. writing for entertainment, block statues) 4) Trade! 5) Mining on the Sinai Peninsula for stones and metals
2 Elected Positions in Athens
1) Strategoi (generals)- they had people's lives in their hands 2) Top finance officials- they had to be skilled
Warring States Military
1) Sun Wu/The Art of War 2) Dagger-lance, sword, and crossbow 3) Cavalries 4) Chariots 5) Leaders built walls in the countryside and cities 6) Casualties dramatically increased
Confirmed Contents of Shi Huangdi's Tomb
1) Terra cotta army 2) skeletons of horses 3) rare animals buried alive in clay coffins 4) pit of workers that died while building it
What happened in the 3rd Century CE?
1) The Severan Dynasty maintained order through military force 2) 50 years of military anarchy with 22 emperors, all for life 3) Order was restored with Diocletian and the tetrarchy
Aristotle's View of Knowledge
1) The concepts/ideas of things are built from our experience 2) We observe things and put them into categories, than decide if those things have the qualities of the already defined concepts 3) Scientific through observation/research (but not experimentation)
2 Reasons Construction Was Done During the Inundation
1) The farmers had to work to do because the fields were underwater, so there were large amounts of free laborers available 2) It was easier to transport stone and building materials close to the pyramids because the flooding came very close to them, so construction materials could be floated up close
3 Ways to Unite the Tribes
1) each tribe sent 50 people to the boulé annually 2) cultural events (about their 'ancestors') 3) the tribes each formed phalanxes and elected a general
Government of the Shang Dynasty
1) The king was a hereditary male from the Zi clan who had absolute political, military, and religious power 2) Estates in the Shang heartland were ruled by family member warriors appointed by the king 3) The king allied (or fought) with nomadic tribes in the surrounding areas (allied chieftains); they had to go along with what the Shang king said or risk being destroyed (-fang suffix means they are traitorous) 4) The king has less control farther from Anyang 5) The feudal system was used (king's family ruled the estates with their own laws; he gave them land and they didn't have to farm in exchange for loyalty and troops (themselves and peasants) when necessary)
Spring and Autumn Decentralization
1) The king was weaker and his lords grew more independent 2) The lords became hereditary on their own, regardless of relation to king 3) Lords controlled salt mines and iron mines in their own lands 4) The king was simply a religious figure, with no political or military power
How did Greek geography affect the culture?
1) The mountains affected agriculture, leading to small-scale farming (goats, sheep, pigs, olives, grapes, wine, and fishing); conditions were also not ideal for the important crop grain 2) The sea created a seafaring culture focused on trade and fishing 3) Both the sea and the mountains contributed to the isolation that made it difficult to transport or communicate things across Greece, leading to poleis and the lack of a united Greek nation 4) The mild climate led to an outdoor-centric lifestyle 5) The small-scale agriculture put a cap on population, leading to smaller city-states
3 Cities with 'Pharaohs' During the 1st Intermediate Period
1) Thebes (11th) 2) Memphis (declining) (7th, 8th) 3) Herakleopolis (9th, 10th)
2 Things Phoenicia was Known For
1) Trade/Colonies- all around the Mediterranean; traded a) glass, b) wood, and c) purple dye from the Tyrian snails (expensive, used for kings' clothing); created Carthage colony , which later became rivals with Rome 2) Seafaring- expert boatbuilders that sailed all around the Mediterranean, to England, and Africa; passed through the Strait of Gibraltar but told 'monster stories' to keep others away
2 Goals of the Sicilian Campaign
1) Use fertile farmland there to feed Athens and relieve the Delian League's supplying 2) Move the war to Sicily and off Athens's land
Role of Men in Persia
1) Valued manliness and strength; valued telling the truth and hated owing money 2) marry many wives and take many concubines- more = more powerful/wealthy 3) taught to ride, use a bow, and tell the truth
2 Types of Slavery
1) War captives- owned by the state- worked in mines 2) Debt-slaves who couldn't pay debts so they sold themselves to work if off- privately owned- worked as servants
3 Superior Hyksos Technologies
1) War chariot 2) Bronze weapons (made of copper and tin) 3) Composite Bow
3 Qin Advantages
1) Water control projects 2) Legalism (efficiency) 3) Southward expansion (Yangtze River/rice)
Plato's View of Knowledge
1) We are constantly learning and remembering the perfect version of the world- Realm of Ideas 2) We evaluate the definition of something by comparing it to its perfect version 3) Socratic Method gets the 'obstacles' out of the way 4) Philosophical and can be done without observation
Western Zhou Social Structure
1) Zhou King 2) Warrior Nobility (estate-holders) 3) Skilled workers (artisans, merchants- they lived in the lords' cities and were traded as valuable people (not slaves)) 4) Farmers (majority) 5) Slaves (2 differences are the king is a Zhou king/nobles are Zhou and there are slaves because there is no longer human sacrifice)
Spartan Upbringing- young adults
1) at 20, the men competed in the krypteia and other tests 2) then they became soldiers 3) they were either accepted into a syssition or had to leave Sparta 4) they lived in the barracks
Spartan Upbringing- young boys
1) at 7 the boys moved to the barracks 2) the scarcity of food forced boys to steal from the helots, but they were severely punished if caught 3) they did not wear shoes 4) there were definitely fatalities of the boys who simply couldn't do the rigorous and harsh training 5) their education was all military-based, including music and reading/writing 6) boys received one cloak per year and rarely bathed in order to toughen their bodies
Spartan Life- adults
1) at age 30, men were allowed to vote and live with their wives 2) at age 60 men retired from the military and were eligible for the gerousia
7 Characteristics of Classical Statues
1) balance/symmetry 2) better proportions based on mathematical ratios aimed for perfection 3) lack of emption 4) intersecting arcs made statues beautiful from all directions, but not necessarily realistic 5) anatomically correct 6) bronze 7) portrayed movement
Dark Age Summary
1) cities, international trade, and large-scale agriculture were abandoned, leading to a lack of a surplus 2) population dropped quickly due to migration 3) government was wealth-based and very local 4) epic poems were performed and pottery slowly improved 5) writing and bronze-working were both lost 6) chaos reigned but there were few large scale military endeavors due to lack of organization or necessary weapons
7 Accomplishments of Wudi
1) civil service exams 2) increased taxes to pay for government (roads, canals, schools) 3) established a government school to train people to take the civil service exams 4) built roads and canals 5) supported poetry and music 6) conquered parts of Vietnam and Korea; brought in Chinese government and Confucian ideas 7) fought off invading nomads
Persian Military
1) compulsory for males 20-24 2) Each satrapy (and feudal division in Fars) gave troops based on specialties 3) Made up of many different types of units and different languages- making generalship very difficult 4) Troops organized in decimal units 5) Used infantry, cavalry, chariots, siege, sparabara, etc 6) Paid mercenaries
What was Philip's plan to make Macedonia great?
1) conquer Greece 2) conquer Persia
What were the trends under Diocletian and Constantine?
1) efforts to prolong the Empire using force and coercion 2) increase in depth of imperial control and less independence in the provinces 3) the Senate was powerless 4) wage and prices controls removed market flexibility 5) bound coloni to the land like serfs because of work shortages (and bound people to hereditary professions)
What 4 new rights did Hellenistic women living in Egypt have?
1) give and receive loans 2) buy and sell land, slaves, and property 3) inherit and bequeath property 4) write their own marriage contracts
3 Ideas Discovered in Ancient Times and Then Forgotten
1) heliocentric theory (Aristarchus) 2) large artillery weapons 3) brain-ruled body
Median Military
1) horse archers/regular archers 2) infantry with spears and wicker shields 3) Cyaxares organized the army to operate separately on the battlefield
What were the themes and goals of tragedy?
1) human struggle to overcome life's difficulties 2) opened conversation about the role of higher powers/gods and gate 3) showed that everyone held responsibility for their actions 4) catharsis- release of emotional tension 5) made people feel better about their situations 6) provided discussion for ethical dilemmas
What were Caesar's reforms?
1) increased Senate to 900, filling it with his supporters 2) gave citizenships to provincial supporters, making it a valued and envied thing 3) gave out provincial land to poor citizens, spreading Roman culture and gaining clients 4) funded public works projects (roads, aqueducts, theaters, etc) 5) required that at least 1/3 of workers on latifundia be free, not slaves- increased jobs 6) created Julian calendar 7) fixed Roman debt
Spartan Upbringing- babies
1) infants were inspected at birth and flawed ones were left to dies of exposure 2) babies were bathed in wine to weed out the strongest ones 3) babies weren't swaddled, but allowed to move freely 4) children were taught to be tough from birth (ex. not allowed to be afraid of the dark)
What rights did plebs slowly gain over the course of centuries?
1) intermarriage (caused problems with social divisions) 2) Twelve Tables 3) tribune office 4) plebeian assembly 5) Lex Hortensia/power of the plebiscites
hoplite weaponry
1) iron tipped spear- used for thrusting 2) helmet- slitted for eyes and mouth 3) round shield- decorated with mythological elements (except Spartan shields, which were all the same) 4) sword- used for slashing as a last resort 5) greaves
Roman Military Equipment
1) javelins/pilum 2) short sword/gladius 3) armor 4) helmet with reinforced brow
4 Aspects of Hellenistic Military
1) large Macedonian phalanxes with heavy infantry were the heart of the army 2) smaller cavalries, either light (for flanking) or heavy (for charging) 3) war elephants in the Seleucid kingdom 4) siege weapons (siege tower, ballistae, catapult)
5 Areas of Mechanics (according to Pappus)
1) lifting devices 2) war engines 3) "machines" 4) marvelous devices 5) spheres
9 Characteristics of Late Persian Kings
1) mediocre 2) self-absorbed 3) couldn't/wouldn't deal with empire's problems 4) dealt with power struggles and discontent 5) gave too much power to people who abused it 6) used disloyal Greek mercenaries 7) didn't focus on expansion 8) economic decline 9) slowly lost stability, integrity, and reputation
What part of self-rule did Philip retain from the city-states of the League of Corinth?
1) military 2) foreign policy Philip needed to control these in order to invade Persia
What were the general trends of the Severan Dynasty?
1) military monarchy 2) expanded military 3) soldiers' pay and taxes increased 4) officers were given positions in government
Aspects of the Seleucid Kingdom
1) military monarchy- the king's identity came from conquest 2) polygamy (men married local nobles and daughters of allies) 3) Greek speakers dominated court and army 4) Greek immigrants 5) Greek gods and polytheistic gods were equated with each other, and local rituals were maintained 6) rivalry with Ptolemies (Palestine) 7) cavalry and war elephants 8) claimed descent from Apollo, then Zeus 9) had many problems with succession and uprising
Greek Geography
1) mountains 2) sea/islands 3) NO major river valleys (unlike Egypt./China/Near East) 4) mild climate
2 Rooms of the Temple
1) naos 2) treasury
What were Marius's reforms?
1) no more mule trains- the soldiers had to carry their things 2) removed the land requirement to fight- urban poor could get jobs, leading to career soldiers 3) standardized weapons and equipment and provided them to soldiers 4) tried to get pensions for veterans but the Senate refused 5) gave land in conquered regions to troops
What were Augustus's reforms?
1) paid provincial governors in order to reduce corruption and extortion 2) census to make taxation more fair (the census in the Bible) 3) made social classes based entirely on wealth, allowing social mobility 4) rewarded local officials with citizenship 5) built roads to centralize, move troops quickly, and help trade 6) Imperial Post 7) attempted to legislate morality (returning to traditional, virtuous Roman values) (ex. Roman women who had 3 kids got extra rights)
Minoan Culture
1) palace-centered 2) maritime frescoes 3) Linear A 4) bull-leaping 5) at first seen as peace-loving people, but actually probably had a powerful navy to protect themselves
How could Romans get ahead politically?
1) patronage 2) donations 3) fame 4) marriage
3 Benefits of Dark Age
1) poleis 2) geometric design 3) iron
2 Goals of Delian League
1) protect and defend Greece 2) irritate Persia with small offensives
What was the order of the cursus honorum?
1) quaestor (aedile) (tribune) 2) praetor 3) consul THEN- 4) proconsul 5) propraetor
Archaic Period Summary
1) the Commercial Revolution brought back international trade and specialized workers 2) population grew, leading to colonization 3) the poleis began to exist across Greece, governed by aristocratic oligarchy then tyranny 4) black figure pottery, lyric poetry, writing of the epics 5) Greek alphabet, influenced by Phoenicia, bronze-working, iron-working 6) inexpensive iron weapons led to hoplite warfare
2 Examples of Cyrus's Tolerance
1) the New Babylonians welcomed him as a conqueror because he allowed home to worship the own gods 2) the Israelites also loved that they were allowed to return to Israel and worship their own god; they called him a savior/Messiah; they also loved that they were able to rebuild their temple
2 Athenian Setbacks
1) the plague 2) Sicilian Campaign
586 BCE
1) the year the Babylonians took Judah and destroyed Solomon's Temple 2) the beginning of the Jews' captivity in Babylon- led to the need to preserve the Jewish tradition by writing it down- the first Hebrew Bible was created
2 Goals of the Republic
1) to ensure that no 1 man holds too much power 2) to share power among their special group (the aristocratic landowners) (additionally, to implement the rule of law)
4 Things the Greeks Copied from Phoenicia
1) trade 2) colonies 3) iron and bronze 4) alphabet
Mycenaean Culture
1) warlike 2) Linear B 3) adopted from other cultures 4) Lion Gate/Cyclopean Walls 5) Trojan War
3 Things King Solomon was Known For
1) wealth 2) wisdom 3) first Jewish temple for the one god
What was lost in the Dark Age?
1) writing 2) cities 3) centralized government 4) international trade 5) bronze-working 6) most of the specialized workers 7) law codes 8) a lot of the population
royal roads
1,500 miles of roads built by Darius stretching from Susa to Sardis; enabled Darius to quickly move an army and communicate easily and quickly; had guardhouses, horse couriers, paving, and inns; others, without these features, were built (ex. Ecbatana to Bactria)
Athenian Tribes
10 groups of demes that each shared a fictional 'ancestor' that defined their identities
How was the City Dionysia judged?
10 random citizens judged, but in the end only 5 chosen randomly from them voted for the winners. The winners received ivy wreathes
Dark Age
1100-750 BCE; age without civilization; no writing or cities; spoken Linear B carried the continuity through; time of chaos
Amenemhat I
12th Dynasty; vizier to Mentuhotep IV who became pharaoh after him; tried to take credit for the reunification using propaganda claiming him as the fulfiller of a prophecy; established cogency and 'wrote' the first instruction (his vizier wrote it after his death); assassinated by guards built a mud brick pyramid as a symbol of power and dominance; built a capital at Itjtawy
What percentage of Athenians could vote?
14%
Thutmose III
18th Dynasty; stepson and successor of Hatshepsut; attempted to remove his predecessor's name from history by chiseling her name off of artwork and buildings and chiseling his name on; turned to conquest majorly; expanded Egypt's territory to its largest extent (1 million square km); defeated the Mitanni at the Battle of Megiddo; took the sons of local leaders hostage in order to keep control and create Egyptian puppet states; peak of 18th Dynasty warrior pharaohs
Ahmose I
18th Dynasty; the pharaoh who started the New Kingdom by chasing the Hyksos out of Egypt, so far that he made Egypt's first conquest in Asia; used their own military technology against them, forcing Egypt to have a professional army; set the precedent for aggressive militaristic pharaohs in the New Kingdom
The last Chinese dynasty ended in _________.
1905 CE!
What was the structure of Spartan government?
2 hereditary kings mainly acted as generals with little political power. 5 ephors were elected annually and supervised training, assemblies, and civil disputes. 2 of them always traveled with the army. A council of elders called the gerousia was made up of 28 60+ men and the kings. They served for life and acted as a council to prepare proposals for the apella. The apella was the body of all adult male Spartiates that voted on all decisions
consuls
2 high officials who served 1-year terms; the two highest 'vote-getters' in the elections; technically had to wait ten years to run again; usually led armies as generals; presided over Senate meetings; ran the day to day government
Frankincense and Myrrh
2 resins used to anoint and clean the body during mummification; frankincense was expensive and came from Yemen or Sudan, so it was only used with very wealthy people's mummies
Tigris and Euphrates
2 rivers that flow through the fertile crescent region of Asia; disruptive, unpredictable, dangerous floods
amphora
2-handled vase without a base used for storage
Bronze Age
2600-1100 BCE; age of the Minoans and Mycenaeans; had writing (Linear A/B)
By what year were the plebeians and patricians legally equal?
287 BCE
Djoser
3rd Dynasty; first pharaoh to have a pyramid- the Step Pyramid- thanks to his architect Imhotep, who came up with the idea of stacking multiple mastabas
Canopic Jars
4 jars used to store the organs during the afterlife and in the tomb- the stomach, lungs, intestines, and liver; the brain was thrown away and the heart was left in with a scarab to protect it
Battle of Arginusae
406 BCE; an Athenian naval victory; afterwards, Athens could either pursue the Spartan fleet or rescue the survivors; they tried to do both but a storm stopped all of the ships and caused the soldiers to drown
When was Rome sacked in the Late Empire?
410 CE- the Goths sacked Rome twice, then moved to Spain 455 CE- the Vandals savagely sacked Rome, then went to Africa
Sicilian Campaign
415 BCE; an Athenian expedition to capture Sicily that ended in a massive failure and loss of the force; weakened Athens and led to their defeat; involved tired soldiers running up a hill and attempting to make makeshift phalanxes and getting destroyed; no one returned to Athens, and the soldiers became slaves in a quarry
Xerxes's Invasion of Greece
480 BCE; Xerxes invaded in order to avenge his father; he created an enormous army, built a double boat bridge and a pointless canal, etc; he attacked and won at Thermopylae but then lost at Salamis and Platea and had to retreat
Darius's Invasion of Greece
490 BCE; Darius wanted to invade Europe and targeted Athens because of their help in the Ionian revolt; Darius's first attempt failed because a storm shipwrecked his supply fleet; then he sailed straight across to Athens but was defeated at the Battle of Marathon
Sneferu
4th Dynasty; built four pyramids (the most out of all of the pharaohs); built the first true pyramid; built the Bent Pyramid, the Red Pyramid, and a pyramid at Meidum; father of Khufu
Khafre
4th Dynasty; son of Khufu; built a pyramid at Giza next to his father's and possibly the Sphinx; ruled for a long time and seen as a great ruler
Khufu
4th Dynasty; son of Sneferu; built the Great Pyramid at Giza, the largest of all of the pyramids- Akhet Khufu (Khufu's Horizon); sometimes seem as an authoritarian pharaoh, though this is probably not true
ephors
5 Spartan magistrates who carried most of the real power and checked the king's authority
Classical Period
501-338 BCE; age of democracy; Golden Age of Athens; second part of Iron Age; ended when Philip conquered Greece
How many kings of Rome were there? Who were the first and the last?
7 kings (3 were Etruscan); the first was Romulus and the last was Tarquinius Superbus
Archaic Period
750-501 BCE; first part of Iron Age; before democracy but still civilization; beginning of poleis
Outline of Roman Government
753 BCE- Monarchy (overthrown) 509 BCE- Republic (fell apart) 47 BCE- Dictatorship (failed) 27 BCE- Empire (collapsed) (eastern Empire continued to 1453)
aedile
9 officials who were each in charge of specific duties (ex. marketplace, public entertainment, buildings); a very expensive position because in order to win the public approval they would spend a lot of their own money
Negative Confession
A 'confession' performed by Egyptians before death to say in the afterlife to Osiris; memorized by Egyptians to be ready at any time; involved a series of statements saying that one had not committed specific sins; also known as the ardent denial of sin
Emperor Wudi
A Han emperor who ruled at the Dynasty's peak; he was also a scholar who wanted people in government to be virtuous and earn the chance to serve, so he established the civil service exams and increased taxes to pay for the government; he built roads and canals, established a government school, and supported culture and the arts; he also expanded China to Vietnam and Korea and fought off invading nomads
Croesus
A Lydian king who was defeated by Cyrus
Battle of Megiddo
A battle between the Egyptian and the Mitanni in which the Egyptians, led by Thutmose III, led a surprise attack through a mountain pass on the city and defeated the army, he then laid siege on the city and captured it
Weighing of the Heart Ceremony
A ceremony for the afterlife developed in the New Kingdom in which one's heart was weighed against an ostrich feather provided by Ma'at to see if the person was worthy to make it to the afterlife; if the scales balanced, then the soul could move on to the afterlife; if not, the heart was devoured by Ammit and the person died; Thoth was a scribe for this ceremony
Opening of the Mouth Ceremony
A ceremony performed by priests at the mortuary temple; the last ceremony before the mummy was buried; the opening of the mouth signified the soul was ready to travel to the afterlife
What happened after Didius Julianus was assassinated?
A civil war of generals claiming to be emperors ensued. Septimius Severus was the last one standing
Opet Festival
A festival in which the statue of Amun-Re would be carried between Luxor and Karnak, signifying the rebirth of the year and the god; involved partying and drinking
How did Archimedes's supposed "death heat ray" work?
A highly polished shield reflected the sun and burned the sails on a ship. It was probably just legend
Mitanni
A kingdom that rose to power in Syria during Thutmose III's reign; they were defeated by him at the Battle of Megiddo
Sphinx
A large structure carved out of the rock with the head of a pharaoh and the body of a lion; stands at Giza in front of the pyramids; most think it was built by Khafre, though there are other theories
Patroclus
Achilles's companion; fought when Achilles wouldn't and was killed by Hector
What was so important about the death of Justinian in 565 CE?
After 565 CE, the empire was never again whole and splintered apart permanently. The official language became Greek
What was pottery like in the Dark Age?
After the Bronze Age civilizations collapsed, potters disappeared and pottery was no longer made on the wheel. In the Bronze Age, at first there was only simple, unskilled, unpainted pottery. This later progressed into more geometric pottery sculpted on the wheel
Why did Egypt turn to imperialism and conquest in the New Kingdom?
After the Hyksos controlled part of Egypt, they realized that the only way to keep Egypt safe would be to keep foreign lands out. And, to do this, they needed to create a buffer zone of conquered lands as 'defense' against the outsiders
Coffin Texts
Afterlife and burial texts and spells written on the outside of a wooden coffin when the user could not afford a mastaba or tomb
Aeschylus's Famous Tragedy
Agamemnon
Ay
Akhenaten's vizier and successor of Tutankhamun; married Tut's young sister widow and declares himself pharaoh, but he was disliked because of his connection to Akhenaten and Tut
Why did the Sicilian Campaign fail?
Alcibiades, the general who could have made the campaign work, was exiled before he could lead it because of some guests at his party that dressed up as the gods and did other disrespectful things. So the campaign was led by a cautious, conservative general who couldn't handle the campaign
How did Alexander conquer Egypt?
Alexander brought his army to Egypt, but when he arrived he was met with parades and fanfare. The Egyptians viewed him as a liberator from the Persians, and they were happy to have him rule
330
Alexander conquers Persia
How and where did Alexander die?
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, from a fever that may have been disease/infection/poison/etc
How did Alexander adopt other cultures' practices?
Alexander practiced polygamy (Egypt), wore pants (Persian), allowed for his subjects to call him divine (Egypt), allowed prostrating (Persian), and was mummified after death (Egypt)
What was the political state in Macedonia/the League of Corinth in 336 BCE?
Alexander was king of Macedonia and hegemon over the League of Corinth. He was planning to fulfill Philip's plan of conquering Persia
Siege of Tyre
Alexander's siege of the island of Tyre in order to take down the Persian navy; accomplished by building a land bridge to the island and besieging it from there
Ctesibius
Alexandrian mechanical scientist; created the simple cylinder and plunger, leading to water pumps; designed a huge catapult
How to tell if statues of the pharaoh are from when he was alive or dead
Alive: The pharaoh is Horus or is shown with a falcon The pharaoh's beard is blocky and square Dead: The pharaoh is shown mummified or as/with Osiris The pharaoh's beard is mummified and curved
How were Roman children named?
All male names were chosen from a list of about 20 names, and the females were given the feminine form of their father's name. The full name consisted of: that given name + the family name + the nickname
What was the effect of Alexander's destruction of Thebes?
All of Greece was so scared of him that he could leave for 10 years to conquer Persia and no one rebelled
Why were masks/costumes/props important?
All of the actors wore masks to identify their characters. Masks also allowed males to play female roles, as no females were allowed to act. Costumes identified characters as well, often their emotional states
Standing Army
An army that exists during peacetime and wartime
Amon
An important god during the New Kingdom- king of the gods and patron of pharaohs; shown as a man with a ram's head or a blue-skinned man with a beard
Pyramid Texts
Ancient Egyptian religious texts written on the walls of tombs during the Old Kingdom
What was the legal system in Athens?
Anyone could report anyone for any crime, as there were no police. The person would be taken to court, and the prosecutor and defendant would each give a speech, timed on the water clock. Anything, relevant or not, could be said in court. Then, juries of anywhere from 500-1000+ would take a majority vote. If the verdict was guilty, the jury also took a vote on the punishments selected by each side
Oracle at Delphi
Apollo's high priestess, located in the town of Delphi of Greece; supposedly a divine medium who gave advice about future events and gave prophecies; the Greek tradition was to consult her during crises; Croesus of Lydia consulted her about Persia, and she told him he would end a great empire, which he did- it was Lydia; answered enigmatically- vague enough that she would always be right; correct because 1) she was better informed about distant places, and 2) her temple was located above a crack in the earth that produced hallucinogenic gases
Artaxerxes III
Artaxerxes II's son; reconquered Egypt but was then assassinated by his adviser Bagoas
Amestris
Artaxerxes's mother; bloodthirsty, cruel, manipulative; while Artaxerxes ruled she was able to murder and mutilate whoever she wanted
Demosthenes
Athenian demagogue who tried to warn the Greeks about Philip; great orator who, as legend says, had a speech defect that he overcame; wrote the Philippics; tried to convince Athens to prepare themselves and unite Greece, but by the time they listened it was too little too late
strategoi
Athenian elected generals; one from each tribe
Isocrates
Athenian philosopher and orator; Philip's advisor; helped him come up with the plan to make Macedonia great
drachma
Athenian silver coin
How was Athenian ideology about government different from Spartan ideology?
Athenians didn't assume that experience meant wisdom. They believed people gained knowledge through participation, and that as many people as possible should participate. It was better, they believed, for the decision to be bad and your decision than be a good decision influenced by someone else. The Spartans, however, believed that age and experience meant wisdom, which is why they had a council of elders in the government
Where was philosophy centered in the Hellenistic Period?
Athens
How did the Peloponnesian War end?
Athens surrendered after their food supply was cut off (407 BCE)
Piraeus
Athens's port city
vigiles
Augustus's corps of freedmen divided into brigades that watched over the city as firemen and policemen
Praetorian Guard
Augustus's special force of elite, highly paid troops; members had to be men of Italian birth; they saw that the princeps's orders and policies were enforced; the emperor and his family's bodyguard; influenced Roman politics by assassinating some emperors
The Julio-Claudians
Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero
6 Arts
Charioteering, archery, math, ritual, music, calligraphy
Babylon
Babylonia
Persian Plow
Babylonia
480
Battle of Thermopylae/Warring States Period begins
Middle Kingdom Afterlife Understanding
Because anyone had the opportunity to potentially get in, Osiris acted as a judge of the dead. This was a vague idea during the Middle Kingdom but was spelled out and explained in the New Kingdom
Why was public speaking so important?
Because there were no political parties, effective orators were the ones who could sway the public's vote. Those who could convince the public to vote a certain way had the real power in the democracy
Scarab
Beetle-shaped symbol representing renewed life and regeneration; placed over the heart during mummification
How were Archaic statues different from and similar to Egyptian statues?
Both showed frozen, front-facing people, but the Egyptians were aiming for immortality and the Greeks were aiming for stylized perfection. Egyptian statues were also always clothed
Differences Between Upper-Class and Lower-Class Egyptian Houses
Both upper-class and lower-class families had tight knit family units, and could include lots of extended family. Upper-class houses were larger and more luxurious, so they lasted longer. Lower-class homes were small and made of mud-brick, so they deteriorated more easily. Lower-class Egyptians also often had to keep their livestock inside of their already small homes.
What two major government pieces did the Han Dynasty implement?
Bureaucracy and Confucianism
How did the Parthenon use optical illusions to create a 'perfect' building?
By creating slight upward curves on horizontal lines, the lines appeared straight from far away. To this same effect, columns were build with light outward curves at the top
How did each member of the 1st Triumvirate benefit?
Caesar was consul in 59 BCE and was given military command in Gaul. Pompey got land for his soldiers. Crassus got military contracts for his allies
Octavian
Caesar's adopted son and grand-nephew; vigorous and intelligent; later became Augustus, Rome's first emperor
Mark Antony
Caesar's chief military associate and right-hand man; not a subtle person; an alcoholic but capable on the battlefield; hated by Cicero; later killed Cicero; member of the 2nd Triumvirate; defeated the conspirators at Philippi; lover of Cleopatra; committed suicide after defeat by Octavian
Julian calendar
Caesar's new calendar based on the Egyptian solar year
Claudius
Caligula's uncle and successor; found after his nephew's assassination in the palace cowering behind a curtain; made emperor after promising money to the Praetorian guard; had a stutter and clubfoot, so he was passed over to rule by Augustus; conquered Britain and Mauritania; reorganized civil service by putting his freed slaves in power instead of sons of the wealthy; married 4 games and was poisoned by his 4th wife, Agrippina
Hamilcar Barca
Carthaginian general' invaded Spain and gained territory; father of Hannibal
Caitline Conspiracy
Catiline's failed revenge plot to murder the consuls and seize the government
612
Chaldeans and Medes defeat Assyria
c. 625-550 BCE
Chaldeans/Medes
Longshan
China's first real civilization; flourished from 3000-2000 BCE on the Shandong peninsula located near the city of Chengziyai; built a large wall of stamped earth and were often at war; fought with spears and arrowheads; had stone and bone tools; had 4 distinct social groups, including one elite upper class and a majority lower class; made fine pottery on a wheel, including eggshell-thin pottery; carved jade using abrasive sand; ritual was important and they believed in mythology/an afterlife; they placed shoulder bones of deer in the fire to crack, which connects to the Shang practice of oracle bones
Who did people blame for Rome's problems?
Christians
How were statues in the Classical Period different from the Archaic Period?
Classical statues were more anatomically correct and detailed. The proportion was much more correct. Bronze statues allowed for more complicated poses without support. Contrapposto pose made statues look like they were alive. Clothed statues meant they were sculpted after real people
Messalina
Claudius's 3rd wife; slept around with most of the Senate, influenced Claudius, and was later executed
Agrippina
Claudius's 4th wife and mother of Nero; manipulated Claudius to put her son Nero on the throne; poisoned Claudius; scheming and power-hungry; later killed by Nero
What happened to Mark Antony and Cleopatra?
Cleopatra was told Mark Antony was dead, so she committed suicide by snake bite. Mark Antony then committed suicide.
Ptolemy (some number)
Cleopatra's brother who killed Pompey, angering Caesar
Confucian Historians' Claims about Ancient China
Confucian historians wrote histories and passed down legends during the Han Dynasty about the Xia and Shang Dynasties, with very specific lists of kings, dates, and events from a time before writing existed. Their histories tell of the kings teaching fire, farming, silk, irrigation, etc to their people and the dynastic cycle (Confucian pattern). Modern historians believed these stories were simply myths and continued to search for answers by digging. They discovered Neolithic villages with farming and pottery, but at first had no way to connect these artifacts to the legends. However, when oracle bones were discovered, they confirmed the complete accuracy of the lists of kings from the Shang Dynasty. Because of this, scholars can no longer simply dismiss the Confucian accounts.
Edict of Milan
Constantine's decree that legalized Christianity in the Empire (313 CE)
What happened in 55 BCE?
Crassus and Pompey again each held consulships. All 3 members of the 1st Triumvirate claimed military commands (Caesar in Gaul, Pompey in the East, and Crassus in Parthia)
What was Tiberius's rule like after Sejanus died?
Cruel and terrifying, including treason trials
piston water pump
Ctesibius's water pump that pumped water by sucking in liquid, which pushed down a second piston, then pushing the water out of a valve; not a continuous flow of water
539
Cyrus defeats Chaldeans
Cambyses
Cyrus's son; conquered Egypt using Persia's first naval fleet; supposedly was extremely disrespectful in Egypt (burned the former pharaoh's corpse, killed a sacred bull, looted temples, failed to invade Nubia, beheaded the young pharaoh)
Artaxerxes II
Darius II's eldest son (Arsaces); took over after Darius died; survived his brother Cyrus's rebellion; made the King's Peace with Greece; paid Greek states to stop Sparta from invading; faced rebellions- couldn't subdue Egypt
Cyrus the Younger
Darius II's other son; favored by his mother Parysatis; tried to assassinate his brother at his coronation but failed; was spared by Parysatis;hired Greek mercenaries to aid his rebellion against Artaxerxes II; died at the Battle of Cunaxa after he unhorsed his brother
Xerxes I
Darius's son; a capable ruler who was not as wise or strategic as Darius; quickly destroyed rebellions when he took the throne; tried to invade Greece but lost at Salamis, Platea; temperamental/irrational/childish; added to the palace at Persepolis; killed by Megabyzus and Artabanus; accomplished little
Wu's Explanation for his Revolt and Takeover
Di Xin lost the Mandate of Heaven because of his immorality, so Wu was chosen and he overthrew the Shang; this calms the people's concerns about legitimacy; however, they were still concerned about the Shang ancestors
How did Sparta's early history differ from the rest of the Greek poleis?
Early on, Sparta conquered the two city-states adjacent to itself and made all of the people into helots
Persian armor corset
Egypt
What happened to Egypt after the reign of Ramses III?
Egypt gradually declined, losing resources, power, and influence. The pharaohs in the 20th Dynasty were weak and ruled for short periods. Eventually, Egypt was conquered by a long string of foreign countries, and they never truly recovered (this caused the 'old view' of Egypt)
Trade and Currency During the Old Kingdom
Egypt had no currency, and very little trade. They were almost completely isolated from the rest of the world
Old Kingdom
Egypt's first major kingdom; made up of the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th dynasties
Egyptian Cyclical View of Time
Egyptians believed that the world was made up of many different repeating cycles, and that time overall ran through the cycles. They were interdependent, meaning that messing up one cycle would mess up all of them, and the success of Egypt depended on the cycles staying the same
Epicureanism
Epicurus's philosophy; often grouped with hedonism, but is not the same thing; pursued pleasure through friendship to bring happiness; avoided pain and anxiety; avoided politics; rejected determinism and fate
Osiris
First the god of agriculture and giver of civilization; became king of the underworld and the dead when he was killed by Set and then resurrected; shown as a mummified pharaoh wearing the atef crown with the crook and flail
How did Rome unify Italy?
First, Rome conquered the Latins in central Italy. Then, Rome conquered the Etruscans to the north and then the Greek city-states to the south.
What happened during the period of military anarchy?
From 235-284 CE, Rome dealt with many issues: 1) 22 emperors in 50 years (all but 2 were killed) 2) no longer unified as parts the Empire declared independence 3) barbaric invasions in all directions 4) plagues 5) population declining 6) collapsing economy- devalued coingage (silver-coated coins), barter, paid army in food 7) barbarians in the military
Egyptian Creation Story
From Nun, or chaos, the hill of creation, Ben-ben, rose. The first god, Atum, stood on the hill and created Shu, the god of dryness and Tefnut, the goddess of humidity. These two created Geb, the earth god, and Nut, the sky goddess, who created Isis, Osiris, Seth, and Nephthys. Isis and Osiris married and ruled the earth until Seth became jealous and killed Osiris by cutting him into pieces. Seth was king while Osiris was in the Underworld, until Isis put him back together and they had a son, Horus. Horus grew strong and overthrew Seth, becoming king. Horus rules Earth as a symbol of the pharaohs, and Osiris rules the Underworld and the dead.
Odoacer
Germanic serving as a Roman military commander who overthrew Romulus Augustulus and was the first Germanic Empire; then conquered by an Ostrogoth
Who were the Cimbri and Teutones?
Germanic tribes defeated by Marius
Seth
God of evil, destruction, deserts, and storms; shown with square-tipped donkey ears and a long forked tail
Anubis
God of mummification/embalming; shown as a jackal or a jackal-headed man; guided the dead to the afterlife
Hapi
God of the Nile River and fertility; shown as a plump man with a beard and blue or green king with a crown of lilies or papyrus plants
Ma'at
Goddess of law, truth, and justice; gives the standard (a feather) against which the dead are judged; shown as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head
Hathor
Goddess of love and protector of women; shown as a women with the head or horns of a cow
Bast
Godess of music, dance, and the warmth of the sun; protector of pregnant women; shown as a cat or cat-headed woman
Achilles
Greek warrior who fought in the Trojan War; immortal except for his heel, which is how Paris killed him; best warrior of Greece; son of nymph Thetis
Helen
Greek wife of Menelaus; 'most beautiful woman in the world'; left for Troy with Paris, causing the Trojan War
Takeaways from the Battle of Marathon
Greek- Greece is superior Persia- we didn't bring enough soldiers
What was the Greek view of Macedonia?
Greeks saw Macedonians as backwards and inferior, slaves to their monarchy, and imitators who had nothing original of their own, but simply stole from Greece. Greece did not respect Macedonia or take them as a serious threat
c. 200 BCE- 200 CE
Han Dynasty
Why were farms damaged after the Punic War?
Hannibal looted the farms, and they were left in neglect because the farmers were fighting in the military
How did Alexander compromise with his troops after Hydaspes?
He allowed the troops to go back, but by a different route than they came. So, they ended up crossing a desert, which led to the loss of more men than they had lost in the battles
What did Caesar do when he was returning to Rome?
He brought his army towards Rome, scaring the Senate into sending him an ultimatum about crossing the Rubicon River. He crossed it, and civil war began
How did Alexander get to Persia?
He built a pontoon bridge
What did Caesar do in 44 BCE? What followed?
He declared himself dictator for life. This was a mistake, and it lead to a group of optimates Senators assassinating him because they saw him as a king. The conspiracy was led by Marcus Brutus, who was descended from the Brutus that overthrew Rome's last king
What did Marius do after Sulla left Rome?
He entered Rome and seized control, ruling in place of the weak-willed Cinna. He murdered many of Sulla's supporters. Then he died of natural causes
How did Cleisthenes create democracy?
He first created demes across Athens. Then, he divided these demes into 10 tribes, each having a diverse cross-section of the city. By creating tribes, he detached the people from aristocratic oligarchy. Then he creating the systems of the assembly/council/etc
What did Octavian do to begin the war on Mark Antony?
He forged a document saying Mark Antony and Cleopatra wanted to rule Rome as monarchs. Then, he told the Senate to make him dictator to deal with this, which they did
What were Tiberius Gracchus's land reforms?
He had reforms passed through the plebeian assembly using the Lex Hortensia. His reforms would give state land to the poor. However, the Senate got another tribune to veto his reforms. Then, he used his own veto to shut down the government. Finally the Senate gave way and Tiberius could use the plebeian assembly to pass a reform taking land from the wealthy aristocrats and leasing it cheaply to poor farmers. The Senate refused to fund it, but Tiberius and his supporters seized the inheritance caravans from Pergamum to fund it.
What was Augustus's attitude towards conquest?
He himself conquered to the north, but he stopped at the Danube and left a legacy for his successors to not conquer at all, especially not past the Danube
What did Alexander do to Thebes?
He made an example of Thebes- he burned the city to the ground, executed all the men and boys, and enslaved the women and children
How did Philip improve phalanxes?
He made them 16 by 16 instead of 8 by 8, and he gave them very long spears to accommodate. This formation required a lot more practice and skill, so the army became professional instead of just a citizen-army
How did Philip plan to fulfill his goals?
He needed to improve the military: 1) stronger phalanxes 2) a cavalry
Why did the king not need taxes or income?
He owned his own land and peasants to get food and income from. He had no need to extrapolate more money from his estate-holders
How did Octavian handle the situation after defeating Mark Antony?
He resigned his dictatorial powers, knowing the Senate would realize they needed him to prevent a power vacuum. The Senate begged him to stay, so he took power and created peace and prosperity
What did Sulla do after Marius died?
He returned to Rome and forced the Senate to declare him emergency dictator. He also brought him army into Rome, which was illegal. Then, he ruled for longer than 6 months (also illegal). He said the problem was the grey triangle and the only way to fix it was with a dictator who was free of the veto. Then, he had a reign of terror including proscription lists and confiscating the land of the dead and auctioning it off in secret auctions. He made many reforms and later retired
How did Socrates die?
He was executed by the people of Athens for corrupting young people and teaching about false gods. He died by drinking hemlock. He was disliked by many for making them uncomfortable about their knowledge, so it was not a surprise that he was eventually brought to court for crimes
What happened to Themistocles after they Persians left?
He was ostracized
What did Caesar do in Gaul?
He was proconsul who aimed to expand the Empire into Gaul by fighting barbarians. He defeated the Gauls and published his victories in the Gallic Wars, building a reputation
What happened when Caesar marched on Rome?
He was unopposed and was able to take it easily. Then, he went to Spain to get an army to face Pompey, leaving Mark Antony in charge of Rome
What did Pompey do after the Battle of Pharsalus?
He went to Ptolemaic Egypt to get more troops. Egypt was at that point suffering from financial and internal problems. He first went to Ptolemy, asking for help. Ptolemy didn't help, but killed Pompey, hoping to please Caesar.
Ptolemaic Kingdom
Hellenistic Kingdom in Egypt; all leaders were called Ptolemy; dynasty of pharaohs that ended with Cleopatra VII
Antigonid Kingdom
Hellenistic kingdom in Greece; founded by Antigonus; very Greek; ruler was king of Macedonia and hegemon over League of Corinth, aiming to keep control over the restless poleis
Seleucid Kingdom
Hellenistic kingdom in Syria/Persia; largest of the kingdoms (30 million people); lost mountainous eastern territories and Pergamum; gained Palestine from the Ptolemies; founded by Seleucus
Zeno
Hellenistic philosopher who founded stoicism
Diogenes
Hellenistic philosopher who lived against societal conventions by purposely seeking hardship; dismissed math and other studies as wasteful; his followers were called Cynics; he lived in a huge clay pot
Epicurus
Hellenistic philosopher; believed private, personal life with friends; aimed for freedom from pain and anxiety; wanted pleasure but not in excess; avoided politics; taught at the Garden; rejected fate and destiny
What happened to Crassus in Parthia?
His military campaign failed and he was killed as a captive. His standard had to be retrieved
How did Diocletian persecute the Christians?
His was the first empire-wide attempt to eradicate Christianity. He took out leaders, closed churches, and burned books. He attempted to make everyone get a sacrifice receipt
What happened after Shi Huangdi died?
His weak, easily-manipulated son Huhai took the throne and China quickly dissolved into civil war and chaos. Eventually, Liu Band emerged as the new ruler.
Sarcophagus
Hollow block of stone with lid around the coffins containing the pharaoh's body; made by carving holes with a stick and bow, using sand as an abrasive, then knocking out space in between
How were oracle bones discovered?
In 1899, a man was prescribed 'dragon bones' to cure his illness. He received shells with 'scratches' on them; however, he was a scholar who could read ancient Chinese writing; he realized the scratches were words and that the bones were from an ancient Chinese dynasty
How did Philip conquer Greece?
In 338 BCE, Philip was able to subdue the city-states of Greece. Because of internal discord, they were unable to unite in time to produce significant resistance. So, Philip easily took down individual polis until he controlled all of Greece- except Sparta
Granaries
Huge places where grain was stored; run by priests; all grain produced was moved here before it was redistributed; protected by cats, who were seen as important in Egyptian religion and culture- they protected the food by eating rats
How was citizenship and Greek identity different in the Hellenistic world?
In the Hellenistic world, Greeks were free to live anywhere with privilege and a familiar culture, with citizenship. In Classical Greece, citizenship was only available in your one polis. Greek identity in the classical world had been based on your polis and your duty to it. In the Hellenistic world, Greek identity came from the shared culture and language present across the kingdoms
How did a wealthy person's day and entourage work?
In the morning, a wealthy person was helped by a slave or scribe to get ready. Then, they were greeted by people visiting in the morning who were asking for favors, loans, advice, etc. Then, the entourage of people accompanied the person to the Senate house. There was often a competition between the Senators for whose entourage was the biggest as they made their way through the streets. Their bodyguards were often retired gladiators who carried eating knives
Assyrian Rule
Intimidation and Fear 1) Took hostages as insurance/blackmail- took many different people and forced them to work 2) Made examples of those who resisted- harsh, severe punishment 3) Forced conquered cultures to sign oaths 4) Left behind officials who reported back to the Assyrian king
How was the Empire divided much later?
Into the East and the West, which saved the East until 1453 but condemned the West
Persian horse-breeding and sheep-herdingG
Iranian nomads
What was the effect of cosmopolitanism?
It fostered migration and individualism
How did Egypt become a military-focused society in the New Kingdom?
It had a professional, standing army for the first time. The vizier was chosen for military abilities, and the pharaoh wanted to be seen as an invincible military war hero, by focusing on aggressive expansion through conquest. Smiting posture and victorious accounts of the pharaoh increased. More slaves, usually captured prisoners of war, came into Egypt.
What did Rome lack that made its government so hard to define?
It lacked a written constitution (so it was constantly changing) (so no one knew how the "grey triangle" and "purple triangle" were supposed to fit together)
What happened to the West after the division?
It splintered into Germanic Kingdoms as the Huns pushed barbarian tribes into the Empire. Troops were pulled from the "provinces" to defend Italy. Rome was continuously sack and overrun. In 476, with the death of Romulus Augustulus, the Empire fell
How was Hellenistic science different from classical science?
It was centered in Alexandria and now considered a separate subject from philosophy
What was the climate/terrain of Italy like?
It was hilly countryside with bad soil, but some plains and farmland. The coast was always near and their were two large mountain ranges
Bao Si
King You's second wife; considered to be beautiful by him but despised by the people; some thought she was born of dragon spit; she laughed when the signal beacon lights were lit and the armies came rushing in only to realize it was a false alarm, so You kept doing it to please her
King Ping
King You's son; he was put on the throne after his father was overthrown in a new capital in the east, Luoyang; first king of the Eastern Zhou
Where was the first ever theater?
Knossos Palace on Crete
Middle Kingdom Military
Larger, but not better, essentially just consisting of more bad soldiers; built border forts against Nubia and kept nomarchs in line; not a standing army; major accomplishments were reunification and conquest of Lower Nubia
Who was Egypt conquered by?
Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Alexander the Great/Hellenistic Kingdoms, and the Romans
Persian coinage
Lydia
Sardis
Lydia
Philip II of Macedonia
Macedonian king who conquered the Greek poleis; great general who trained large phalanxes; father of Alexander; founder and hegemon over the League of Corinth; assassinated by a guard, possibly because of his estranged wife Olympias
Old Kingdom Army
Made up of work crews; not a standing army; weak but had numbers on their side; very little military conflict happened during the Old Kingdom
Pertinax
Marcus Aurelius's right-hand man; made emperor by Commodus's assassins; ruled for 3 months and strictly regulated with harsh, quick reforms; his reforms angered the Praetorian Guard, so he was assassinated
Sulla
Marius's lieutenant and later his rival; captured Jugurtha; later fought a civil war against Marius and became dictator; fought in the Italian War; well-off optimates
How could marriage help Romans get ahead?
Marrying into a respected family could gain a person status
Euripides's Famous Tragedy
Medea
Ecbatana
Media
Persian royal clothing
Media
Sand Hydraulics
Method of lowering sarcophagus into the underground chamber in mastabas; the shaft was filled with sand and the sarcophagus placed on top, then sand was taken out from the sides until it lowered all the way down, then it was filled back up with sand and sealed
c.2050-1650 BCE
Middle Kingdom Egypt
Thebes (capital of)
Middle/New Kingdom Egypt
Tomb Models
Miniature reconstructions of daily life that were carved out of wood and placed in graves in the hopes that they would come alive in the afterlife; had meticulous detail- shows how dedicated and skilled the Egyptians were, how much they believed these things were necessary
satrapies
Persian provinces; each was a conquered culture; divided into 20 by Darius; roughly equal in size
Cyclopean Walls
Mycenaean walls supposedly built by Cyclops hired by the legendary founder of Mycenae
Sophocles's Famous Tragedy
Oedipus the King
Memphis (capital of)
Old Kingdom Egypt
c. 1550-1050
Old Kingdom Egypt
c.2700-220 BCE
Old Kingdom Egypt
Sulla's reforms benefitted the __________________
Senate
Red Crown
Originally the crown of Lower Egypt
White Crown
Originally the crown of Upper Egypt
In every Persian social class, ______________ people were ranked above __________________ people.
Persian born; conquered/other
Zoroaster
Persian prophet who had the revelation that there was only one god (Ahuramazda); began Zoroastrianism
Ptah
Patron god of craftsmen and artists; shown as a mummified man with a shaved head holding a died pillar or a scepter
Scribes
People employed to write documents/anything that needed to be written, usually religious or political; higher up in the social classes
What Pericles's strategy for the Peloponnesian War?
Pericles knew Athens could not defeat Sparta on land. So, he built the Long Walls, strengthened the Athenian navy to fight sea battles, and protected all the people of Attica inside the city
How was Pericles a contradiction?
Pericles led Athens to greatness- the Golden Age-and he believed strongly in democracy. But the fact that he was able to influence Athens so much was a failure of the democracy
Pasargadae
Persia
Persepolis (capital of)
Persia
Susa
Persia
c. 500-325 BCE
Persia
What was the political state in Persia in 336 BCE?
Persia was still the dominant power with a massive army. Persia was, however, facing internal weakness due to poor leadership, assassinations, leadership struggles, and increasingly independent satraps, who had become hereditary
paradaisia
Persian 4-walled ornamental rectangular gardens; means 'paradise' in Greek; located at Persepolis; also at Pasargadae
Tombs During the New Kingdom
Pharaohs were buried in hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings; the mortuary and funerary temples were combined into their memorial temples which were built on the other side of the mountain, where people knew where they were and could bring offerings
Olympias
Philip's estranged wife; mother of Alexander; strong-willed, proud, and emotional; exiled by Philip; ambitious, ruthless, and shrewd; basically controlled Macedonia while Alexander conquered Persia; powerful Hellenistic queen; may have had a hand in Philip's murder; assassinated; owned her own land and administered her riches
Tyre
Phoenicia
Xerxes's Attempt to Invade Greece
Plan: Take 250,000 man army across the Hellespont with double boat bridge 1) Built boat bridge 2) Built canal across 'unlucky place' where storm hit before 3) When a storm damaged his bridge, he ordered the engineers killed and the water whipped and branded 4) Greece knew the Persians were coming, but needed to buy time to organize their tiny states into a unified army 5) Battle of Thermopylae- Persia wins 6) The Greeks abandoned Athens and Xerxes burned it to the ground, but immediately regretted it 7) Battle of Salamis- Greece wins; Xerxes returns to Persia 8) Battle of Platea- Greece wins after surrounding Persia 9) Persia must retreat
Darius's First Attempt to Invade Greece
Plan: take army across Hellespont on boat bridge 1) Conquer Thrace- they do 2) Conquer Scythians- they fail, because the Scythians refused to stay in one place 3) This caused Ionia to believe they were strong enough to defeat Persia and revolt, with Athenian and Eretrian help 4) Darius crushed Ionia, taking horrible revenge on them- he took their children, making the young boys eunuchs of the court and the girls members of the royal harem; he also burned cities and killed and enslaved people 5) Darius vowed to get revenge on the Athenians and Eretrians, making a servant repeat this to him every time he had dinner 6) Darius took his army by land/boat-bridge, and sent the fleet with supplies around the coast 7) Huge storms destroyed the fleet, forcing the army to turn around
Darius's Second Attempt to Invade Greece
Plan: take the army in ships directly across the Aegean 1) Darius took his smaller army across to Athens 2) They faced the Greek hoplites in their phalanx formation at Marathon 3) The Persians were destroyed, and fled on boats
What was Plato's theory about the world?
Plato believed there was a nonmaterial perfect version of reality, and that what we experience is a shadow of this perfect world. This perfection (the Good?) gives us a purpose in our lives and guides us ethically and morally
Allegory of the Cave
Plato's theory/thought experiment; people are chained to the wall of a cave and watching the shadows on the wall, and that is all they over know; but, philosophers have broken free from the chains and know that the perfect versions of these things- what is casting the shadows- exist
How could priesthoods help Romans get ahead?
Political officials often took priesthoods in order to appear religious and virtuous. The priesthoods seemed to ensure favor of the gods toward the state, and they were prestigious. By doing the proper sacrifices and ritual, politicians appeared pious. They could also influence politics by interpreting omens from the gods
What was Pompey's military command?
Pompey was given the unprecedented command of the war against pirates, leading him to great power, lots of loot, and the nickname Pompeius Magnus
Advantages and Disadvantages to the Piece-Mold Method
Pros: 1) It was easier and could be done by unskilled craftsmen 2) The mold is reusable 3) The mold is cheap Cons: 1) The method limits the construction of the object to simple vessels because the clay pieces must be pulled apart
c. 225-200 BCE
Qin Dynasty
221
Qin Dynasty (15 years) begins
Ka
Raised arms representing the Ka aspect of the soul- one's life force that lived on after the body died
Ramesseum
Ramses II's grand memorial/mortuary temple; located across the Nile from Luxor; also called 'The Mansion of Millions of Years, United-with-Thebes'; contained scenes of Ramses 'winning' the Battle of Kadesh
KV 7
Ramses's grand tomb for himself; it was able to be so large because he outlived literally everyone else in Egypt; during construction, when the tomb ran into other tombs in the valley, the chamber that intersected became a dual part of both tombs
Mastaba
Rectangular tombs built during the Early Dynastic Pyramid for pharaohs or nobles; easier to construct; used until Imhotep came up with the idea of stacking them to create a step pyramid
Sibylline Books
Roman books of prophecy
hypocaust
Roman central heating systems; used for rich homes and public buildings; fire heated under floors and up walls; made up of a shallow cellar that connected the house to a furnace that circulated warm air; used in domus and villa
handbooks
Roman compiling of previous scientific knowledge, usually on 1 subject; usually sourced by Greek handbooks; offered nothing new, but stated practical applications of already existing concepts
Theodosius
Roman emperor who made Christianity the official religion
Scipio Africanus
Roman general and consul who drove the Carthaginians out of Spain and defeated Hannibal at Zama
Marius
Roman general and military reformer; nous homo who fought in the Jugurthine War; consul 7 times; gained the loyalty of his soldiers through his reforms; later fought a civil war with Sulla; popularizes; successfully defeated Gauls; retired in 100 BCE; came from an undistinguished family
Julius Caesar
Roman general and politician who was a member of the 1st Triumvirate but later fought a civil war against Pompey; won and declared himself dictator for life; made many reforms but eventually was assassinated by Senators
How could fame help Romans get ahead?
Romans who lacked family or monetary connections could use their own skills to get ahead, either through successful military command or public speaking
What happened in 387 BCE?
Rome was sacked by the Gauls. But when the Gauls tried to get to the remaining Romans on Capitoline Hill, the sacred geese of Juno saved Rome by waking up the Romans with their noise. If not for the geese, Rome would have been destroyed.
Augustus
Rome's first emperor; Octavian's name bestowed by the Senate, meaning "revered one"; preferred the title 'princeps'; ruled the entire Mediterranean world/Roman Empire; nuanced and kept the illusion of the Republic; began the Pax Romana and made many reforms that gained him popularity
Ostia
Rome's port
Thoth
Scholarly scribe of the gods; god of wisdom, magic, and the moon; invented language; shown with the head of an ibis and sometimes a crescent moon
1200
Sea People defeat Hittites
Severan Dynasty
Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus
Alexander Severus
Severan emperor who was controlled by his mother Julia
c. 1550-1050 (China)
Shang Dynasty
Huhai
Shi Huangdi's second son who was weak and not self-confident; put on the throne by Zhao Gao after Fusu committed suicide; though he was part of the plan, Zhao Gao manipulated him and controlled him (the deer/horse in court); soon after he took the throne the people rebelled and he lost the throne to Liu Bang eventually
What was the military of the Early Roman Republic like?
Soldiers had to be land-owning citizens. They were conscripted and brought whatever armor and weapons they could afford. There were many problems at home (farms) when the farmers were away fighting for long periods of time
What was the military of the Late Roman Republic like?
Soldiers no longer had to own land. They could gain land through a career in the military. Instead of conscription, service was voluntary. The soldiers were supplied with standardized weapons. The soldiers were highly trained, career soldiers
Why did Solon's reforms fail?
Solon attempted to solve Athens's problems, but he was unable to do the one thing that might have helped- to give land to the poor. Instead, by freeing the debt slaves he angered their former masters and the poor, unemployed former slaves, and by creating democratic councils he disappointed the new rich because they still had no power
Horus
Son of Isis and Osiris; god of light; personified by the ruling pharaoh; lost his eye battling Seth, but it was restored magically; shown as a falcon headed man with the double crown
Why did the League of Corinth not include Sparta?
Sparta refused to join the League of Corinth. Philip sent them a message saying he would raze Sparta if he entered Laconia; Sparta legendarily replied with just one word- "if". So, Philip left them alone
Leonidas
Spartan king who fought bravely at Thermopylae with his 300 Spartans even after he knew the Persians were coming from behind
Spartan Social Classes
Spartiates Perioikoi Helots
c. 750-475 BCE
Spring and Autumn Period
Trick to Estimate Years of Dynasty (within 50 years)
Start with 3000, subtract the dynasty number times 100 (ex. 3000 minus 14th dynasty x 100 = 3000- 1400= 1600 BCE)
Archimedes
Syracuse scientist and mathematician; student of the Museum; focused on theoretical math rather than practical applications; discovered the principle of density; experimented with levers and pulleys; invented the Archimedes screw; built a mechanical planetarium; anticipated modern calculus (the area of a circle, the surface and volume of a sphere); explained the principle of the lever ("move the world"); invented hydrostatics and discovered the ratio of a sphere and cylinder (on his grave); built weapons that defended Syracuse against Rome (ex. claw, catapults, death heat ray); killed by a soldier who did not recognize him
Why did Alexander need to take down the Persian navy?
Taking down the navy would only weaken Persia further, and with the coasts open Alexander could supply his forces
Why did the aristocrats overthrow Tarquin?
Tarquin refused to mete out justice to his son after the rape of Lucretia, so they overthrew him to avenger her
Why was Wu's revolt so successful?
The Shang were not expecting it, but it turned out they had a lot of enemies and people who were discontent with Shang rule. The revolt quickly snowballed and caught the Shang off guard
Why was the Zhou revolt and takeover concerning and chaotic?
The Zi clan had ruled for 500 years, and no one had known any rulers but them. It was unexpected and led to turmoil, with two main concerns 1) They had no 'special ruler knowledge' that had supposedly been passed down for 500 years in the Zi clan 2) People believed Shang ancestors would destroy China in their anger; they also doubted if Zhou ancestors had any power
How did Athens handle tyranny differently from the other poleis?
The aristocratic oligarchs saw the pattern of violent overthrows happening around them and the unrest in Athens. So, in order to stop the inevitable, they gave Solon absolute power for one year to fix all of Athens problem. Solon tried, but it wasn't enough, and eventually the aristocratic oligarchy was overthrown, just later than the other poleis.
What were the effects of Marius's reforms?
The army was filled with better-equipped, better trained career soldiers. Lots of urban poor joined the army to get a respected, well-paying job. And, because the Senate refused to give pensions to veterans, Marius's soldiers (and later other general's soldiers) were loyal patrons to specific generals rather than the Senate. This created a perfect atmosphere for civil war
How did the cities and the countryside rely on each other?
The cities needed the food from the countryside, and the cities provided the countryside with specialized goods; the king protected the city
How did Hellenistic sculpture improve on showing drapery?
The cloth in Hellenistic sculpture was shown very realistically; in fact, it became almost a competition between sculptors about who could find the most ways to portray fabric while still keeping it realistic (Ex. thin, wet fabric of Nike statue, thick fabric of Laocoön, support pillar of fabric that tricks your brain)
What happened to the generals of the Battle of Arginusae?
The ekklesia ruled to execute them, because the families of the soldiers who hadn't been rescued had brought them to court. Socrates tried to stop them, but failed. They were all executed, in including Pericles the Younger
Athenian Government Structure
The ekklesia was the assembly that voted on all decisions. The boule was the council of 500 that brought proposals to the ekklesia. The prytany was the standing portion of the boule that was always ready. Each day a different chairman from the prytany oversaw their work. Various magistrates and officials were allotted for one year terms. The strategoi and top finance officials were elected
How did Hero's temple door opening steam engine work?
The fire heated the water and the air, causing it to expand and spread into the other container. The other container dropped, pulling a cable that twisted two barrels, opening the doors. When the water and air cooled, it contracted and went back into the bigger container, closing the doors
Atum
The first god; created himself and other gods and humans; shown as an old beard man wearing the double crown with an ankh
How did theater begin?
The first theater was simply call and response in religious ceremonies. When a second actor was added, as Aeschylus did, it became theater
Ra
The god of the sun at its highest point; king of the gods; swallowed every evening by Nut and reborn each day; shown as a falcon-headed man with the sun disk
Egyptian Worldview
The gods, the pharaoh, and the people were all intertwined through fate, and they all had the same goal- prosperity in Egypt; Egyptians were against change
How did tyranny generally go in ancient Greece?
The masses would overthrow the aristocratic oligarchy violently and put a tyrant on the throne. The tyrants were generally good and usually implemented reforms. But, when they passed on power to their sons, the sons became authoritarian and were overthrown again, leading to a new tyrant
What was the military of the Early Roman Empire like?
The military also included large numbers of non-citizens of the Empire as auxilia, who could gain citizenship through a career in the military. They were usually horsemen, archers, or light infantry
How did Athens overstep with regards to the Delian League?
The money payed by the poleis for the protection of all Greece was used by Athens to supply their massive building projects (Parthenon)
What were the problems with trying to rule Greece as a king?
The mountains and sea created isolation and difficulty with transportation and communication. The Greeks were also obsessed with freedom, and bent on governing democratically. They would resist any attempt at monarchy, and Philip needed their help to defeat Persia
ma'at
The natural, harmonious, cosmic order made up of balance and the cycles working together; what Egyptians were always working to maintain by not changing anything
What changes did the Punic War bring for the patricians?
The patricians brought home enormous plunder and numerous slaves. These slaves were used to work the latifundia, which were created by buying up farms for cheap from the poor
What changes did the Punic War bring for the plebs?
The plebs brought home fewer rewards, and their farms were left in disrepair and neglect. The farmers couldn't compete with the cheap slave labor on the latifundia, so many sold their farms to move to the city or became tenant laborers. Their options were a) invest small amounts of plunder in rebuilding farms, b) sell farms to move to the city, or c) become tenant laborers
How did the provincial system work before Diocletian? How did it change under Diocletian?
The provinces were able to retain their laws, religions, and governments, but they operated under the Emperor, Senate, and provincial governors. They had to pay taxes and not rebel, and they were fine. Under Diocletian, the depth of control was greatly increased
Middle Kingdom
The second great kingdom in Egyptian history; (2055-1650 BCE); composed of Dynasties 11-14; began with Mentuhotep II reuniting and ended with the Hyksos invasion
What was Hellenistic art like?
The styles of both Greek and Egyptian/Persian art were used. For example, Ptolemy I and his daughter Arsinoe II were portrayed as both Greeks and Egyptian pharaohs
First Intermediate Period
The time between the Old and Middle Kingdoms; time of chaos an violence caused by a period of low inundation, low respect of the pharaoh, and nomarchs' independence; there was conflict between nomarchs and 3 separate cities claimed to have ruling pharaohs
Why is little known about the lives of ordinary Egyptians?
The wealthy people who wrote things down considered the poor, average Egyptians mostly beneath their notice and not worthy of writing about. There are also few physical remains of ordinary Egyptians because their few belongings and possessions were not made to survive for thousands of years, and quickly fell apart.
Why did Confucius look back on the Western Zhou Period as an ideal time?
There was less warfare and there was one ruler; the Mandate of Heaven was first introduced, and he liked the idea of a ruler being chosen based on virtue. He saw the Duke of Zhou, Wen, and Wu, as role models from this time
What was the general structure of the Roman government?
There were two consuls who ran the day-to-day bureaucracy. The Senate was a council that set the foreign policy, handed out funds, and debated to pass resolutions. Other assemblies voted on government positions/to declare or end war/etc. There were 10 tribunes, each with the veto power. The plebeian assemblies could elect the tribunes as well as resolutions that had the force of law over the whole population.
What happened in all of the other poleis after Athens became democratic?
They all also became democratic (except Sparta)
How were Spartan hoplites different from other Greek hoplites?
They all carried the same shield, showing a lambda, and they all wore red cloaks
Why did Romans naturally look up to the Senate?
They already looked up to their paterfamilias, and these men were the men who were in the Senate
Why did Greece colonize?
They colonized due to population overflow at the end of the Dark Age, searching for better land but also to increase trade. Greek colonies became independent, self-governing poleis (ex. Magna Graecia). The increase in trade and colonization also led to the creation of the new middle class- 'the new rich'.
What rights did Roman women gain?
They could file for a divorce, inherit and control their own property, and administer money
Why didn't the government worry about Daoists?
They did not get involved in politics, as they were 'unnatural' and unnecessary. They were against war but took a passive approach, and instead focused on the Dao winning out in the long run. So, they were not a threat to the government
What did Roman politicians hope for after finishing the cursus honorum?
They hoped to gain positions as provincial governors
Why did the Shang have no slaves?
They practiced human sacrifice, so any war captives or terrible criminals were sacrificed to the ancestors instead of enslaved
How did Sparta help Sicily?
They sent one man to train the Syracusan armies
What tactics did the 2nd Triumvirate use?
They used proscription, unlike Caesar, to eliminate anyone they disliked (like Cicero). They defeated the remaining conspirators at Philippi. After this, Mark Antony and Octavian split control of the Empire. Antony took the west, (Egypt) and Octavian took the east (Rome)
How did middle class sons elevate their social status during the Han Dynasty?
They went to government school and took the civil service exams. Their families expected them to pass and get a high paying job, then use that money to buy land. The land was passed onto their sons and elevated their social class
What were the governments of Hellenistic kingdoms?
They were absolute monarchies, but there were still some bigger cities that governed themselves democratically. The kings retained power through force, which was necessary when dealing with the cultural and language differences between the king and his people
Why did Phoenicia colonize?
They were aiming to increase trade by having connections. However, they kept being conquered, so their colonies flourished while they were subjects. For example, Carthage eventually created the Carthaginian Empire and was an enemy of Rome
How did Roman government positions work?
They were all (except Senator) one year elected positions for amateurs. There were no professionals
What did Pompey and Crassus do together as consuls?
They were both populares consuls in 70 BCE, and much of what they did undid Sulla's work. They restored power to the tribunes and plebeian assembly. In return, the pleb assembly gave Sulla military commands. However, the optimates Senate refused to give land to his soldiers
How were members of the gerousia elected?
They were brought in front of the apella individually and cheered/shouted for. People who couldn't see the candidates wrote down the candidates who received the loudest applause, and these candidates won.
Ionic
a style of column that had rams horns/a scroll on the capital and had one continuous frieze
Terracotta Army
Thousands of Chinese warriors sculpted out of clay; tall and intimidating; built using interchangeable parts with some tweaking/hand finishing; the different soldiers are specific by rank and also had facial characteristics of different regions of China; held real weapons (swords, rotted wooden crossbow and firing mechanism)
Gaius Gracchus
Tiberius's younger brother; passionate reformer who appealed for the support of the equestrians by passing laws through the pleb assembly giving control of the law courts to the nights; ran for tribune to continue his brother's land reform; ended up giving out many farms with increased speed; he pleased the poor by using grain subsidies to lower the price of grain; the Senate declared a senatus consultum ultimum for him and he was executed
Hadrian
Trajan's successor from Spain; loved Greek culture and the arts; toured the Empire; withdrew from conquests in Mesopotamia, setting boundaries and taking a defensive stance; built Hadrian's Wall; wore a beard
Plotina
Trajan's wife and friend of Hadrian; announced his successor
How could donations help Romans get ahead?
When wealthy people donated to the city/neighborhood/temple/etc, they gained a public image of being virtuous. Donations were never given anonymously, because the wealthy people of Rome wanted people to know what they were doing.
Spartan Life- females
Women were able to go out in public and wear short dresses/skirts. They also could compete in athletic events such as wrestling in public to show off their physical strength and characters. They were allowed to do this because the Spartans wanted strong wives to bear strong sons and easily handle labor. This was all seen as scandalous to the other greek poleis
Duke of Zhou
Wu's brother; acted as regent for his nephew Cheng until he was old enough, though he may have just been trying to hold onto power (Confucian historians portrayed him as virtuous (offered his life for Wu's) and say he stepped down); defeated the Shang estate-holder's rebellion
King Cheng
Wu's son; ruled after the Duke of Zhou stepped down; believed Heaven was on his side; waged war against and defeated his rebellious uncles
Darius
Xerxes's elder son; blamed for his father's murder and the executed; never ruled
Artaxerxes I
Xerxes's son who took the throne at 18 when the officials who murdered his father put him on the throne; manipulated by and almost killed by Artabanus (Megabyzus stopped him); ruled weakly for 41 years, manipulated by his mother Amestris; Egypt rebelled with Athenian help during his rule, and Megabyzus stopped it but then rebelled against Artaxerxes; he was pardoned; gave too much power to subordinates, weakening his own power
Stocisim
Zeno's philosophy; focused on using reason and self-control to manage your reaction to what happens in life; "takes the blows as they come"; emphasized reason, self-control, duty, law, virtue, etc; governed by reason, not passion; believed in equality in theory; embraced politics; believed moral laws of the world paralleled physical laws
Wen
Zhou high official in the Shang court; his name means 'civilized'; appalled by Di Xin's immoral actions; tried to peacefully protest by asking Di Xin to stop, but was thrown in jail for seven years; he tried to rebel again but died
During the Shang Dynasty, ______________ ancestors mattered.
Zi
Nabonidus
a Babylonian emperor who was very unpopular among his people because he attempted to shift the religious emphasis to Sin, the moon god, instead of Marduk, the sun god and did not preside over religious festivals; so unpopular that the people of Babylon welcomed Cyrus when he came to conquer them
Minoans
a Bronze Age civilization located on Crete that built large palaces, wrote in Linear B, created frescoes, and was probably a naval bully that was therefore able to live relatively peacefully without walls; had kings and a redistributive economy; female-centric society
Mycenaeans
a Bronze Age culture that was located on southern mainland Greece and divided into many city-states; a warlike culture that often fought internally but sometimes united; culture of the Trojan War; declined and then collapsed after a civil war
Chi Rho
a Christian insignia seen by Constantine in a vision
Junzi
a Confucian 'gentleman' who embodies all Confucian virtues (ren, reciprocity, filial piety, culture, propriety)
Wang Mang
a Confucian scholar born during the Han Dynasty to an influential family; however, his father died when he was young, meaning he had few political connections and became a scholar instead; he was Confucian and empathized greatly with the poor; he believed that the Han Dynasty had lost its way and the Mandate of Heaven, because the wealth and power had led to corruption; he later gained influence because his grandmother was the Dowager Empress and helped him be appointed as regent for the very young emperor, who was then replaced by an even younger one; Wang then seized power for himself, with the help of 'signs'; he took the throne and began the Xin 'Dynasty' (New Dynasty); had good intentions with his reforms, but they all went wrong- ended slavery (angered slave owners), brought back Confucian laws restricting merchants (angered merchants); attempted to bring back well-field system but failed miserably (caused chaos and angered everyone), established a national bank with reasonable interest rates (angered money lenders); created new coinage with 28 different coins (caused chaos, angered everyone); economic chaos and disastrous floods led to the rebel group the Red Eyebrows overthrowing him and the Han Dynasty continuing (but declining from there)
Battle of Thermopylae
a Greek and Persian battle fought at the narrow mountain pass of Thermopylae; Greece fought with a tiny army but was able to hold off Persia for a while until someone informed Xerxes about a path that led to a spot behind the Greeks; the Greeks mostly escaped, with a force of about 1,300 staying to fight in order to buy more time; a Persian victory, at a cost
Sparta
a Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus that was the exception to almost all of the patterns seen across the rest of Greece
tragedy
a Greek dramatic genre involving the tragic events affecting the main character.
Cleisthenes
a Greek ruler who built democracy by creating demes and tribes and inventing ostracism
Xenophon
a Greek soldier who fought under Clearchus at Cunaxa; chosen as the new leader after Clearchus died; led the March of the Ten Thousand and wrote about it in Anabasis
Battle of Platea
a Greek victory over Persia in the summer of 479 BCE; Greek forces decisively defeated Mardonius's army near Platea by surrounding them
Battle of Salamis
a Greek victory over Persia that occurred in the narrow bay of Salamis; the united Greek fleet destroyed Persian ships and decisively defeated them; fought because the Athenians had abandoned Athens; after the loss Xerxes returned to Persia
Hesiod
a Greek writer who wrote Works and Days; 7th century Greek poet
Pyrrhus
a Hellenistic general of Epirus who helped the Tarentines revolt against Rome in 280 BCE; defeated Rome twice but withdrew because he knew a victory was not worth its cost; impressed by Rome
Masada
a Jewish fortress where the zealots hid from the Romans until they either all committed suicide or all were slaughtered
Amun-Ra
a merging of two deities, Amun and Ra, that became the main god during the New Kingdom; supposedly praised victorious pharaohs with inscriptions
Cyaxares II
a Median king who reformed the military; allied with the Babylonians to conquer Assyria; expanded quickly far into the mountainous eastern regions, but struggled to control them; tried to invade Lydia but retreated because he believed a solar eclipse was a sign from the gods to stop conquering Lydia
Aristagoras
a Milesian tyrant who planned the Ionian revolt that failed
Cyrus the Great
a Persian conqueror and emperor who created the great Persian empire; conquered Media, Lydia, Ionia, Chaldea; organized the Persian army; built at Pasargadae; died near the Aral Sea from a battle wound; lenient and tolerant towards the Medes and other conquered cultures
Darius I
a Persian noble and Achaemenid who was put on the throne by the Persian nobles who killed Gautama/Bardiya; redivided Persia and retained power; limited the satraps' power; standardized satrapy taxation; created coinage; built royal roads; built canal and palaces; conquered Thrace but failed to conquer Greece; paid mercenaries; didn't tax Fars; spent a lot of money and was distant from his people; either seen as a great ruler or a terrible one
to prostrate oneself
a Persian practice of bowing down to the king by bowing facedown on the ground; everyone did it before the king; showed respect, but called wrong by the Greeks
Ahuramazda
a Persian sky god in polytheism; the one god in Zoroastrianism; 'Wise Lord'; locked in an all-out eternal battle with Ahriman (evil); shown as a bearded man with a hat with horns and a sun disk and robes, bracelets, holding a ring with hand raised in blessing; carried by a ring with wings and two forked lightning bolts
beaded hair
a Persian style of drawing hair and beards
cohort
a Roman battalion made up of 6 centuries (500-600 men)
testudo (turtle) formation
a Roman formation made up of tight, shuffling, overlapping heavy infantry slowly moving forward with large curved shields; could be taken down with catapults
legion
a Roman military division of about 2,500 soldiers
century
a Roman military unit of approximately 80 men
dictator
a Roman official who took power in the event of an emergency; the consuls chose the options and the Senate chose the dictator; supposed to solve the crisis in 6 months and then step down; during this period all rules were suspended and the dictator could execute someone without a trial; this position existed so in an emergency decisions could be made quickly without discussion
province
a Roman territory outside of Rome overseen by a Roman provincial government; the governors of the regions were like kings with great power because the regions were so far from Rome
Clearchus
a Spartan general who led 13,000 Greek mercenaries in Cyrus's rebellion against Artaxerxes II; chased Persians away but returned to find the battle lost; and a truce but was then murdered by Tissaphernes at a 'peace conference'
syssition
a Spartan military unit made up of about 15 men; voted unanimously with bread pellets to accept new members; ate, lived, and fought together
Meditations
a Stoic book by Marcus Aurelius about his fear of death
Sophocles
a Tragedian who added a 3rd actor; focused on motivations for characters' actions and lessened the importance of the chorus
Euripides
a Tragedian who questioned traditional values by creating more realistic characters ; most modern; created such complicated plots that he had to resolve them with deus ex machina
Banpo
a Yangshao village located in northern China along a river valley; made up of an oval of small houses surrounded by a moat; also had kilns for pottery and a cemetery
Wu
a Zhou man who overthrew the Shang (Di Xin) by gathering support quickly against; he led an army to victory in the Battle of Muye; declared himself first king of Zhou Dynasty; created the Mandate of Heaven to provide legitimacy for his rule, but said it had always existed; died after 2 years but his son Cheng was too young to rule
Shang Estate-Holder
a Zi man appointed by Wu to hold an estate and continue to sacrifice to Shang ancestors in order to appease them; however, he was not content to stay where he was; he bided his time to rebel and then did, but he was quickly put down but the Duke of Zhou; after this, no more oracle bones were used and human sacrifice was no longer a practice
golden rectangle
a architectural technique based on the ratio phi (1:1.618) that created visually pleasing buildings
peplos
a basic woman's garment reaching down to the ankles, belted at or above the waist
Battle of Kadesh
a battle between Egypt and the Hittite Empire for the city of Kadesh; Ramses II of Egypt faced off Muwatallis, the Hittite king, each with elite armies, though the Hittites had more people and better chariots; the Hittites fed false information about their troops to the Egyptians, which led Ramses to believe that the Hittites were far away; he attacked without his full army and was ambushed by Hittites from the other side of Kadesh; the Egyptians were very close to loss when reinforcements arrived just in time; Ramses himself led a charge into battle in order to inspire his army; in the end, the battle ended in a draw when the armies stopped fighting when darkness fell and agreed to temporary peace
The Analects
a book in which Confucius's teachings were preserved
Plato's Republic
a book written by Plato in the form of a dialogue about how the ideal state would be run; details Plato's idea of the ideal state
The Art of War
a book written by Sun Wu about military strategy, tactics, and ideals; used by many military leaders throughout history (including Mao Zedong for guerrilla warfare)
Composite Bow
a bow composed of multiple different things (wood, sinew, glue, etc) that allowed for a more radical curve and therefore better range (650 ft)
litter
a box with curtains carried by slaves that had a wealthy person and his family/friends in side of it; carried through the streets because the wealthy didn't want to walk through dirty streets
Philip II
a briliant Macedonian king who conquered Greece and planned to conquer Persia but was assassinated
dome
a bunch of arches crossing a circular space in different directions and intersecting at the center
Darius's Canal
a canal spanning east to west connecting the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea via the Nile; 130 mi; lined with stone, at some portions boats had to be carried over land
sedan chair
a chair on sticks carried by slaves for wealthy people who didn't want to walk through the streets
Double Crown
a crown created by Narmer that signifies unification of the Two Lands (Egypt); contains elements of the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt; used a lot in art but probably not worn very much; shown on god Horus
Thebes
a city-state in Greece that rebelled when Alexander gained command in order to test him; destroyed by Alexander
water-clock
a clock made of two cups, one pouring water into the other; used to time the speeches in Athenian courts
Code of Lycurgus
a code that dictated the Spartan lifestyle and turned Sparta into a military state; its principles were military fitness, equality among citizens, and austerity
Avesta
a collection of Zoroastrian scriptures, prayers, and teachings
royal purple
a color used only for the king's clothing; it was illegal for anyone else to wear it; found on the Phoenician coast in the snails
arch
a common Roman building technique involving a semi-circular wooden frame with stone blocks arching over, held in place by a keystone; the frame was then removed
League of Corinth
a confederacy of united Greek poleis led by a hegemon, Philip; aimed to invade Persia
Cato the Elder
a conservative Roman senator, respected general, and traditional family man; hated Greece and Carthage; lived simply and hated change
Artabanus
a conspirator who killed Xerxes then manipulated his son Artaxerxes; the captain of the royal guard; tried to kill Artaxerxes but was stopped by Megabyzus
gerousia
a council of 60+ years old Spartan men; made up of 28 men and the 2 kings; they prepared what the apella would vote on
Zhao Gao
a courtier who wanted the ruler to be weak and easily manipulated, so he forged a note saying Shi Huangdi wanted his first son to commit suicide, which he did, then put Huhai on the throne
machina
a crane that suspended an actor over the orchestra
Medes
a culture descended from nomads who settled in the Iranian plateau; eventually grew strong enough to, with Babylonia, conquer Assyria; similar culturally to Persia; conquered the Persians; tried to conquer Lydia but failed; later conquered by Cyrus under Astyages, but were respected but the Persians and seen as 'brothers'
Persia
a culture descended from nomads, similar to the Medes; conquered Media, Lydia, Ionia, Babylonia, and later Egypt; Cyrus was the main conqueror, but Darius organized and ruled the conquered lands effectively; more lenient and compassionate towards their conquered peoples (ex. spared Astyages and welcomed the Medes into their empire); made up of 20 satrapies
Lydia
a culture located on the western part of Asia Minor; culturally complex, but grouped with/influenced by the Aegean cultures such as the Greeks; independent while the Assyrians and Medes ruled, but conquered by Persia
Dynastic Cycle
a cycle of history invented by Wu involving the Mandate of Heaven 1) Heaven chooses a new ruler based on virtue and capability 2) This man receives the Mandate of Heaven and can rule 3) The mandate is passed down until an evil, immoral person comes along 4) Heaven expresses its concern with natural disasters 5) The ruler quickly fixes their immorality or is overthrown 6) The overthrower has the Mandate of Heaven (1) and begins a new dynasty
Archimedes screw
a cylinder with a corkscrew inside of it that was used to pump water; pumped continuously
Aswan High Dam
a dam built in Egypt in the 1950s that stopped the Nile's annual inundation from happening; built because Egypt had to make the choice between great agriculture and cheap electricity (hydroelectricity), and they chose electricity
The King's Peace
a decree from Persia that create peace in Greece (386 BCE); gave poleis in Ionia and Cyprus to Persia; favored Sparta over Athens
senatus consultum ultimum
a decree issued by the Senate that a person was a threat to the state; bound consuls to act to eliminate the threat
sophist
a demagogue who did it for money; valued persuasiveness and success over truth and personal morals; bragged that they could convince people of anything
steam engine
a device invented by Hero that heated water and used the steam to move something
Shaduf
a device that lifts water from the irrigation canals using a couterweight and lowers it into the field
Nilometer
a device used to measure the depth of the Nile as it flooded; priests recorded measurements everyday as they were crucial to the pharaoh's decision about food supply; led to predictions about the next year's harvest, meaning the pharaoh had to decide ration and distributions now based on this device's information
tribes
a division of the Roman people; each tribe got one vote in the popular assembly; the patricians maintained power by putting fewer patricians in a tribe and many plebeians in a tribe; supposed to vote on each resolution by the Senate, but it didn't
City Dionysia
a dramatic festival held in Athens once annually; honored the god Dionysus with tragedy and comedy plays; competing playwrights were chosen by the archon
Ban Zhao
a female historian who wrote Precepts for Women, a book describing how women should act (with hard work, humility, and religious observance); believed in education for women, as she herself was educated by her mother
Sappho
a female lyric poet who wrote simple, sensitive, and short love poems to both men and women; taught other women and lived on Lesbos
wet nurse
a female person hired to breastfeed another woman's baby
Well-field System
a feudalist system for dividing up estate-holders' lands; the lands were divided into smaller sections of 9 fields; the 8 outer fields were each farmed by a family for their personal food; the central square was farmed by all 8 families and all food grown there was given to the lord (the lord had many such squares); the squares were not equal in size- they were equal in food production (people with fertile farmland had less, people with rocky terrain/desert/etc had more; called the well-field system because the grid resembled the Chinese character for well
Phoenicia
a forested region on the Asian coast of the Mediterranean; capital was Tyre; forced to import food because there was little, leading to a large trade network
Oracle Bones
a form of ancient Chinese divination and communication with the ancestors and gods; used to determine the will of the gods and necessary sacrifices; the shoulder bones of oxen or the shells of turtles; holes were drilled on the back and then a hot poker was tapped on them until they cracked, making a 'bok' sound; a priest then interpreted the cracks for the answer; opposing statements were written (negative and positive) on the bones and then tested repeatedly
phalanx
a formation used by Greek hoplites; involved soldiers tightly-packed with muscle and power, which some spears sticking out of the front; relied on power and momentum to defeat the enemy
bureaucracy
a government composed of lots of officials in a strict rank order, each with a specific job; China established the largest one in ancient history during the Han Dynasty
Bureaucracy
a government divided into specialized departments; Amenhotep's government had departments run by a group of officials who reported to the father, under them governors and mayors
Megabyzus
a great Persian general; stopped the rebellion in Egypt; helped kill Xerxes; rebelled against Artaxerxes but was pardoned
the Marriage of Susa
a great feast and marriage where Alexander married Darius's daughter and his officers and troops married Asian women (10,000 of them?)
tent group
a group of 10 Persian soldiers; all shared a tent
chorus
a group of 15 people who all represented one type of being and responded/reacted to the events of the tragedy; sang, danced, and interacted with actors; became less important as more actors were added
Clan
a group of people who claim to be descended from a common ancestor; all members of Shang clans had the same occupations
ting
a group of small villages
Hypostyle Hall
a hall with many columns; at Karnak, Ramses II followed up his father Seti I's plan to create an extremely impressive one; they were built by stacking disks of stone held together by wood and piling sand in ramps to add the next one, so when the whole thing was constructed it was completely buried; at Karnak the hypostyle hall had 134 columns
decimation
a harsh punishment for the Roman military; involved taking 10x the number of deserters and dividing them into groups of ten who each drew straws; the short straw man would be stoned to death by the other 9 (basically- killing 1/10 of the men)
Duke Huan of Qi
a hegemon for 40 years during the Spring and Autumn Period; elected by the lords to serve during a time of military crisis (fighting 'barbarians'); he rose to power as duke after he defeated his brother Jiu in battle for the position; made Guan Zhong, who supported Jiu, his assistant and honorary uncle; like a king but without religious powers; after the crisis was over he held onto power
hegemon
a hereditary military leader of somewhat independent states
Determinative
a hieroglyph paired with another hieroglyph in order to show which way it is being used or determine its meaning
pilum
a javelin that was thrown before Roman soldiers charged; the tip bent upon impact so the enemy could not throw it back (but they could later be retrieved and bent back)
Sicily
a large island off the peninsula of Italy where many Greek colonies were that sided with Sparta
plebiscites
a law passed by the plebeian assembly
Peloponnesian League
a league of Greek poleis in the Peloponnesus led bu Sparta
Gordion Knot
a legend surrounding a knot that, if untied, supposedly would give that person rule over Asia; Alexander took a large detour in order to reach it because he was superstitious; he cut it with a sword (and then he became ruler of Asia)
Lycurgus
a legendary Spartan figure who created the code that reformed Sparta into a military state; shadowy, unclear figure who may not have existed
Trojan War
a legendary war fought circa 1250 BCE between the united Greek city-states, led by Mycenae, and Troy; written about in the Iliad; lasted 10 years until the Greeks were victorious
Pharos
a lighthouse that guided ships to Alexandria; used mirrors to magnify the light
chiton
a linen shirt/dress worn by Greek men and woman
client
a lower class person, usually a newcomer to Rome, who attached themselves to a patron to receive protection as a family member and helped the patron in political and private life; owed the patron so was a part of the entourage
Akh
a luminous ghost that could communicate with the living and potentially haunt people; little is known about this part of the soul
Archilochus
a lyric poet who wrote lots of unrequited love poems and the poem about abandoning his shield to save himself
March of the Ten Thousand
a march made by 10,000 Greek soldiers across Persia to Greece; the soldiers had fought for Cyrus but lost; along the way they fought off Persians and tribesmen along with braving harsh weather; proved that Greeks could defeat Persians even with tiny numbers; led by Xenophon
Shi Huangdi's Tomb
a massive tomb complex (mausoleum) built during the Qin Dynasty for the first emperor Shi Huangdi; made up of the actual burial chamber under a huge mound (not excavated), which supposedly has a mini city and river, as well as many pits surrounding, some filled with terra cotta soldiers; took a workforce of 700,000 convict-laborers and 30,000 families; the floor was tile, and the ceiling was earth supported by wood that collapsed; took 36 years to build
Great Wall of China
a massive wall built in northern China to keep nomadic invaders ('barbarians') out; during the Qin dynasty, many preexisting walls were connected; a huge labor force of people fulfilling their labor requirements worked on it (farmers during their off season); many, many people died while working on it because of the harsh climate, lack of food, and dangerous conditions- they were simply buried in the wall; it was built using the tamped-earth method; there were many sentinel towers along the wall, where signal fires could be lit; the Qin expanded it to 3000 miles using workforces of 300,000 workers ; the Han expanded it through the Gobi desert by using moats and ditches; it didn't actually protect China from nomads that well, and it caused a lot of deaths and disturbance among the people
Legalism
a means for rulers to control their subjects by manipulating their self-interest; based on implementing laws and enforcing them harshly with clear and fair rewards and punishments, no favoritism to keep the lines clear, and shutting down intellectual debate and free speech because questioning the laws ruins their ability to function; advocated for by Han Feizi; used by the Qin state and Qin Dynasty
Stylized
a style of art where the meaning is more important than how it looks
Sparabara
a military unit used by the Assyrians (and later the Persians); made up of 1 archer and 1 man standing in front of him with a spear and wicker shield; used to conquer cities- able to aim up at people on the walls/protect the archer with the shield; less effective against axes/swords/etc.
Great Helot Revolt
a nearly successful helot rebellion in Messenia that scared the Spartans into creating a military state to prevent the helots from revolting again
Pi-Ramesse
a new city complexed built by Ramses II southeast of the Delta; had a large royal compound
lyric poetry
a new form of poetry that replaced epic poetry after the Dark Age; personal, non-heroic, and contemporary; focused on the authors personal emotions; originally accompanied by a lyre; ex. Archilochus and Sappho
New Comedy
a new genre of comedy from 320 BCE onwards that did not have political content, but was concerned with people in complicated, amusing situations; ex. Menander
new rich
a new social class after the Commercial Revolution that consisted of lower class people who had invested and succeeded in international trade; a social class that was wealthy but lacked political power and wanted it
Appian Way
a paved public road stretching 366 miles through central and south Italy; goes north to south
tribute
a payment made by a weaker power to a stronger power
Carthaginians
a people descended from a Phoenician colony located in northern Africa; the power in the Mediterranean until Rome came along
Arian Christianity
a persecuted sect of Christians who believed Jesus was fully human and adopted by God; forced to leave the Empire, they fled north and converted Germanics who later ruled parts of the Empire (Ostrogoths/Visigoths)
personator
a person who stood in for the dead ancestor during sacrifices; the ancestor's grandson or grand-daughter in law who was treated as the ancestor's ghost and consumed the offerings
Pythagoras
a philosopher and mathematician from Magna Graecia; taught math and music; came up with Pythagorean Theorem; also believed peoples souls moved to different animals/people after death
Herakleitos
a philosopher and scientist who believed that the quintessential substance was fire and the universe was always in flux and created harmony through the union of opposites
Daoism
a philosophy based on achieving harmony with nature and understanding/experiencing the Dao; dislikes education because the Dao cannot be taught and schools are not natural; value passivity and activity equally; value effortlessness, simplicity, gentleness, and relativity; popular among lower classes because values weakness and in the long run the weak/yin/peasants will overcome
Confucianism
a philosophy taught by Confucius focusing on relationships and creating a harmonious society with virtue; believes people are inherently good and will do the virtuous thing if they know what it is
Why did Greeks find a pale face attractive?
a place face meant that the woman did not have to do outside and work in the sun because she was so wealthy
Guan Zhong
a political adviser who supported Jiu against Duke Huan; when Jiu lost he was supposed to commit suicide, but he turned himself into Huan and later became his most trusted assistant and 'uncle'; disliked/seen as dishonorable by many people because he didn't commit suicide, but he did help China defeat enemies and stay stable
Doric
a style of column that had a plain capital and metopes on the front
Delian League
a political military alliance of 150 Greek city-states, Aegean states, and Ionia; aimed to defend Greece and attack Persia; organized by Athens; attacked on the coast of Asia minor as a constant annoyance to Xerxes; had victories, especially a major one near the Eurymedon River
empire
a political unit made up of separate countries; the countries either partly rule themselves or are completely controlled by the emperor (China was the latter)
populares
a political view that believed the problem of Rome came from the poor, landless citizens (tenant farmers and urban poor); wanted to give land and assistance to the poor; led by ambitious aristocrats who didn't have senatorial power and were seeking an alternate path to political power; used the power of the tribunes and plebiscites; looked back on the time of the small farmers
optimates
a political view that believed the problem of Rome came from the tribunes and plebiscites; wanted to restore power to the Senate; mostly conservative, traditional nobiles who controlled the Senate; looked back on the traditional oligarchy
grain subsidies
a portion of the price of grain paid for by the government in order to make it a lower cost for the people
Etruscans
a powerful and ancient nation of people north of Rome; came from Etruria; wealthy and advanced; extended south and west down the coast; originally controlled Rome in the monarchy; in 509 BCE the Etruscan kings were overthrown
Wuding
a powerful king of the Shang Dynasty; ruled c. 1200 BCE; Fu Hao was one of his wives; member of the Zi clan
Coregency
a practice created by Amenemhat I in which the ruling pharaoh shared power with his son and heir; 1) teaches son how to rule 2) creates smooth transition to next ruler (may have had to do with transition between Mentuhotep IV and Amenemhat I
Shang Yang
a prime minister of Qin under the Duke of Qin; made reforms to the Qin government that helped Qin run smoothly and have an advantage over the other states; he required that the laws apply to everybody, created rewards for turning in criminals, military promotions based on merit, and other reforms; standardized weights and measures (jin); when the duke's son committed a crime, he had his tutor punished, but when the son became duke he ordered Shang Yang drawn and quartered
Hosea
a prophet in Israel who warned that the Jews would be destroyed because they were divided in a civil war after the death of King Solomon
propraetor
a provincial official with less military authority; represented Rome in the province; had to have been a praetor; often extorted money from the provincial citizens
proconsul
a provincial official with more military authority; represented Rome in the province; often extorted money from the provincial citizens
Socratic Method
a question and answer format of teaching that Socrates used to draw the truth and hidden knowledge out of his students; allowed the student to find the true for themselves by removing all falsehoods/obstacles to the truth
Red Eyebrows
a rebel group that wanted to overthrow Wang Mang and bring back the Han; dyed their eyebrows red with cinnabar; eventually overthrew him, beheaded him, and tore him apart
Chen She
a rebel leader of peasants and workers against the Qin; declared himself King of Zhang-Chu, which wasn't really a territory; a threat to the Qin until his charioteer killed him in 208 BCE
Ionia
a region of Asia Minor close to Greece where the Greeks established colonies
Thrace
a region of Greece close to Asia Minor that Darius conquered; Artemesia was the queen of this region
Buddhism
a religion that began in China with Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha); believed in pursuing the Middle Way/the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and avoiding attachment to physical things or desires; entered China in the 1st century CE and became popular (but changed) after the Han
Yellow River
a river and valley in northern China where the first ancient Chinese civilizations flourished; has yellow silt from the desert known as loess with flat sides, which stacks up on the sides of the river until they collapse, causing flooding and the river's path to move; known as 'China's Sorrow' because of this destructive flooding; the flooding forced people to cooperate to build levies and barriers and also irrigate; the drier climate in northern China meant grain production was efficient around the Yellow River
Yangtze River
a river and valley in southern China where civilization was established later; the wetter climate meant rice production was efficient and no irrigation was required
Rubicon River
a river that marks the border between Gaul and Italy; crossed by Caesar on January 10, 49; his "point of no return"
ekkyklema
a small movable platform with wheels that rolled on to the stage showing action that happened indoors (offstage), often murders; 'tableau machine'
Delos
a small neutral island sacred to Apollo where no one was allowed to die; where the Delian League dues were originally sent
Thirty Tyrants
a small oligarchic group of 30 put in place to rule Athens by Sparta; meant to stop a revolt; overthrown in 403 BCE
polyglot society
a society composed of many different languages, cultures, and traditions; ex. Assyria; made it more difficult to revolt because they couldn't speak to each other
Xerxes II
a son of Artaxerxes; took over Artaxerxes died, but was murdered by his brother Soghdianos, who was murdered by his brother Ochus (who became Darius II)
Darius II
a son of Artaxerxes; took the throne after murdering his brother Soghdianos; dealt with rebellions; greedy and cruel
Shensheng
a son of Duke Xian of Jin; his mother's new wife, Lady Li, wanted her son on the throne and attempted to get rid of him by spreading rumors, getting him sent to rule faraway lands and lead an army, telling Duke Xian that Shensheng wanted to kill her 'because of his virtue', and hatching a plot involving sacrifice- she told Shensheng that the Duke dreamt of his mother, meaning he needed to sacrifice to her; he did, but she poisoned the foods and drinks; when the poison taster/a dog died from tasting it, Shensheng was blamed): after this, he committed suicide to avoid dishonoring his family (seen as virtuous)
Canon of Proportion
a specified set of ratios for all parts of the body in art; ideal and coneys the idea of a person more than the actual appearance; a set of rules for art production enforced by priests that allowed for no creativity; allowed art to be consistent for generations
himation
a square of woolen cloth worn on top of the chiton as a cloak
Smiting Posture
a stance in art used to show a ruler's dominance over an entire group; often strong animals are used or the ruler is shown with a weapon killing people
Nicene Creed
a statement outlined at the Council of Nicaea that explains the Christian faith in a few short paragraphs; still upheld by all modern Christian traditions
kouros
a statue of a naked male youth; shown with athleticism and long hair; the proportion was usually off
kore
a statue of a young woman; always clothed
Narmer Palette
a stone tablet depicting Narmer's unification of Egypt in 3100 BCE; indent used to grind minerals to create kohl; donated to a temple; shows Narmer large because of hieratic scaling as he smites his enemies; shows scribe writing it down; on one side he wears the crown of Upper Egypt, on the other he wears the crown of Lower Egypt; the intertwining lions' necks symbolized unity
Rosetta Stone
a stone tablet written during the Hellenistic Period when Alexander the Great had conquered Egypt; announces the rededication of a temple in 3 separate languages (Greek, Demotic, and Hieroglyphs); deciphered in 1821 and caused a massive breakthrough in the understanding of Egyptian language and culture; caused New View of Egypt to exist; breakthrough was made by an amateur using the cartouches to match the phonetic spellings with Greek names
realism
a style in art that portrayed people realistically, even to the point of portraying flaws
stylized
a style of art in which the idea is more important than the accuracy; used in the Archaic Period
idealized
a style of art that portrayed perfection and was better than reality
Tiberius
adopted son and successor of Augustus; not his first choice for an heir; at first was an able, successful administrator, but then he deteriorated into fear and paranoia and went to an island, leaving cruel Sejanus in charge; later became more cruel after the death of his sons; tried to continue Augustan policies but lacked his skill and subtlety
symposia
after-dinner drinking parties hosted by Greek men; had female prostitutes and entertainers but not wives
New Babylonians
aka Chaldeans (named themselves after powerful Babylonia 1000 years before); under Nebuchadnezzar II worked with Medians to overthrow Assyria; conquered the Fertile Crescent, including Judah; Nebuchadnezzar also rebuilt Babylon to restore and surpass its former glory; built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of 7 ancient wonders); later conquered by Cyrus under Nabonidus; threw open the gates and welcomed Cyrus because they all hated Nabonidus
Udjat
aka Wedjat or Eye of Horus; symbol of protection representing Horus's magically restored eye
inviolable
aka sacrosanct; forbidden from being hurt, sued, or killed during that year in office
clan (gens)
all of the families linked by a common paterfamilias and name
Effortlessness
also called nonfiction (less accurate); the idea of 'going with the flow' and making one's action harmonious with nature to be efficient but quiet/smooth; (oxen parable- respond to nature and learn from it; learn from lower classes)
concubine
an 'unofficial' wife of a powerful male in China; their sons were not in line for the throne
What did Octavian issue in 28 BCE?
an edict that annulled everything the 2nd Triumvirate had done
Socrates
an Athenian man and the first true Greek philosopher; stonemason, politician, soldier, and philosopher ; wandered around Athens like a 'gadfly' and showed people their ignorance, trying to reveal the truth to them; taught Plato; condemned to death for corruption and teaching about other gods; supporter of democracy; illiterate
Solon
an Athenian reformer given absolute power for 1 year to fix the cities problems; freed debt slaves and created democratic councils; encouraged industry and commerce; he left after the year ended, but his attempts weren't enough
Themistocles
an Athenian strategies and shrewd democrat who convinced the ekklesia to use a vein of silver to strengthen the fleet and also convinced the Athenians to abandon Athens when Persia was coming
Pericles
an Athenian strategos who was reelected for 29 years; helped Athens into its Golden Age; convinced the ekklesia to enact his vision and ideas; kept Athens in the Peloponnesian War until his death of the plague; incredible because he wasn't a king; effective orator who was never ostracized
The Gallic Wars
an account published by Caesar about his victories in Gaul
Hemudu
an ancient Chinese culture that lived near Hangzhou Bay and grew rice near the marshes; had domesticated animals and hunted
Yangshao
an ancient Chinese culture; one of the first groups to settle down from being nomads and stay in one place along the Yellow River; hunted small and large fame with arrows and spears; kept domestic livestock; caught fish with hooks, harpoons, and nets; built houses on terraces near the river; farmed millet by cutting down all trees and burning grass/weeds and then planting until the field's nutrients was depleted; made flour; built small settlements (such as Banpo) with wattle and daub houses crowded together in an oval surrounded by a moat; made pottery using cords and mats to make designs; some pottery had markings on the rim, possibly indicating a connection to the first Chinese writing, invented later; believed in an afterlife/some religious belief regarding the sun; buried children in urns for their souls to escape; everyone was mostly equal in society except for one chief; settled down about 2000 years after people in the Middle East settled down during the Neolithic Revolution
Book of the Dead
an ancient Egyptian religious text that specified the journey to the afterlife; each hour of the night had a gate with a guardian the person had to get through (each would be a door in the tomb), and they were walked by Anubis the last part of the journey
Rome
an ancient city in Italy that grew into a massive empire encompassing the Mediterranean; legendarily founded by Romulus
China
an ancient civilization located in southeast Asia, far away from Egypt/Mesopotamia/the Middle East; China developed agriculture independently from other ancient civilizations, but later; China was also isolated from other civilizations until later (Han Dynasty); 'The Middle Kingdom'
tributary state
an area that retains its 'independence' but must pay tributes to the conquering power (ex. Judah and Assyria)
Xiang Yu
an aristocrat from an old military family who rebelled against the Qin, leading a group of powerful allied people who disliked Huhai and the Qin's harsh rule; became rivals with Liu Bang because they both wanted the throne; took the capital from Liu even though Liu arrived first; pillaged and burned the city (so the Confucian scholars saw him as immoral); challenged Liu to a duel but Liu just insulted him; killed in many in the final battle but was defeated; committed suicide when he was cornered
Calligraphy
an art form of writing used by the Chinese as communication; means 'beautiful writing'
siege
an assault on a walled city
apadana hall
an audience hall supported by pillars and flanked by guard towers; built by Darius at Persepolis with decorative columns made of stone drums stacked using cranes
Redistributive Economy
an economy in which the pharaoh collects the harvest and anything produced by the land and redistributes it based on social classes and necessary rations (Nilometer); the nomarchs then distribute it accordingly, moving goods up and down the Nile
Zoroastrianism
an ethical monotheism religion based on Zoroaster's preachings; based around an eternal battle between the forces of good and evil, where each person's moral choices mattered and would be judged at the end of time; teachings written in Avesta; practiced by Persian kings and people; one god was Ahuramazda; magi were priests
liturgy
an expensive public service done by the rich (ex. equipping a trireme or being a choregos)
Mandate of Heaven
an invention by Wu justifying his legitimacy; however, he told people it had always existed, they just didn't know about it because no one remembers the last time a new dynasty took over; the idea that Heaven (tian) selects the king based on capability and virtue (giving him the right to rule)
Hippocratic Oath
an oath taken by physicians to uphold ethical standards
Imperial Post
an official mail service that moved information quickly
censor
an official that only existed every 5 years for 18 months; must have been a consul first; took the census and appointed Senators or removed unfit Senators
Astyages
an unpopular Median emperor because of high taxes on the nobility and his tendency to spend less time ruling/conquering then enjoying his luxurious lifestyle; last Median emperor because Cyrus conquered his empire- when Cyrus marched on Ecbatana, many Median soldiers joined his army or deserted
During the Old Kingdom, nomarchs were ___________________.
appointed
Howard Carter
archaeologist who, in 1922, discovered Tutankhamon's tomb
frieze
area between columns and roof; either a continuous rectangular strip or divided into metopes; decorated with sculptures
Pontus
area in Asia Minor
Numidia
area in northern Africa
Caesar (tetrarchy)
assistant emperor (there were 2); succeeded the Augustus
debt slaves
bankrupt Greeks who had to work off their debt at slaves; not considered property; regained freedom when they worked off their debt
epithets
descriptive stock phrases used in epic poetry to aid the meter (ex. swift-footed Achilles)
Seneca
brilliant Stoic philosopher and writer; Nero's tutor; wrote Nero's good speeches; tried to guide Nero but eventually failed; later ordered to kill himself; wrote Natural Questions; didn't offer anything new scientifically
Bent Pyramid
built by Sneferu; attempted to be the first true pyramid but failed because it was cracking and unstable, so the slope was changed
Red Pyramid
built by Sneferu; the first true pyramid
fasces
bundle of rods and an axe; symbolized imperium (the power to punish (rods) and execute (axe)); carried by lictors accompanying magistrates
stoai
colonnades around the agora where people did business and met up
colonnade
column-lined roofed walkway
Vespasian
commander of troops in the East and Nero's successor; fought against First Jewish Revolt against Rome; initial success, but had to return after Nero's death; seized the grain dole in Egypt and then marched on Rome; lacked legitimacy so he kept good relations with the Senate and got them to legally confirm his authority; used title imperator instead of princeps; tore down Domus Aurea to build Colosseum; governed with wisdom, economy, and benevolence
Septimius Severus
commander who took the throne using military force and replaced the Praetorian Guard with his own men; created a military monarchy, depending only on his soldiers and no one else
pornai
common prostitutes found in 'red-light' districts; either worked in brothels or were streetwalkers
Battle of Milvian Bridge
battle between Constantine and Maxentius for the throne; Constantine's troops wore the Christian insignia a Chi Rho on their shields because Constantine had a vision to conquer under that sign; he won, believing the Christian god had helped him triumph
Battle of Cannae
battle between Hannibal's Carthaginian forces and Roman forces in 216 BCE; Rome lost their entire army in an epic defeat; worst Roman military defeat
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
beautiful tiered gardens built in Babylon with water irrigation systems; built by Nebuchadnezzar for his wife Amytis to remind her of the Median mountainous homeland
Council of Nicaea
conference of Christian bishops convened by Constantine to write a concise statement of Christian belief; wrote the Nicene Creed
Ren
consideration or humaneness; consider your effect on others
Hipparchia
controversial female philosopher; wife of Crates of Thebes; fell in love with Crates's teachings; cynic; went out to dinners
What were churches modeled after?
basilicas/law-courts
Battle of Issus
battle between Alexander and Darius III; their first confrontation; Persia outnumbered Greece; Alexander made strategic decisions; Darius III retreated at a time when the victory was still unclear, demoralizing his troops; Alexander won; Darius fled, abandoning his family (333 BCE)
Battle of Gaugamela
battle between Alexander and Darius III; their second confrontation; Persia outnumbered Greece; Alexander made strategic decisions; Darius III retreated at a time when the victory was still unclear, demoralizing his troops; Alexander won; Darius fled, and was chased by Alexander as well as some of his own subjects
Battle of Hydaspes
battle between Alexander and the kingdom in India; Greek victory; involved war elephants; upset the men, who did not want to continue, though Alexander did
Filial Piety
care for family and obligations in family; care for ancestors, parents, children (specifically the people above you in the family tree)
naos
central rectangular room of a temple where the statue of the god/goddess was housed; windowless and opened into a porch
Circus Maximus
chariot racing arena in Rome; where teams of four horses each competed in 7 laps around the spina
pontifex maximus
chief priest of the state region; a post granted to Augustus in 12 BCE
auxiliaries
citizen troops called up to increase numbers
Alexandria
city in Egypt established by Alexander; one of the finest ancient cities; located on the coast by the delta; center of science and medicine
Sejanus
cruel prefect of the Praetorian Guard; left by Tiberius to preside over Rome; concentrated the cohorts outside Rome and tried to seize the throne; poisoned Tiberius's son; discovered and executed
Cataracts
dangerous waterfalls and rapids in the southern half of the Nile; 7 exist, the first is the northernmost; natural barrier to the south but also limited southward expansion
Iphigenia
daughter of Agamemnon; sacrificed to appease Artemis so the Greeks could go to war
Cornelia
daughter of Scipio Africanus and mother of the Gracchi brothers; model of the ideal, virtuous Roman matron; managed the estate and educated her 12 children after her husband's death; called her sons 'jewels'; fondly remembered
Caitline
debt-ridden aristocrat with a reputation for shady dealings; lost consulship to Cicero, so he plotted revenge and tried to overthrow the government; failed and was executed
direct democracy
democracy in which all people directly voted on proposals
'above the law'
describes a ruler/monarch who believes he or she is not controlled by the law like the people are
haruspices
divination through the entrails of an animal
Art Production in Ancient Egypt
done using a sort of assembly line, creating efficient, but not unique, art
kylix
drinking bowl with a design on the bottom
peristyle
elaborate garden surrounded by a colonnade
Nerva
elderly lawyer chosen to be Emperor after Domitian; short and sensible reign; adopted a grown man (Trajan) as his successor; consulted the Senate and had excellent relations with the; focused on the provincials and providing assistance to the poor
tribune
elected magistrates from the plebs; champion of the plebeians who stood up for them using the veto power; only voted on by plebs; protected by the plebs and considered inviolable; often disliked by Senate
war elephants
elephants used in battle; terrified the cavalry; never really used for frontal attack because they could panic and go berserk
the Companions
elite Macedonian cavalry
Diocletian
emperor following the military anarchy in the 3rd century CE; restored political stability and borders by making Rome a military state; greatly increased the depth of imperial control on a local level; negated Senate power and increased the size of the army; made provinces smaller and issued maximum prices and wages; created the tetrarchy; persecuted Christians to restore the pax deorum (peace of the gods); resigned but his system failed
paradoi
entrances to the orchestra used by the chorus and actors; located to either side of the orchestra
Sea Peoples
foreigners who came into Egypt from the north and northwest (across the Mediterranean); they attacked twice and both times were stopped by Ramses III, who fought them on the beaches with massive volleys of arrows, boarding their boats, and close hand-to-hand combat; however, they pushed Egypt back within its natural boundaries and triggered the collapse of the Hittite Empire; they later settled in Palestine (Philistia) and called themselves the Philistines
What were the layers on a Roman road?
foundation of large stones and sand, then pebbles and gravel, then paving stones
Who could fight in the Roman army (until Marius)?
free, land-owning citizens
Spartiates
full citizens of Sparta who (men only) were trained to be warriors; couldn't leave Sparta (except for military matters)
Gnaeus Pompey
general who became a national hero fighting pirates and rebellious slaves; member of the 1st Triumvirate; defeated by Caesar; called the "teenage butcher" under Sulla because of his executions; amassed military clients; military, austere
darics
gold coins created by Darius as standardized coinage
tetrarchy
government by 4- the two Augusti and the two Caesars, each with a province; allowed for closer control of provinces and ensured clear succession (or tried to)
democracy
government by the people
orations
grand speeches copied by Romans from the Greeks; used for persuasion
Library of Alexandria
great library built by the Ptolemies; contained 400,000 scrolls; adjacent to the Museum
Cicero
great statesman and champion of the Republic; lawyer, orator, consul, senator, patriot, and writer; opponent of Caesar and Anthony; ultimately failed and was killed; amazing orator who tried Roscius and Verres; won consulship over Catiline and declared him to be executed after his conspiracy; grew up in the same hometown as Marius
Caligula
great-nephew and successor of Tiberius; banished informers, reduced taxes, and pardoned prisoners, but then went insane; claimed divinity and proposed his horse be consul; failed to invade Britain; ruled like a king obsessed with his power; later assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Work Crews
groups of 10-12 people who did unskilled work (farming, manual labor, construction) under overseers
Propriety
have good manners- puts people at ease in social situations
Greek hoplites
heavily armored Greek footsoldiers who were armed with spears and short swords; fought in the phalanx formation; formidable when faced head-on
cataphracts
heavy cavalry units that charged the enemy head-on
What was Spartan currency?
heavy iron bars that discouraged spending and luxuries because they were so unwieldy
hetairai
higher class companions/courtesans/prostitutes; companions to rich men; intellectually versed and provided an intellectual outlet for men that they couldn't have with their wives
Thucydides
historian who wrote the story of the Peloponnesian War
thermae
huge public bath buildings with libraries, pools, restaurants, etc
Lex Hortensia (power of the plebiscites)
law passed in 287 BCE that allowed all resolutions passed by the plebeian assembly the force of law over the whole population
The Middle Kingdom had a greater emphasis on ______________.
learning
black-figure pottery
less advanced pottery made in the Archaic Period; black figures were painted on red clay
Egyptian War Chariots
lightweight chariots that carried a driver and an archer; could not crash headlong into enemy lines, instead they fired arrows and then came around for a second charge
proscription lists
lists of names of "enemies of the republic"; posted in the forum; whoever killed these people and brought their heads to Sulla would be paid
Khafre's Pyramid
located at Giza, still has the capstone
Early Dynastic Egypt
made up of the 1st and 2nd Dynasty; 3100-2686 BCE
forum
main square used for a marketplace and public meetings; open area surrounded by shops and offices with colonnades in front
paterfamilias
male head of a family; had absolute power over the whole family, including life and death
Trajan's Column
massive pillar with sculptures depicting Trajan's conquest of Dacia
Pyramid-Tombs
massive pyramid-shaped tombs where pharaohs were buried; seen as a symbolic ramp or stairway; pyramid-shaped because that was the shape of the Egyptian hill of creation, ben-ben; constructed with precise geometric proportions; built in the Old Kingdom; built using mostly man power and simple sledges by workers, not slaves; usually in the middle of large complexes with causeways and temples and mastabas; the actual body would be buried beneath (except in Akhet-Khufu)
Thales
one of the first Greek scientists; an Ionian from Miletus who measured the Great Pyramid and predicted an apocalypse but also thought the world was made of water
Pliny the Elder
one of the most well-known Roman encyclopedists; hard-working; wrote the massive and organized Natural History along with other volumes; died "for science" at Pompeii
prefecture
one of the quarters of the tetrarchy; further divided into dioceses, which were smaller than earlier provinces
Ka (part of soul)
one's life force that lived on after the body died; required offerings/food in order to survive in the afterlife; had to be able to recognize the body, hence mummification
plebeians
originally a hereditary class made up of everyone else besides the patricians (small farmers, merchants, artisans, small landowners, etc); still citizens but had fewer rights; intermarriage with patricians was not allowed; could vote for government, but couldn't be in it at first; sought more political power through strike action
patricians
originally a hereditary social class of the families of the people that overthrew Tarquin and became Senators; usually aristocratic landowners; had special religious and political privileges; originally only they could hold government positions
What work done by lower-class Egyptian workers was seen as respectable and earned social status?
painting
gymnasia
parks around the city where young men exercised; sports grounds that were also later used for philosophy
Myth of Tantalus
the Greek myth involving Tantalus insulting the gods by feeding them his son and then being greatly punished for it
Perioikoi
people who lived in Laconia but not in Sparta; people who were free but not citizens; could become Spartiate by exhibiting great strength/courage/honor in battle; could travel, though the Spartiates could not
mosaics
pictures and designs made of colored tiles that went on the wall or floor
Workshops
places where skilled laborers created things (potter, fabrics, beer, etc)
hegemony
political dominance
Assyrian Religion
polytheistic; Ashur was the king god
Hellas
the Greek word for Greece
patronage
relationship between a higher status and lower status person
catharsis
release of emotional tension
mystery religions
religions centered on secret or mystical rites; Hellenistic cults; overcame the old Greek gods in popularity; ex. Cult of Isis
Persian kings practiced ___________________.
religious tolerance
metics
resident foreginers in Athens who payed taxes but could not vote because they were non-citizens
oligarchy
rule by a few (rule by the patricians)
What was the stone Ramses used to build at Karnak?
sandstone, taken from the Silsia quarries, miles away
Attalid Kingdom
small Hellenistic "kingdom" in Lydia/Ionia; more like a city-state; split off from the Seleucids; struggled against the Seleucids and Antigonids, then allied with Rome
nobiles
small group of families powerful in the oligarchy (the aristocracy); formed by intermarriage between plebeian and patrician class
tabernae
small shops on the ground floor of the insulae
lararium
small shrine to the family gods and spirits where people prayed; located in the atrium or peristyle
Trajan
soldier and adopted successor of Nerva; consulted the Senate; first provincial emperor- from Spain; conquered Mesopotamia and Dacia, finally controlling the whole Mediterranean and bringing Rome to its greatest extent; built Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Column; military man; died in 117 CE of illness; wife Plotina may have chosen his successor Hadrian
Hellenes
the Greek word for Greeks
Budget Burials
scaled-down alternatives to traditional mastabas or pyramids; methods of attempting to preserve the body for the afterlife so it was recognizable to the ka; ranged from wooden coffins with spells and texts written on them to just wrapping the body in the sheet, burying it, and hoping the desert preserved it naturally
Museum
school in Alexandria; created by Strato, who moved the Lyceum's resources to Alexandria; center of scientific research; taught Archimedes; school for the endeavors of the Muses
Lyceum
school in Athens begun by Aristotle
Cowry Shells
seashells used as currency for the wealthy in the Shang Dynasty; they were often strung together in a 'wallet'; at one point there was a shortage and fake clay shells were used; Fu Hao was buried with 7000
Ptolemy II
second Ptolemaic king/pharaoh; built the Library of Alexandria with his father Ptolemy I; commanded the septuagint to be written
triglyphs
section of 3 lines dividing up the metopes
metopes
separate sections on the frieze on the front of Doric temples
What did short hair on a woman mean?
she was a slave
gladius
short sword used for close fighting; Roman soldiers needed to maintain the close distance in order to fight the long curved swords used by barbarians
Commodus
son of Marcus Aurelius who was poorly suited for ruling; renamed Rome Commodiana and named the months after himself; used the threat of treason trials to extort money from the wealthy; thought he was Hercules and competed in rigged gladiatorial games in the Colosseum; had a terrible ego; made peace with the barbarians; assassinated
Hector
son of Priam; Troy's great warrior and hero; killed Patroclus and was then killed by Achilles
Sextus Tarquin
son of Tarquinius Superbus; name means "sixth"; heard about Lucretia, a model wife, and went to her house, forcing her to keep him there because of Roman hospitality, then raped her and told her if she screamed he would kill her and stage an affair
consilium
special advisory body of the 2 consuls, 15 allotted and rotating Senators, and a few other high officials; set the agenda for senatorial sessions and advised Augustus on policy; made Senators feel respected and as if they were contributing
triclinium
special dining rooms with 3 reclining places found in wealthy Roman houses
the Philippics
speeches made by Cicero against Mark Antony; joke about Demosthenes's speeches against Philip II of Macedonia
denarius
standard silver coin
Hellenistic armies were ____________ armies with ____________ soldiers, often _____________, supplemented with native ____________
standing, professional, mercenaries, auxiliaries
770
start of Eastern Zhou
1550
start of New Kingdom in Egypt
helots
state-owned people who were bound to the land and did agricultural work; handed over half of their crop to the state and were legally able to be murdered
Aristotle
student of Plato; believed in research and observation and rejected Plato's theory of ideas; taught Alexander; taught at the Lyceum; scientist and philosopher who studied biology and classified many animals; had his students compile and research the constitutions of governments; advocated for the 'Golden Mean' of human behavior; came up with the idea of a chain of cause and effect beginning with the 'Prime Mover'; came up with the (false) geocentric model of the universe; wrote on many different subjects
Plato
student of Socrates and philosopher; believed souls were immortal; taught Aristotle; focused on logic and reason instead of research; wrote The Republic about the ideal state and didn't believe in democracy; believed there was a perfect version of the world; wrote the allegory of the cave
tablinum
study
auxilia
supplementary troops, usually foreigners or non-citizens, who could earn citizenship after 24 years of service
Xia Dynasty
supposedly the first ancient Chinese dynasty; written about by Confucian historians, but probably legend; according to Confucian historians, the kings discovered and taught fire, irrigation, silk, farming, etc to their people and the dynasty started with a virtuous leader and ended when an immoral leader was overthrown
imperator
supreme commander; title given by troops to their general after a victory; had to be given up within Rome but could be reclaimed with another victory; title given to Octavian- he was allowed to have it in the city; evolved into the word emperor
Cult Temples
temples built by pharaohs to worship the traditional gods; known as the location where the god resided, deep in the sanctuary, a dark room with a statue of the god and a 'boat' used for carrying; located on the east side of the Nile; had a wall around that kept ordinary people out; also had pylons and obelisks, decorated with scenes of the pharaoh smiting enemies; contained an outer courtyard showing scenes of the pharaoh being religious, a hypostyle hall with many columns, representing the papyrus forest, an inner courtyard where festival ceremonies could take place, and the sanctuary; the further one went into the temple, the more elite one had to be (the sanctuary had the most restrictions on who could enter)
ziggurats
temples in Persia; like step-pyramids but with storage rooms inside; the temple was at the top; maintained during the Hellenistic period
coloni
tenant farmers who worked small portions of latifundia for a share of the harvest
Lucretia
the "model Roman wife" who was raped by Sextus Tarquin, told her father and husband, and killed herself; avenged by Brutus and her father and husband; modest
Dao
the 'Way'; the mysterious reality that makes nature be what it is and act as it does; cannot be explained into words, but perceived with experience and intuition; metaphor for it is the nature of water- it can't be explained, it takes the path of least resistance and eventually wears down the stone
Xin Dynasty
the 'new' dynasty; not really a dynasty because it only lasted for one ruler (Wang Mang)
Liu Bang
the 'peasant bandit' who ended up emperor of China and the founder of the Han Dynasty; aka Gaozu (Lofty Ancestor); he first lived as a peasant in Pei and gained favor as ruler of a ting; then, he was forced to become a bandit when a situation made him choose between death and death; he became a bandit leader because of his kind and virtuous reputation; when his people rose up they chose him to lead their rebellion; he became rivals with and fought Xiang Yu, the aristocrat rebel; when he took the capital he treated it well and did not allow pillaging, looting, etc (or at least the Confucian historians say this, because they want him to be seen as virtuous (Mandate of Heaven)); he also established straightforward, less harsh laws while he temporarily ruled the capital; then Xiang Yu took the capital and made him ruler of Han, a faraway kingdom; he used his support to capture territory such as the Chu state until he defeated Xiang and his army at the capital; created a new capital Chang'an (Everlasting Peace) and established a huge bureaucracy; he gave sons of landowners positions in the government as well; he disliked scholars, merchants, and military men with government positions; he was adored by his people
Legitimacy
the 'right to rule'
capital
the (usually) decorative top part of the column
boule
the Athenian council consisting of 500 citizens, 50 from each tribe; chose annually by lot; met every non-holiday day; prepared proposals for the ekklesia and supervised officials
ekklesia
the Athenian general assembly of voters that had final decision making power; voted by a show of hands after listening to speeches; met 2-4 times per month
Nebuchadnezzar II
the Babylonian king who ruled after his father helped destroy Assyria; married a Median princess, cementing their relationship; built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon for his wife Amytis
Nirvana
the Buddhist 'place with no wind' reached when one stops wanting things; the cycle of rebirth ends and individuality is lost, merging with the Eternal- unchanging, everlasting part of the universe
Cycle of Rebirth
the Buddhist cycle that everyone continues to move through until people stop wanting physical objects and achieve Nirvana; the cycle of being born, dying, reborn, dying, etc based on your karma
Ancestor Veneration
the Chinese practice of maintaining connections with the dead ancestors and honoring them; the Chinese also believed that the ancestors who were dead for a very long time could become gods; these ancestors and gods had control and influence over the events in China (weather, harvest, birth, military, sacrifice, etc); the king was responsible for sacrificing to the Zi ancestors in order to appease them and keep China well; sacrifices included war captives who were beheaded to please the gods with their spirit/life force
Chinese Characters
the Chinese writing system; each character is a pictograph (picture of the thing), ideograph (represents an idea), or determiner (used with another); pronounced differently in different parts of China
Gentleness
the Daoist idea of being against war and violence and to instead advocate for peace and restraint
Simplicity
the Daoist idea of ridding oneself of unnatural, artificial, excess things and thoughts and living simply and humbly
Relativity
the Daoist virtue of not dividing people based on value or assigning any value at all, but instead focusing on balance and interconnectedness
Myth of the Minotaur
the Greek myth involving Minos, Europa, Daedalus, Theseus, Aegeus, Ariadne, and the Minotaur
Fars
the Persian homeland; a region of the Iranian plateau's southern highlands; first occupied by the Elamites
family (familia)
the Roman family unit consisting of paterfamilias, wife, children, sons' wives, and their children (and all of their property)
Philistines
the Sea Peoples; people who settled in Palestine after the Hittites left a power vacuum; fought with the Israelites for Palestine but eventually lost it
apella
the Spartan assembly of adult male Spartiates who could vote (only 3% of the population); made all decisions
shaft
the actual column part of the column
Kemet
the ancient Egyptian name for Egypt; means 'The Black Land' because of the dark fertile silt; where the majority of people lived because of the farming and civilization
Inundation
the annual flooding of the Nile; the time of year during which the Nile floods; 100 day period in late summer and early fall; completely flooded the farmland and deposited fertile silt from the river onto the land; during this the farmers work on other projects such as construction
Laconia
the area of the southern Peloponnesus ruled by Sparta
Shang Heartland
the area under the king's control, either directly (himself) or indirectly (estate-holders)
popular assembly
the assembly made up of all citizens that voted on all government positions except Senators and tribunes; voted outside on a field by tribe
centuriate assembly
the assembly that voted to declare or end wars
Battle of Cunaxa
the battle between Cyrus the Younger and Artaxerxes; Cyrus had 13,000 Greeks on his side, along with Persians; the Greeks and Cyrus were winning at first- the Greeks chased the Persians away, and Cyrus unhorsed Artaxerxes; but, Cyrus was killed and the rebellion ended
lictors
the bearers of fasces
ethical monotheism
the belief in only one god who is good and demands good from people; ex. Judaism, Zoroastrianism
Antonius Pius
the boring, irrelevant emperor who ruled Rome at the height of it being fine
Prince Jiu
the brother of Duke Huan of Qi who fought with him for the position of duke after their father died but lost; Guan Zhong was his adviser
Memphis
the capital city of newly united Egypt; located north of the boundary between Upper and Lower Egypt; established by Narmer and protected from the Nile's flooding by a dam also built by Narmer; called 'Ineb-hedj', meaning White Fortress because of whitewashed palace walls; capital city through the Old Kingdom
Why did the Mycenaeans decline?
the collapse of sea trade had disastrous consequences, leading to mass migration and the loss of bronze working; this was followed by a civil war, which led to the Mycenaeans ultimate collapse in 1100 BCE
Deshret
the dangerous, dry desert surrounding Kemet; means 'The Red Land' because of the reddish tint at sunset;
Han Dynasty
the dynasty following the Qin Dynasty; lasted 426 years and began with Liu Bang; characterized by the thriving bureaucracy
Western Zhou Dynasty
the dynasty following the Shang Dynasty; the first half of the Zhou Dynasty; began with the Zhou clan (led by Wu) overthrowing Di Xin and the Shang; probably originated from the central Shaanxi Province; they were considered by most to be foreigners and had to establish legitimacy
Aeschylus
the earliest Tragedian; created theater by adding a 2nd actor; focused on morality and religion in a grand, sweeping, dramatic style; wrote the only surviving Greek tragedy trilogy
Ba
the essence of one's personality; shown as a bird with the person's head; every day it flies across the sun following Ra's boat, and every night it must be able to locate the tomb; if it can't the afterlife ends
Imperialism
the expansion of an empire's physical size and influence
Zi Clan
the family that ruled during the Shang Dynasty; the oldest male in the direct family line was the king
What was the basis of Roman society ?
the family, with the paterfamilias at its head
Nile Valley
the farmland along the Nile
Nefertiti
the favorite wife of Akhenaten; described as beautiful and loved; shown with intimacy towards Akhenaten; not the mother of Tut
Yin
the female, dark, wet, rough, passive element of the Daoist balance; overcomes the yang and become the yang and the cycle repeats
Theater of Dionysus
the first formal Greek theater; built at the end of the Archaic Period; consisted of the orchestra, a skene, and wooden bleachers
Centralization
the king has authority and people look to him
Decentralization
the king has less or no authority and most/all government is local
cursus honorum
the ladder of offices of the Roman government ('course of honors')
Linear A
the language of the Minoans; not deciphered
Great Pyramid
the largest of all of the pyramids; located at Giza; tomb for Khufu
Darius III
the last Achaemenid king; put on the throne by Bagoas and then killed him; generous, calm person' tried to fight Alexander at Issue but lost; tried to gain peace with a letter; made his last stand on Oct. 1, 331 BCE, then fled; captured and killed by Bessus; said last words, thanking Alexander for being kind, to Macedonian Polystratus
Romulus Augustulus
the last emperor of the West; overthrown in 476 CE by Odoacer; a boy emperor
Di Xin
the last king of the Shang Dynasty; Confucian scholars describe him as immoral (wine lake, meat forest, partying, murdered uncle, etc); his immoral actions led to Wu overthrowing him; these stories could very well be exaggerated because the Confucian scholars wanted to demonstrate their dynastic cycle, and they needed Di Xin to be immoral to fit the pattern
King You
the last king of the Western Zhou; seen as immoral by Confucian scholars (he pushed away his first wife for Bao Si and caused false alarms with the army to make her smile/laugh); natural disasters also occurred during his reign, indicating that he had lost the Mandate of Heaven; his name means 'in the dark'; in 771 BCE the family of his first wife invaded, attacked, and killed him
Ashurbanipal
the last strong Assyrian king; collected clay tablets in the library at Nineveh
chairman of the prytany
the leader of the prytany for one day; led meetings of the boule/ekklesia that day and held the key to the treasury
Achaemenes
the legendary founder of the Persian royal family and his eponymous dynasty; supposedly made groups of tribes in Cars into the nation of Persia
provincial governor
the magistrate with military power who governed a province; had complete control and was very powerful; often abused this power
River Tiber
the major river in Italy, located next to Rome
Yang
the male, light, dry, smooth, active element of the Daoist balance; overcome by the yin and becomes the yin and the cycle repeats
the March of the Ten Thousand
the march of Greek soldiers through Persia back home after Cyrus the Younger failed to defeat his brother; led by Xenophon; showed Persia's weakness and proved Greek superiority (in Greece's eyes); inspired Alexander to invade Persia
Sima Qian
the most famous Chinese historian; a Confucian historian who wrote Record of the Historian, his life's work chronicling the history of China up to that point; he inherited the project from his father after he died; he was Grand Historian in the court of Emperor Wudi; Sima Qian spoke up for a defeated general (Li Ling) who surrendered and was therefore sentenced to death; however, this was treason and Sima Qian was sentenced to either death or castration; castration meant humiliation, but Sima Qian's work was not complete, so he accepted it and lived out his live, continuing to write the history; he believed great work came from suffering, and wrote about the dynastic cycle
Great King
the name given to the Persian emperor; owned all of the land; had absolute power but was required to follow tradition and consult with nobles
Alcibiades
the nephew of Pericles who studied with Socrates; gifted orator, athletic, handsome, military tactician and war hero/youngest strategos; came up with Sicilian Campaign but was exiled because of his offensive party and unable to see it through; went to Sparta and told them how to win with Persia's help, but was exiled from there too
Luoyang
the new capital established at the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period in the east by You's first wife's father
Lower Egypt
the northern part of Egypt; on a map, above the small oasis; encompasses the delta
Karma
the overall sum of a person's good and bad deeds that, in Buddhism, determines a person's net life (reward or punishment?)
Narmer
the pharaoh who unified Upper and Lower Egypt (the Two Lands) through conquest in 3100 BCE; 1st pharaoh of the 1st dynasty; came from Upper Egypt; shown on the Narmer Palette; established the capital at Memphis and created the double crown to show unity; established Egypt's basic government structure- pharaoh, vizier, and nomarchs
Vizier
the pharaoh's 'right-hand man'; not usually family and always male; appointed by pharaoh; steward of the land; traveled around and oversaw nomarch; powerful but answers to pharaohs
Aspective View
the practice of drawing something from its most characteristic angle so it can be recognized; opposite of perspective view (realistic)
polygamy
the practice of taking multiple wives/spouses; practiced by upper class Persian men
Socratic Problem
the problem about understanding Socrates: he was illiterate so the only record of his teachings we have is from his students
Mummification
the process of drying out the body, preserving it, and burying it with special spells and preparation in order to ready it for the afterlife and make it recognizable to the ka
Artemesia
the queen of Thrace when it was conquered by Darius; fought at the Battle of Salamis for Persia, but was able to escape by ramming a Persian ship and leaving
impluvium
the rainwater basin below the compluvium where rainwater fell; located in the atrium
Messenia
the region of the Peloponnesus that Sparta conquered; the people became helots and later revolted almost successfully
Attica
the region surrounding Athens, not just the city
imperium
the right to rule- to punish and to execute; only consuls and praetors had it; symbolized by fasces
Nile River
the river that flows through Egypt; flows north to south; crucial to life in Egypt as a water source because of the little rainfall; floods annually leaving fertile silt
tholos
the round temple where the prytany lived
sacred geese of Juno
the sacred geese in Juno's temple that saved the city after it was sacked by the Gauls
Warring States Period
the second half of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty; period of time during which China was divided into 7 relatively equal states (+ the tiny, weak, religiously significant Zhou king); a time of shifting alliances, betrayals, intrigues, and open wars
Son of Heaven
the title for the king's position as the chosen ruler and medium between tian and Earth; strengthened by the Mandate of Heaven
Seven Hills
the site where Rome was built; consisted of 7 hills off the bank of the Tiber; good spot for military stronghold and trade
Amenhotep IV
the son and successor of Amenhotep III who attempted to make major religious reforms by switching from worship of the traditional gods to sole worship of the sun disk Aten; changed his name to Akhenaten, meaning 'servant of Aten'; his reign is known as the Amarna period and is seen as a time of shame for Egyptians; closed traditional temples, confiscated land and wealth; built two major temples to Aten, both featuring outdoor worship; built a new capital in the desert, Amarna, where he and his followers lived; he also moved to a new style of art, including intimacy between him and his wife, strange, distorted, feminized figures in art; possibly had a genetic disorder, but scientific evidence is against this; wife was Nefertiti, and his son was Tutenkhaten; he was closer to his people and more informal; corresponded with foreign leaders but neglected to expand or maintain the empire; died with few supporters; it is unclear whether he was actually monotheistic; he lost territory to the Hittites; died of natural causes
Alexander
the son of Philip; a bright, ambitious, Greek™ Macedonian king; invaded Persia; told Darius he was his superior; then conquered Egypt and Persia (in 331); burned Persepolis; treated Darius's wife, children, and mother, with respect and honor; ended the Persian Empire; married Darius's daughter and killed his murderers; admired the great Persian kings; Macedonian king who conquered from Persia to India but died before he could organize and rule his territories; ambitious, curious, clever, honorable, proud; student of Aristotle; died of a fever; called Alexander the Great because of his fantastic military command; led for 13 years
Upper Egypt
the southern part of Egypt; on a map, below the small oasis; where Narmer was from
prytany
the standing portion of the ekklesia; made up of the 50 from one of the 10 tribes; standing for 1/10 of the year; each day had a different chairman
philosophy
the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge and reality; uses questioning, logic, thinking, reason, etc
grain dole
the supply of grain to Rome from Egypt; necessary to control Rome; Octavian seized it to get the support of the people
Laozi
the supposed author of the Daodejing; an old man and philosopher who left China because he was upset with the declining Zhou Dynasty; a guard stopped him and asked him to write his teachings, which he did, creating the Daodejing; possibly an invention of history; seen by Confucians as a fool/failure (story); believed in the Dao, harmony with nature, yin/yang balance, effortlessness, simplicity, gentleness, and relativity
Capitoline Hill
the tallest of the seven hills
Mortuary Temple
the temple at the end of the causeway where the opening of the mouth ceremony was performed
Funerary Temple
the temple where mummification was done; after this, the mummy was then carried down the causeway to the mortuary temple
Daodejing
the text of Daoism; the 'Classic Text of the Way and Virtue'; supposedly written by Laozi; a compilation of his wisdom and thinking; also contains statements criticizing other thinkers; unclear when it was written or what its original purpose was; made up of 81 chapters each with a few rhyming stanzas
dowager
the widow of an important man who keeps her late husband's title and some of his privileges; empress dowagers were often powerful in China
Bardiya
the younger son of Cyrus and brother of Cambyses; given Persia's eastern satrapies; Cyrus's favored son; popular with nobles and commoners and had a reputation for kindness; either killed by Cambyses or ruled for 7 months and then overthrown; if he did rule, he was either a harsh tyrant or a rapid reformer
Heaven
tian; where the ancestors lived; a name for the collective of all ancestors
Intermediate Periods
times during which Egypt was not unified; times of violence and chaos; gaps between the 3 Kingdoms
Later Persian Tombs of Kings
tombs cut into the sides of cliffs with ornamental entries but simple chambers inside; constructed by free paid workers
Romulus
twin brother of Remus and founder of Rome (in legend); son of Mars (god of war) and Rhea Silvia (a princess); abandoned by his stepfather and left to die, but was raised by wolves and then a farmer; couldn't agree on the location of the city, so he and his brother decided through augury; he supposedly saw 12, and when Remus wouldn't concede he killed him (or his brother jumped over the wall so he killed him); either way, he founded Rome
Remus
twin brother of Romulus; son of Mars (god of war) and Rhea Silvia (a princess); abandoned by his stepfather and left to die, but was raised by wolves and then a farmer; couldn't agree on the location of the city, so he and his brother decided through augury; he saw 6 but wouldn't concede when his brother said he saw 12, so he was killed (or he jumped over the wall and was killed)
canats
underground irrigation/plumbing canals; had to be at exactly the right slope or the water wouldn't flow/it would erode the ground too much; used to get water over a long distance to Persepolis
Absolute Power
unlimited power over everything; the pharaoh's only restriction was ma'at, so he couldn't make huge changes, instead, he ruled based on tradition
The oracle bones are an _____________________ source, meaning they are reliable because no recopying was done. They were simply buried since ancient times and we dug them up.
unmediated
concrete
volcanic dust mixed with lime mortar and filled with marble, stone, and lava pieces to create a building material
demes
voting districts that were the building blocks of the polis; either city, mountain, or shore
Hadrian's Wall
wall built by Hadrian to mark the limit of the province in Britain; 80 miles long; included mile castles and forts
Long Walls
walls built connecting Athens and Piraeus, the harbor city; protected Athens for the whole of the Peloponnesian War but were torn down after
hoplite warfare
warfare based on numbers and discipline instead of skill and equipment; invalidated the aristocratic power and led to the overthrowing of aristocratic oligarchies
Persian Wars
wars between Persia and Greece; ended with Persia gone from Greece but barely weakened
Macedonian Wars
wars between Rome and Macedonia/the Hellenistic kingdoms
concubines
women of lower social classes whom Persian men took for 'wives'; their children could not be heirs
Heraea
women's version of the Olympics; separate and inferior; predated Hellenistic period
aristocratic oligarchy
wealth-based government by a few; caused by small differences in wealth and leftover horses or weapons; occurred in small areas during the Dark Age
Marcus Crassus
wealthiest financier in Rome and member of the 1st Triumvirate; ruthless, unscrupulous, and a womanizer; looking for real-estate, luxury, and personal gain; under Sulla bought up cheap insula in auctions; built up a real-estate empire in Rome from his rent; put down a slave revolt led by Spartacus; amassed business clients; wealthy, luxurious
equestrians
wealthy Romans who were not part of the senatorial structure; business class that ran business and financial companies; lacked political power but wanted it; given control of the law courts by Gaius; name came from people who were wealthy enough to own a horse
The dead are always buried on the ____________ side of the Nile because that is where the _________ ____________.
west, sun sets
Arsionë II
wife and sister of the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy II; talented, energetic; influenced her husband; patron of literature and architecture; deified
cubiculum
windowless bedrooms that opened into the atrium
How did Athens pay for the Parthenon?
with the tributes paid by the Delian League for the defense of all Greece
Twelve Tables
written law code that clearly stated the plebs' rights and prevented bias or treachery; written in stone
Paris
young prince of Troy who judged the beauty competition of the gods and chose Aphrodite, winning Helen as his prize; caused the Trojan War; killed Achilles but was later killed himself