Teas 6 - Everything. All sets combined.

Chromosomes

Highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA. *DNA* is genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal.

Blood

Human has 5 quarts of blood. *Plasma*: Half blood volume. Mostly water, serves as solvent. -*Contains*: plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases. *RBC (red)*: *Transports* oxygen to cells. Form in bone marrow. Live for 2 Months, constantly replaced. *WBC (white)*: *Defends* body against infection and removes waste. ~Lymphocytes, neutrophil, monocytes, eosinophil, and basophil. *Platelets*: Fragments of stem cells. ~Function: Blood Clotting

If a word does not fit entirely on a line what is place to separate the word?

Hyphen

If compound numbers function as adjective, what separates them?

Hyphen

What is used to join a prefix and a proper adjective or noun?

Hyphen

Pronoun: Nominative

I, you, he, she, it, we, they

Key Ideas definition

Ideas that support the controlling idea.

Distinguish between Fact and Opinion, Biases, and Stereotypes

Identify POV (point of view) by discerning between facts and opinions, bias, and stereotypes, tone, and word choice.

Evaluate POV in a given text

Identify the kinds of sources being used, Thinking about *who* the author is, what groups their associated with, type of publication where writing appears, whether sources are reliable or not (fact or opinion), where writing fits into a larger context, information relevant or not.

What to identify to delineate key points that support the topic?

Identify the topic and authors main idea

Suffixes for words ending in "C"

If a word ends in "c" and the suffix is a "e", "i", or "y", then the letter "k" should be inserted Ex. colic+y= colicky; mimic+ed= mimicked

Suffixes for words ending in a consonant-vowel-consanant pattern (CVC)

If a word ends with a CVC then double the final consanant: Bag+age = Baggage If a word has more than one syllable, and the accent is on the last syllable, double the final consanant before adding the suffix: allot+ed = allotted

Words ending in -cian

If a word names a person then it should end in -cian Physician, technician, musician

When should a period be added in the parenthesis

If the material in the parenthesis is a complete sentence that is not located within another sentence

Words ending in -able

If the root word is a complete word add the suffix -able. Ex. avail+able= available If the root word ends in "e" drop the "e" before adding -able Ex. love+able= lovable

Words ending in -ible

If the root word isn't a complete word ad -ible Ex. aud+ible= audible

Words ending in -ance, -ancy, -ant

If the suffix is proceeded by a hard "c" or "g" then add the suffix Ex. Extravagant, elegance, vacancy

Words ending in -ence, -ency, -ent

If the suffix is proceeded by a soft "c" or "g" then add the suffix Absence, agency, emergent

Words ending in -tion and -sion

If the word ends in "t" -tion can be added If the word ends in "s" -sion can be added Distraction, regression

Suffixed for words ending in "y"

If word ends with a "y" preceded by a vowel, keep the "y" when adding the suffix: Annoy+ance=annoyance If a word ends with a "y" precede by a consonant drop the y when adding a suffix: Carry+ed=carried

Chronological

In an order in which *they happen* and *requires a time element*. When one even occurs and ends then when another even begins. ~*Signal words:* *When:* today, yesterday, later, now, last year *How often:* always, rarely, often, never, seldom *Length of Time:* all year, all season, all day, since, one day. Assists readers with keeping track of occasions in narrative and informational text. Without a time frame then the reader will get confused.

Sentence: Definition

In his wood working he used a type of file known as a rasp

Prepositional phrases

In, out, around, about, etc.

2 Types of Connective Bone Tissue

Include *Spongy and Compact* bone. --Have thin outside layer of *compact bone*, which gives them their characteristic smooth, white appearance. -*Compact*: Tightly packed cells, is *strong, dense, and rigid*. Running vertically throughout compact bone are the *Haversian Canals*, which are surrounded by concentric circles of bone tissue called *Lamellae*. Spaces between lamellae are *lacunae*. Lamellae and canals along with their associated arteries, veins, lymph vessels, and nerve endings are referred to*collectively as the Haversian System*. ~*Haversian System*: Provides a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus for the blood. -*Spongy* (cancellous): Consists of *Trabeculae* which are a network of firders with open spaces fillled with Red Bone Marrow. Light-weight and porous, which helps reduce bones overall weight. Red marrow menufactures RBC/WBC. ~*Long Bones* (Diaphysis): Consist of compact bone surrounding marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the *Epiphyses*.

T Lymphocytes (T Cells)

Include: *Helper T cells, Killer T cells, Suppressor T cells, and Memory T cells. -*Helper T cells*: Help the body fight infections by *producing antibodies and other chemicals*. -*Killer T cells*: *Destroy cells that are infected* with a virus or pathogen and tumor cells. -*Suppressor T cell*: Stop or "suppress" the *other T cells* when the battle is over. -*Memory T cells*: Remain in the blood *on alert* in case the invader attacks again.

Common Types of Procedural Text

Include: Steps in an activity and steps in operating a system or object.

Extraneous

Incorrect Story that is interesting containing details that aren't necessary to tell you what happened.

Hyperventilation

Increase blood pH during *Acidosis* (low pH) Slow breathing during *Alkalosis* (high pH) -Lowers blood pH

Non-Mendelian

Inheritance occurs when there are factors other than dominant/recessive in play. ~Due to factors like: *multiple alleles, incomplete dominance-recessive relationships that *lead* to an intermediate. combination inheritance, and interactions between genes called *epistasis* -Ratios occur when simple dominance-recessive relationship exists between two alleles -*Co-Dominance:* The expression of both alleles so that both traits are shown. -*Incomplete Dominance:* Both he dominant and recessive genes are expressed, resulting in a phenotype that is a mixture of the two. -*Polygenic Inheritance:* Beyond the simplistic Mendelian concept that one gene influences one trait. ~Traits that are influenced by more than one gene and takes into account environmental influences on development. -*Multiple Alleles:* Only two alleles make up a gene, but when there are three or more possible alleles, it is known as *multiple alleles*. A gene where *only two alleles are possible is termed polymorphic.*

Cell Structures

Inside the cell. Contain: Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Vacuoles, Vesicles, Cytoskeleton, Microtubules, Cytosol, Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria

Circulatory System

Internal transport of substances *to and from* the cells. -3 Parts: Blood, Blood Vessels, and Heart. -Open or Closed.

Reflex Arc

Involuntary movements. -Simplest Nerve Pathway, which bypasses the brain and is *controlled by the spinal cord* -*Stimulus*: Detected by sensory receptors, and a message is send long the *afferent (sensory)* neuron *to one o more interneurons* in the spinal cord. ~Interneurons *transmit* this messages to a *efferent (motor)* neuron, which carries the message to the correct effector (muscle)

Nuclear Pores

Involved in *exchange of material between nucleus and the cytoplasm.*

Golgi Apparatus

Involved in *synthesizing materials* like *proteins* that are transported *out* of the cell. ~*Modifies and Packages proteins* secreted from the cell. -Located near the nucleus and has layers of membranes.

Ribosomes

Involved in *synthesizing proteins from amino acids.* -Make up about a quarter of a cell. -Some are embedded in the *Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)*

Partial Hydrolysis

Involved in Amine Group and a Carboxylic Acid. -Amino Acids are formed by partial hydrolysis of protein, which forms an *amide bond*. *In Carbon Chain* of amino acids there are Groups:* -Caroxylic Acid Group *(-COOH)* -Amine Group *(-NH2)* -Central Carbon Atom between them with an *attached hydrogen* -Attached "R" Group (Side Chain), different for different amino acids. ~*"R" Group* that determines the properties of the protein.

Erroneous

Irrelevant Story might contain *conflicting* accounts of what happened due to having multiple observers.

Topic sentence

Is usually given at the beginning of the paragraph

*(Ext.)* Testes (Testicles)

"*Male Gonads*" -Produce *sperm and testosterone.*

Combustion Reactions

"Burning" *Sequence of chemical reactions involving fuel and an oxidant that produces head and sometimes light.* -*Types:* Rapid, Slow, Complete, Turbulent, Microgravity, and Incomplete. -Exothermic process

Synthesis Reaction

"Combination" "Analysis Reaction" - 2 or more reactants combine to form a single product. ~*(A+B->C)* *Example*: Burning hydrogen in air to produce water 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O *Example*: Water and Sulfur trioxide react to form Sulfuric Acid H2O + SO4 -> H2SO4

Decomposition Reaction

"Destruction" -Reactant is broken down into 2 or more products ~*(A->B+C)* *Example*: Decomp of water to hydrogen and oxygen gas 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2 -Most decomposition reactions are *endothermic*. ~Heat needs to be added -*Separation Process:* Can be mechanical or chemical, and usually recognizing a mixture of substances without changing their chemical nature. Separated products may *differ* from Original mixture in terms of Chemical or Physical properties. ~Include: *Filtration, Crystallization, Distillation, and Chromatography.*

Third person

"He, she, or it" Objective

ie

"I" before "e" except after "c" or in words like neighbor and weigh

Double Replacement Reactions

"Substitution" *When ions or bonds are exchanged by 2 compounds to form different compounds* ~*(AC + BD -> AD + BC)* *Example:* Silver nitrate and Sodium chloride form 2 different products (silver chloride and sodium nitrate) when they react. AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl + NaNO3 -Chemical reactants exchange ions but the oxidation state stays the same.

Topic answers what questions?

"Who or what is the paragraph about?"

*(Int.)* Overies

*"Female Gonads"* -Produce *the ova* and secrete *estrogen and progesterone.* -Graafian follicle: In response to changing hormones. Eggs is released as follicle matures. ~*Corpus Luteum*: Empty Graafian follicle. Produces large amounts of *progesterone* to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg. Uterine lining sheds if fertlizations doesn't occur.

Cell Membrane

*"Plasma Membrane"* -Made of *Lipids and Proteins* -*Isolates* the cell from its external environment while still enabling the cellar to communicate with the outside environment. -Consists: *Phospholipid bilayer* with the hydrophilic ends of the outer layer facing external environment. *~Cholesterol*: Adds stiffness and flexibility *~Glycolipids*: Help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms. *~Proteins*: Help give cells shape *~Special Proteins:* Helps cell communicate with external environment. *~Other Proteins:* Transport molecules across membrane

Chemical Synapse

*"Point of Contact"* -A substance is released that *stimulates or inhabits* the action of the adjoining cell.

Inference defintion

*"Reading between the lines"* of what is stated. Otherwise, applying logic to facts and evidence coupled with recognizing the context clues provided. Suggests an idea by details and evidence in passage.

Cell Body of Neuron

*"Soma"* - Contains the *nucleus* of the neuron.

Leukocytes

*"White Blood Cells"* -Produced in the *Red Bone Marrow* -Classified as Monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells), Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils), T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes, or Natural Killer (K) Cells.

Autonomic Nervous System

*(ANS) maintains homeostasis within the body*. -Controls the functions of the *internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissue, and glands*. Accomplished through the direction of the *hypothalamus* (located above the midbrain). -

Where does text appear?

*-Excerpt from a novel, Short story, Magazine/Television AD.* -If in magazine, could have tried to *inform* -Novels, short stories, and poems are created to *entertain* -Advertisments are created to *persuade* -*Can have more than one purpose or a different purpose.*

Lysosome

*-Functions:* Digest proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Also *transports* undigested substances to the membrane do they can be *removed*. Shape depends on material being transported.

The Nucleus

*-Nucleus:* Small structure that contains *Chromosomes* and *Regulates the DNA of a cell*. Defining structure of eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for *the passing on of genetic traits between generations.* -Contains: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, a nucleolus, nuclear pores, chromatin, and ribosomes.

Cell Parts

*-Organelles:* Cell parts that function within a cell. They coordinate with other organelles to performs a cell's basic function, like energy processing and waste excretion. ~Examples: *Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, The Nucleus.*

3 Primary Body Planes

*-Transverse Plane* (Horizontal): Divides the patient's body into *upper* and *lower* halves. *-Sagittal Plane* (Vertical): Divides the body, or any body part, into *right* and *left* sections. Runs *parallel* to the midline of the body. *-Coronal Plane* (Vertical/Frontal): Divides the body, or any body part, into *front* and *back*. Runs through the body at right angles.

Central Nervous System

*2 Primary Components:* -*Spinal Cord and The Brain*

States of Matter

*3 States of Matter*: Solid, Liquid, Gas. -Can be traversed by *addition or removal* of heat. -*Solid to Liquid (melting):* Additional heat, causing molecules to become more energized and increases vibrational and transitional motion. -*Liquid to Gas (boiling):* Additional heat required to change matter. -*Gas to Liquid (freezing):* Removing heat from matter -*Sublimation:* Unusual phase change is the direct conversion of *solids to gas*. ~In deposition, the reverse phase change from gas directly to solid occurs. At room temperature with the element *iodine* and the molecule *carbon dioxide*.

Heart Chambers

*4 Chambers: 2 Ventricles, 2 Atriums* -Halves separated by *AV Valve* (located between ventricle and artery leading away from the heart).

Sequential

*A fixed order in which there is a legend pattern.* ~Example: Pages in a Book -*Signal words*: first, then, second, at the beginning, finally, now, prior to, next, while, when, afterward, last, before, after, subsequently.

Conduction

*A form of heat transfer that requires contact.* -Heat is measure in *Kinetic Energy*, most commonly vibrations, at the atomic level, it may be transferred from *one location to another or object to another by contact*. Always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. -If 2 regions are at the same temperature, there is a *thermal equilibrium* between them and there will be no *net heat* transfer between them.

4 Types of Nitrogenous Bases

*Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)* *Adenine (A) <-Pairs-> Thymine (T)* *Cytosine (C) <-Pairs-> Guanine (G)* -About 3 million bases in human DNA ~Mostly the same in every body, but their order is *different*. -The Order of these bases that creates diversity in people.

8 Major Endocrine Glands

*Adrenal Glands* Located on *Kidneys* -*Adrenal Cortex:* Monitors blood sugar level, helps in lipid and protein metabolism. -*Adrenal Medulla:* Controls cardiac functions, raises blood sugar, and controls the size of blood vessels. -*Thyroid:* Helps regulate metabolism, functions in growth and development. Located in the *Neck* -*Parathyroid:* Regulates calcium levels in blood. Located in the *Neck* -*Pancreas Islets:* Raises an lowers blood sugars, Activate in carbohydrate metabolism. Located on *Pancreas* -*Thymus:* Plays a role in immune responses. Located in *front of Heart, behind Sternum.* Produces T-Cells. -*Pineal:* Has an influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity. Located in *Brain* -*Pituitary:* Plays an important role in growth and development. Located in *Brain*

Basophils

*Alert* the body of invasion

Basic Atomic Structure

*All matter consist of atoms* -Consist: *Nucleus and Electrons* -*Electrons:* *Negatively* charged and *Orbit* the nucleus. -Nucleus consist of: Protons and Neutrons ~Properties are measurable. They have a *mass* and an *electrical charge*. ~*Positively* charged because of the Protons present. ~Has considerably *more mass* than the surrounding electrons. -Atoms can bond together to make *molecules*. -Atoms that have an *equal number* of protons and electrons are *electrically neutral*. ~If the number protons and electrons in an atom is *not equal*, the atom has a *positive or negative* charge and *is an ion*.

Chyme

*All three* secretions together

Passive Transport Mechanisms

*Allow for movement of substances through membranes* -Include: *Simple and Facilitated Diffusion and Osmosis*. -Do *not* require energy from the cell.

Graphic Representation

*Allows readers to comprehend important verbal and written ideas in accessible form.* - Most include *titles and subheads* that summarize complex information. *Common features: titles, subheads, keys/legends, and scales.* -Also, assist readers in selecting important information that might otherwise be missing by portraying the key parts that make up a whole. *Include- Bar, pie, and flow charts, graphs, maps, and illustrations.*

What does saliva provide? What initiates it?

*Amylase and Lipase* Initiates *chemical digestion* for starch and lipids.

Glycerides

*Another type of lipid* -Example: *Fat and Oil* -Formed from fatty acids and glycerol.

Antigen and Typical Immune Response

*Antigens*: Substances that stimulate the immune system. ~Proteins on the surface of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. ~Drugs, toxins, and foreign substances can be antigens. -Body *recognizes* the antigens of its own cells but it *will attack* cells or substances with unfamiliar antigens. -Specific *antibodies* are produced for each antigen that enters the body.

Joints

*Area of contact adjacent to bones* -*Synovial* Joints: *Most common*, and are freely moveable. May be found at the *shoulders and knees* -*Cartilaginous* Joints: Fills the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Found between *Vertebrae* -*Fibrous* Joints: Has fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present.

Evaluate Argument and its Specific Claims

*Argument: Set of reasons to make a case for an idea* Argument is stated and author will provide evidence to support it. *Claim: Statement that something is true* -Arguments preceded by words like *I think* or *I believe*, but strong pieces do not include those words; instead author includes a very strong argument by stating something *is* or *should be* true. -Evidence: Often stated after argument, but could be stated before argument (purposely made last). ~Reputable sources are more reliable and helps support an argument. ~May use false evidence because they don't have enough to support argument. Look for inconsequential or out of alignment with argument.

Bases

*Basic Chemicals* are usually in aqueous solution and have the following traits: *bitter taste, a soapy or slippery texture to touch, the capacity to restore the blue color of litmus paper which had previously been turned red by an acid; the ability to produce salts in reaction with acids* -Either donate OH- ions or accept H+ ions. ~The word *Alkaline* is used to describe bases. ~Bases *yield* hydroxide ions (OH-). ~Acid models can be inverted and used for bases. Some nonmetal oxides (NA2O) are classified as bases even though they *don't* contain hydroxides in their molecule form. ~Although, these substances easily *produce* hydroxide ions when *reacted with water*.

Scientific Measurements using Lab Tools

*Basic Units of Measurement:* The Meter-Measures Length, The Liter-Measures Volume, The Gram-Measure Mass, The second-Measures Time.

Immunity

*Birth*: Innate Immune System *protects* an individual from pathogens. -When an individual encounters infection, or has an *immunization*, the individual *develops an adaptive immunity* that reacts to pathogens. -Active and Passive immunities can be *acquired naturally or artificially*.

Anabolic Reaction

*Builds larger and more complex molecules (macromolecules) from small ones.* -Require Energy

*(Int.)* Fallopian Tubes

*Carry mature egg* towards the uterus. -*Fertilization* occurs in fallopian tubes. If fertilized, egg will travel to uterus, where it implants into uterine wall (endometrium) and produces the placenta. -*Placenta*: Allows fetus and parents to share blood within eachother. Nourishes the fetus and removes wastes.

Cause and Effect

*Cause*: Why something happens. *Effect*: What happened *-Signal Words:* Due to, consequently, as a result of, if....then...., was responsible for, as might be expected, make possible by, since.

3 Basic Neuron Parts

*Cell body, The Axon, And many Dendrites.*

Compounds

*Chemical combination of two or more types of elements* -Has different properties from those of their constituent elements. -Smallest independent unit of an element or compound is a molecule. *Diatomic Elements:* Elements are found somewhere in nature in single-atom form, but a few elements only exist naturally in pairs. -More than one atom of the same element in a compound is represented with a subscript number designated how many atoms of that element are present.

Open Lymphatic System

*Circulates and filters interstitial fluid* between cells and eventually *drains* into the circulatory system. -Cleans up excess fluid and proteins and returns them to the blood.

Compare/Contract

*Compare*: Find similarities *Contrast*: Identify differences *-Signal Words:* On the contrary, similarly, have in common, in spite of, in like manner, compared to, in the same way, as well as.

Polymer

*Compound of large molecules* formed by repeating monomers. -Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. -Addition of water and hydrolysis break the bond and releases monomers and energy.

What to demonstrate

*Comprehension of a text by explaining how supporting details clarify the main idea.* -Ask "What's the topic and what's the authors main idea about the topic?" Then examine supporting details and how they relate to the main idea.

Hypothalamus

*Controls the ANS* through the brain stem. Direction from the hypothalamus, the ANS helps *maintain a table body environment* by *regulating* numerous factors including *heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, and blood pH*

Types of Circulation

*Coronary*: Flow of blood to the heart tissue. Blood enters the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta, supplying major arteries, which enter the heart with oxygenated blood. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium through the cardiac veins which empty into the coronary sinus. *Pulmonary*: Flow of blood between the heart and the lungs. Deoxygenated blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs through pulmonary arteries. Oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. *Systemic*: Flow of blood to the entire body with the exception of coronary and pulmonary. Blood exits the left ventricle through the aorta, which branches into the carotid arteries, subclavian arteries, common iliac arteries, and the renal artery. Blood returns to the heart through the jugular veins, subclavian veins, common iliac veins, and renal veins, which empty into the superior and inferior vena cavae. -*Portal circulation*: Included in Systemic. Flow of blood from the digestive system to the liver and then to the heart and renal circulation, which is the flow of blood between the heart and kidneys.

Skull

*Cranium and Facial Bones* -*Ossicles*:Bones in the middle ear. -*Hyoid*: Provides an attachment point and support for the tongue muscles. ~Only bones in the body *not connected* to other bones, but rather held in place by muscle.

Cartilage Tissue

*Cushions* and provides *structural support* for body parts. - Jelly-Like base and is fibrous

Isotopes

*Denoted by the element symbol, preceded in superscript by the mass number and subscript by the atomic number.* -That have not been observed to decay are *stable, or non-radioactive, isotopes*. -*80 Elements have one or more stable isotopes*, there are 256 known *stable isotopes* in total. ~Example: Carbon-3 Isotopes (C-12, C-13 are stable)(C-14 is radioactive) -*Radioactive Isotopes:* Have unstable nuclei and can undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, which results in particles or radiation being emitted. It cant be predicted when a specific nucleus will decay, but large groups of identical nuclei decay at predictable rates. ~Knowledge about rates of decay can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.

Chemical Properties

*Depend on the chemical reactivity of the substance.* -When a substance chemically reacts with another substance, it suits in formation of a *new substance* with a different *composition and identity*. ~*Example:* Hydrogen Gas is burned in Oxygen, forming Water. After burning the Hydrogen, a different chemical substance (water)is all that remains. ~Hydrogen *cannot* be recovered from the water by a physical change like *freezing or boiling*.

Chemical Equations

*Describe Chemical Reactions* *Reactants*: On the left side before the arrow *Products*: On the right side after the arrow -*Arrow*: Indicates the reaction or change. *Coefficient*: The number before the element and it indicates the ratio of reactants to products in terms of moles. ~Equation for formation of water: 2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) -(g): gas, (l): liquid, (s): solid, (aq): aqueous -If equation is unbalance, then you must balance it yourself. ~Balanced by multiplying the coefficient by a constant that will produce the smallest possible whole number ~Example: H2 + O2 -> H2O. (unbalanced) 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O (balanced)

Periodicty

*Describes the predictable and incremental nature of elements properties and place them on the periodic table accordingly.* ~Unique properties are number of *electron, density, and mass*. -Elements near each other are more alike in these properties than those that are far apart on the table. -Enables the prediction of properties and atomic configurations based on known trends represented by the position of elements on the table. ~One trend is *number of electrons*

Scientific Investigation

*Determine hypotheses based on known evidence and then create investigations to test the hypotheses* -Validate Information: Scientists submit their ideas for scrutiny by other scientists. -*Hypotheses*: Informed guesses about casual relationships that are generated by *observation and initial data collection*. ~During investigations, hypotheses will be accepted or rejected. -Collect experimental data to develop *theories* -Scientists develop strategies in an investigation to *control variables*. -Each experiment should *manipulate* only one variable, the independent one. (duration, concentration, plotted on X-axis). All *other variables* should be kept the same in a controlled investigation. ~The *dependent variable* (growth, response, plotted on Y-axis) is the observed condition that *responds* to the manipulation. -This establishes a *casual relationship*between the independent and dependent variable.

Cell differentiation

*Determines the different cell types* -When less-specialized cell becomes a more-specialized cell. Process is controlled by *genes of each cell among a group* of cells known as a *zygote*. -Cell builds certain proteins and other pieces that set it apart as a specific type of cell. ~Example: Gastrulation (early phase in embryonic development in animals)

Osmosis

*Diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower concentration to one of a higher solute concentration* ~ Through pores made of aquaporin proteins. -High to Low movement: Without the use of energy -Low to High movement: With the use of energy ~Example: Absorption of water by plant roots and the alimentary canal. Plants lose and gain water through osmosis. Plant that *swells* because of water retention is said to be *turgid*.

Intensive Properties

*Do not* depends on the amount of matter or quantity of the sample. *Will not change if the sample size is increased or decreased* -Include: *Color, Hardness, Melting Point, Boiling Point, Density,Ductility, Malleability, Specific Heat, Temperature, Concentration, and Magnetization.*

Extensive Properties

*Do* depend on the amount of matter or quantity of the sample. *Do change if the sample size is increased or decreased* ~Sample size *increases*, then property *increases. * ~Sample size *decreases*, then property *decreases.* -Include: *Volume, Mass, Weight, Energy, Entrophy, Number of Moles, and Electrical Charge.*

DNA Structure

*Double Helix* -*Helix* is a curve -*Double Helix*: Two congruent curves connected by horizontal members. Like a "Spiral Staircase" -Consists of *nucleotides* -2 Bases *pair up to form the rungs of the ladder* ~Attached to each other with hydrogen bonds, which are easily dismantled so replication can occur. ~Bases are attached to a phosphate and to a sugar. -*"Side Rails" or Backbone*:consists of the covalently bonded sugar and phosphate.

Closed Circulatory System

*Double-loop system* consisting of thick-walled *arteries* that transport blood *away* from the hear, thinner-walled *veins* that transport blood *to* the heart, and capillaries made of a single layer of endothelium that form a network that connects arteries to veins in tissues. *Transports blood* *Double Loops* -*Pulmonary*: Carries deoxygenated blood *from the right* ventricle to the lungs and *returns* oxygenated blood to the *left* atrium. -*Systemic*: Carries oxygenated blood *from left* ventricle to the body, *returning* deoxygenated blood to the *right*

Capillaries

*Drain interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between cells* -Filters it through a system of lymph nodes that are enriched in lymphocytes and provide surveillance by immune system.

Sweat Glands

*Either Eccrine Glands or Apocrine Glands* -Can contain trace amounts of *Urea, Lactic Acids, and Alcohol. *Eccrine Glands*: Not connected to hair follicles. -Activated by elevated body temperature. Also, as part of body's thermoregulations. -Located throughout the body and can be found on *forehead, neck, and back.* -Secrete a *salty solution* of electrolytes and water containing sodium chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, glucose, and antimicrobial peptides. *Apocrine Glands*: -Secrete oils solution containing *fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins*. -Located in the *armpits, groins, palms, and soles of feet. -Secrete oil when person is experiencing *stress or anxiety.* -*Bacteria feed* on apocrine sweat and *expel* fatty acids, producing *body odor*.

Genitourinary System (*Renal/Urinary System*)

*Eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function. -Structures; *Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra.

Spinal Cord

*Encased in the bony structure of the vertebrae* -*Protect and Supports* the vertebrae. -Nervous tissue functions mainly with the respect to *limb movement* and *internal organ* activity. -Nerve tracts *ascend and descend* from the *spinal cord to the brain*.

Nuclear Envelope

*Encloses* the nucleus. Consists of *inner and outer membranes made of lipids.*

Density

*Equal to its mass divided by its volume.* ~*D=m/V* -Water has a density of 1 g/cm3 -Steel has a density of 8 times the waters density.

Innate Immune System (Nonspecific Response)

*External: Internal:* *-Skin -Antimicrobials* *-Hair -Inflammation* *-Mucus -Interferons* *-Earwax -Complements* *-Secretions (acid, salt, enzymes) -NK Lymphocytes* *-Normal Flora -Phagocytes (APC)*

Facts and Opinions

*Fact can be proven and Opinion can NOT.* -Facts should be determined whether they are reliable or not. -Opinions can have bias. Used to mislead or persuade reader.

Figurative/Connotation

*Figurative*: Figure of speech/Metaphor ~*Metaphor*: Comparison between unlike things without using like or as. Using *is* ~*Simile*: Comparison between unlike things using *like* or *as* ~*Personification*: Giving human attributes to something nonhuman Connotation: Implied meaning of a word or idea. -"Reading between the lines" ~The tone can influence the reader and affect the mood.

Mendel's Law

*First Law*: Law of Segregation -States that "There are *two allels* and hat half of the total number of alleles are contributed by each parent organism." *Second Law*: Law of Independent Assortment -States that "Traits are passed on randomly and are *not influenced* by other traits ." ~Exception to this is *linked traits*

Spine

*Flexible and Curved Backbone*: Supported by muscles and ligaments. -*Intervertebral Discs*: Stacked one above another and provide cushioning for the backbone. -*Sensitive Spine*: Enclosed in a cavity which is protected by the bones of the vertebrae. *Trauma or shock may cause discs to Herniate and cause pain.

Dominant and Recessive

*Gene Traits* are represented in *pairs* with an *upper case letter* for the dominant trait *(A)* and a *lower case letter* for the recessive trait *(a)*. Occur in pairs *(AA, Aa, aa)*. Half the genetic material is from each parent, Offspring's traits are represented in combinations. -*Dominant*: Trait only requires *one gene* of a gene pair for it to be expressed in a *phenotype*. -*Recessive*: Requires both genes in order to be manifested. *DD and dd* are *Homozygous Pairs* *Dd* is a *Heterozygous Pair*

Gene, Genotype, Phenotype, and Allele

*Gene*: Portion of DNA that identifies how traits are expressed and passed on in an organism. Part of genetic code. All genes form the genotype of an individual. *Genotype*: Includes genes that may not be expressed, such as *recessive genes*. *Phenotype*: The physical, visual manifestation of genes. Determined by the basic genetic information and how genes have been affected by their environment. *Allele*: Variation of a gene, also known as a trait (determines the manifestation of a gene), manifestation results in a specific physical appearence of some facet of an organism (like eye color, or height) -Example: *Genetic information for eye color is a gene. The gene variations responsible for blue, green, brown, or black eyes are called alleles.* ~*Locus*: Refers to the location of a gene or allele.

Monohybrid and Hybrid Crosses

*Genetic Crosses*: Possible combinations of alleles and can be represented using Punnett Squares. *Monohybrid Cross*: Cross involving only *one trait* -Shows which allele is dominant for a single trait. -*First Monohybrid Cross: Occurs between two (DD,Dd) Homozygous parents. ~Typically ratio is 3:1, Ratio of dominant gene manifestation to recessive gene manifestation. ~Ratio occurs when both parents have a *pair of dominant and recessive genes*. -Example: One parents has a pair of dominant genes *(DD)* and the other has a pair of recessive genes *(dd)*. The recessive trait *cannot be expressed* in the next generation because the resulting crosses all habe the *Dd* gentype

Monosaccharides

*Glucose, frutose, and sucrose* -CH2O : *One carbon for every water molecule* -Simple sugars can be grouped into monosaccharides and *disaccharides* (Two monosaccharides joined together) -Have *one* monomer of sugar and disaccharides has *two* -*Oligosaccharides*: Have longer stretches of linked monosaccharides and polysaccharides; can be linearor branched.

Codons

*Groups of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA, and can be visualized as 3 rungs of a ladder.* -Has the code for a single amino acid. ~*64 Codons by 20 Amino Acids* -More than *one* combination, or triplet, can be used to *synthesize* the necessary *amino acids*. ~Example: *AAA* (Adenine-Adenine-Adenine) or *AAG* (Adenine-Adenine-Guanine) *can serve as codons for lysine.* -Groups of 3 occur in strings and might be thought of as frames. ~Like *AAAUCUUCGU*, read it in groups of 3 like AAA*/*UCU*/*UCG*/*U. -Can be read in different orders, but that is why there is *start and stop* codons that indicated the *beginning and the end* of a sequence (frame)

Tissues

*Groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function* -Grouped into 4 broad categories: *Muscle* (Body Movement), *Nerve* (Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves), *Epithelial* (Layers of Skin/Membranes), and *Connective Tissue* (Bone tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, and Lymph). *~Includes:* Epithelial, Connecting, Cartilage, Blood, Bone, Muscle, and Nervous.

Bone Tissue

*Hard* tissue that *supports and protects* softer tissues and organs. -Marrow produces RBC -Connective Tissue

Headings/Subheadings

*Heading:* Title, bold, larger than sub. *Subheadings*: Title of a subdivision of information with larger text. Bold, but smaller than heading.

Specific Heat Capacity

*Heat capacity per unit mass* -Every element and compound has its own specific heat. -Relating Heat Energy to Specific Heat Capacity is *Q=mc∆T* ~Q = heat energy (Joules, J). m = mass of a substance (kg). c = specific heat (units J/kg∙K). ∆ is a symbol meaning "the change in". ∆T = change in temperature

Respiratory Problems

*High Altitude*: Decrease lung function due to low oxygen levels. *People who live in high altitude, evolve over time to have larger lungs. *Chemicals, Pollen, Smoke*: Damaged cilia causing Emphysema, Allergies, or Inflammation. *Pathogens*: Influenza (corona virus), Tuberculosis (mycobacterium), and Pneumonia (walking - mycoplasma infection) *Mycosis -> Fungus *Cystic Fibrosis (gene mutation), Asthma, Lung Surfactant Insufficiency*: Impedes lung action.

Sebaceous Glands

*Holocrine Glands* -Secrete Sebum ~Sebum: Oily mixture of *lipids and proteins*. ~*Inhibits* water loss from the skin and *protects* bacterial and fungal infections. -Connected to *hair follicles* and secrete sebum through the *hair pore*.

Control Center

*Hypothalamus*

Punnet Square

*Illustrate how alleles combine* from the contributing genes to form various *phenotypes.* -One set of a parent's genes are put into columns, while the genes from the other parent are placed in rows. -The allele combinations are shown in each cell(box). -Two different alleles are present in a pair, *dominant one is expressed*. *Used to predict outcome of crosses*

Printed Communications

*Include: Memos, announcements, advertisements.* -Join people together that have common interests and share information amongst those that desire further detail.

Language features and Structure

*Includes: signal words, words that assist the reader in recognizing the relationship among steps, and simple, objective language.* -*Objective language*: Impartial, non-judgmental, not-personal, and non-emotional.

Enzyme Function

*Infused* into digestive systems to *assist* the absorption and processing of nutrients.

Macromolecules

*Large and Complex* -Role: Cell structure and function. ~Function as *food groups* and the digestion process breaks down the bonds between monomers by hydrolysis. -*4 Basic Organic Compounds*: (Produced by *Anabolic Reactions*) Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides), Nucleic Acids, Proteins, and Lipids. -*4 Basic Building Blocks*: (Involved in *Catabolic Reactions*) Monosaccharides (glucose), Amino Acids, Fatty Acids (glycerol=alcohol), and Nucleotides. -Combine using simple *dehydration* reactions with other similar molecules to make biological polymers.

Eosinophils

*Large, long-living phagocytes* that *defend* against multicellular invaders

Integumentary System

*Largest Organ: Skin* -*Layers of Skin*: Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous (Hypodermis) -Contains organs and glands that are vital to *protecting* the body and *regulating* the temperature. -Consist of *Skin, Sebaceous Gland, Sweat Glands, Hair, Nails.* -Variety of functions: *Protect, Secrete, and Communicate* -Skin manufactures *Vitamin D* and can absorb certain chemicals like certain medications.

Geometric Quantities

*Length*: Measured with ruler or tape measure *Units: in,ft,yd,mi,cm,m,km* *Curved Length*: Includes arcs or circles -Circumference- Length of distance around circle ~C=2*x*pi*x*r -Length of Arc- C=2*x*pi*x*r then multiply by n/360 *Perimeter:* Length around shape ~Add all sides. To find missing side: Subtract the like-sides ~Half the C= pi*x*radius *Area:* Surface space *Units Squared: in,ft,yd,mi,m*

Phospholipids

*Lipids that have a phosphate group rather than a fatty acid*

Cytosol

*Liquid* materials in the cell. Mostly water, also contains floating molecules.

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

*Located in the neck just below the larynx* *Basic function of thyroid gland is to Regulate Metabolism* -Parathyroid Glands are *4 small glands that are embedded on the posterior side of the thyroid glands* -*Thyroid Gland*: Secretes the hormones *thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin. ~Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine: *Increases metabolism* ~Calcitonin: *Decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue.* -Hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to *secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)*, which stimulates the thyroid gland to *secrete parathyroid hormone* which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood.

Prophase(1)

*Longest Phase* -Chromosomes cross over, Genetic material is exchanged, and te trades of four chromatids are formed. Nuclear membrane dissolves/breaks down.

Proteins

*Macromolecules formed from Amino Acids* -Are *Polypeptides*, which consist of many (10-100) peptides linked together. -*Fibrous, Hydrophobic molecules (keratin and collagen)* have hydrophobic amino acids on their surface. Not soluable in water (hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes) ~*Membrane Proteins* have a stretch of hydrophobic amino acids sandwiched between layers of hydrophilic amino acids and are found *embedded in membranes* where they function in *transport or signal transfer* -*Peptide*: Compound of two or more amino acids. -*Amino Acids*: Formed by the *Partial Hydrolysis* of protein, which forms an *amino acids* ~Connections are the result of *condensation* reactions (loss of water when two molecules are joined together) ~*Hydrolysis* reaction is opposite from Condensation reactions.

Nucleic Acids

*Macromolecules that are composed of nucleotides* *Store information and energy, and are important in catalyst* ~RNA that *catalyzes* the transfer of DNA genetic information into protein coded information. -Hydrolysis is part of the process by which *nucleic acids are broken down* by enzymes to produce shorter strings on RNA and DNA (oligonucleotides) -*Oligonucleotides*: Broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units (nucleosides). ~Nucleosides can be *digested* by cells since the sigar is *divided* from the nitrogenous base. -^^^ Leads to the *formation* of the *five types of nitrogenous bases*, sugars, and the preliminary *substance involved in the synthesis* of new RNA and DNA. ~DNA and RNA have a *double helix shape* -ATP is an RNA neucleotide. -*Nucleotide*: Used to form the nucleic acids. Made of *5 Carbon Sugar (*Pentose*) (ribose or deoxyribose, nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate) ~Consisting of more than *one phosphate* can also store energy in their bonds.

Fats

*Made of long chains of fatty acids* (3 Fatty Acids bound to Glycerol). -*Fatty Acids*: Chains with reduced carbon at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other. ~Example: Soap- Contains the *Sodium salt* of free fatty acids.

Features of Graphic Representation

*Maps: titles, legends, and scales.* ~*Titles:* Articulate the purpose of the map. ~*Legend:* Clarifies what the symbols, colors, and shapes represent. ~*Scale:* The distance between points.

Mean, Median, and Mode

*Mean:* Add all #, then divide by how many # there are ~"Average" *Median:* Middle # of ordered (Least to Greatest) list. If # are even, then the 2 middle # averaged out. *Mode:* tthat occurs the MOST. Can be more than one. Range: Subtracting the minimum value from maximum value

Electronegativity

*Measure of how capable an atom is of attracting a pair of bonding electrons.* -Refers to the fact that one atom exerts slightly more force in a bond than another, creating a *dipole bond*. -If electronegative difference between 2 atoms is *small*, the atoms will form a *polar covalent bond.* -If the difference is *large*, the atoms will form an *ionic bond.* -When there is *no* electronegativity, a *pure nonpolar covalent bond* is formed.

pH

*Measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance in terms of the number of moles of H+ concentration, while a higher pH indicates a lower H+ concentration.* -Scale: 1 to 14 ~ 1 to 7 is considered an *acid* ~ 7 to 14 is considered an *base* ~ Pure water is a 7, neutral. -pH indicator is a substance that acts as a detector of hydrogen or hydronium ions. It's a *halochromic*, meaning it changes color to indicate that hydrogen or hydrnium ions have been detected.

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids in the Periodic Table

*Metals:* Located on the left side and center of the periodic table. -Include: *Alkaline*- Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium *Alkaline Earth*- Beryllium, Magnesium, and Calcium. Also, include *Transition Metals*- Iron, Copper, and Nickel and *Inner Transition*- Thorium, Uranium, and Plutonium. *Nonmetals:* Located in the right side of the periodic table. -Include: *Chalcogens*- Oxygen, Sulfur *Halogens*- Fluorine, Chlorine *Noble Gases*- Helium, Neon, Argon, Xenon and Radon *Extra*- Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus. *Metalloids:* (semi metals) Form a zigzag line between the metals and nonmetals. -*Include:*Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Antimony, and Polonium.

Epidermis

*Most superficial layer.* -Deepest portion is *stratum basal*. Single layer of cells that continuously undergo division. Older cells pushed towards the surface. -Most epidermal cells are *Keratinized*. ~Keratin: Waxy protein that helps waterproof the skin. -As cells *die* they are sloughed off.

Dermis

*Mostly Connective Tissue* -Contains *Blood Vessels, Sensory Receptors, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, and Sweat Glands. -Also, contains *Elastin and Collagen*

Efferent Nerves

*Motor* -*Brings signals from* the CNS *to* the sensory organs and skeletal muscles.

Passive Immunity

*Naturally Acquired*: Happens during *Pregnancy* as antibodies move from the mother's bloodstream to the bloodstream of the fetus. ~Can also be transferred from mother's breast milk. ~During *infancy*, antibodies provide *temporary protection* until childhood. *Artificially Acquired*: Immunization that is *given* in recent outbreaks or emergency situations. Provides quick and short-lived protection to disease by the use of antibodies that can come from another person/animal.

Active Immunity

*Naturally Acquired*: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen *without* an immunization. *Artificially Acquired*: The individual is exposed and builds immunity to a pathogen *by a vaccine*. -Pathogens can enter body through *lymph nodes*. Nodes contain *large number of antigen-presenting cells* (APC) that can trigger the adaptive immune system.

Lipids

*Not long polymers with high molecular weights* -*Hydrophobic*: Do not bond/mix well with water/water solutions. Help separate *aqueous compartments* -Numerous C-H (Carbon and Hydrogen) bonds. Similar to hydrocarbons. *Role*: Storing energy and structural functions. -Examples: *Fats (hydrogen and carbon), phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.*

Atomic Number

*Number of Protons in the nucleus of an atom* -Can be *represented as Z* -*Neutral Charge*: An atomic number that is *equal* to the number of electrons.

DNA Replication

*Pairs of Chromosomes are composed of DNA* ~Tightly wound to conserve space. -When replication starts, it *unwinds*. -Steps in DNA replication is *controlled by enzymes*. -*Enzyme Helicase*: Instigates the *deforming* of hydrogen bonds between the bases to *split the two strands*. -*Replication Fork*: Portion of the DNA that is unwound to be replicated. -Each strand of DNA is *transcribed* by an mRNA. It copies the DNA onto itself, *base by base*, in a complementary manner. ~*Exception: Uracil replaces Thymine.*

Text Features

*Parts of a text that stand out from a larger text for a reason* -Examples: bold, print, italics, and footnotes. -Used to orient the reader, provide additional information, provide a clear organizational structure, background knowledge, quickly locating information. ~Indentation: Helps organize and clarify text ~Easily Identified: Sidebars, footnotes, and map legends. Trying to draw attention

The 3 Main Secretions of the Stomach

*Pepsinogen* (chief cells), *Mucus* (goblet cells), *hydrochloric acid* (parietal cells)

Problem/Soluntion*

*Persuasive* -Includes: *Introduction of the problem being addressed, a description of the problem, a plausible solution to the problem, and a closing that challenges the reader to take action.* *-Signal Words:* The problem, so that, for this reason, if....then...., because, this led to, a solution, one reason for.

Condensation

*Phase change in a substance from a gaseous to a liquid form* -When temperatures *decrease* in a gas (water vapor), the materials component molecules *move more slowly.* ~ Decreased motion of the molecules enables *intermolecular cohesive forces* to pull the molecules closer together and, establish hydrogen bonds. -Also, be caused by an *increase in pressure* exerted on gas, which results in *decrease in substances volume* (reduces distance between particles). *Hydrologic Cycle*: -Initiated when warm air containing water vapor *rises and then cools*. ~Occurs due to *convection in the air, meteorological fronts, or lifting over high land formations.*

Cytokinesis

*Physical splitting of the cell into two cells* - Some believe it occurs following telophase, others say it occurs from anaphase, as the cell begins to *furrow*, through telophase, when cell actually splits into two.

Common Themes in Classic Literature

*Power, Motherhood, Freedom, And Privilege. Themes that are easily learned are from culture, geographic area, and time period.* Authors take different perspectives on a single theme. -*Genre:* A group of relate writing or other media. Impact how a theme is addressed. -*Films*: Note more powerful themes. Filmmakers choose to display and comment on themes in many ways. ~Camera angles: Showing subject from below can depict them as powerful or important. Subject shown as being very small compared to vast landscape depicts theme as powerless.

Using evidence to make what?

*Predictions and inferences, and draw conclusions about a piece of writing.* -Draw conclusions by making predictions and inferences. -Using evidence to support how you came to the conclusion. -*Vague Details given*: Author wants you to ask questions, form hypotheses, and draw potentially important details to predict actions, plot twists, and story resolutions. (Technique used to help predicts *foreshadowing*) -*Inference:* Like a prediction but more subtle. -Example: Author using numbered list, Reader might predict that authors is giving instructions or providing a list. ~Title can be considered a prediction ~Word meanings. Using words around an unknown word can provide clues to the meaning of a word.

Carbohydrate

*Primary source of energy* and are *Responsible for providing energy as they can be easily converted to glucose.* -*Functions*: Structural (Celllulose, Chitin), Energy Storage (Amylose, Amylopectin, and Glycogen), and Recognition Molecules (Glycoproteins, Glycolipids) -Monomer: General *General Formula CnH2nOn* n is typically 3, 4, 5, or carbons long. ~Making triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose monosaccharides. -*Oxidation of Carbs*:Provides the cells with most of their energy. -Usually take the form of CH2O as they are made of *carbon, 2 hydrogen, oxygen* -Broken down into *sugars or glucose*

Classified Advertisment

*Printed Advertisment selling of soliciting something.* -Generally short, detailed text offering items and services. -Example: Print/Online newspapers, magazines, blogs and forums. ~*Blogs:* Website that is usually informal and independently run. ~*Forums:* Online message board. -*Included in Advertisement:*: Headline that engages the reader, item or service offered, a call to action (phone number, email, address)

*(Int.)* Uterus

*Protects and nourishes the developing embryo/fetus until birth* -Cervix: Opening to uterus

Immune System

*Protects the body against invading pathogens* including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists through the presence of barriers composed of *skin, and secretions such as acid, enzymes, and salt.* -*Includes*: Lymphatic System (Lymph, Lymph Capillaries, Lymph Vessel, and Lymph Nodes) ~Also, Red Bone Marrow, numerous Leukocytes, or White Blood Cells. *Diseases: -*Underactivity/Failure*: *AIDS*-Infects T cells and prevents it from activating Cytotoxic T cells and B cells. Preventing Adaptive Immune System from opening. -*Overactive*: *Allergies*-Target innocuous foreign particles (pollen), causing body to go into overdrive by producing huge amounts of IgE that trigger *histamine* release from mast cells. *Autoimmune Disease*- Mistakenly target a host molecule as a foreign antigen.

Axial Skeleton

*Protects vital organs including the brain, heart, and lungs* Consist of *80* Bones and includes vertebral column (spine), rib cage, sternum, skull, and hyoid bone. -*Spine*: Consist of *33* vertebae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral). -*Rib Cage*: 12 Paired ribs, *10 pairs of true ribs and 2 pairs of floating ribs* and the sternum. -*Sternum*: Consists of the manubrium, corpus sterni, and xiphoid process. -Transfers weight from upper body to the lower appendages.

Enzymes

*Proteins with strong catalytic power* -Greatly *accelerate* the speed at which specific reactions approach equilibrium by lowering the energy required. -Make *chemical reactions*happen faster and more often. ~Acceleration can be *substantial*, sometimes making reactions happen a million times faster. -Unusual quality of enzymes is that they *are not permanently consumed* int he reactions they speed up. -Can be used again and again, *providing a constant source* of energy accelerants for cells. Allows for a tremendous *increase* in the number and rate of reactions in cells. -Enzymes deal with reactants, called *Substrates*.

Functions of Skeletal System

*Providing structural support, Providing movement, Providing Protection, Producing Blood Cells, and Storing substances* (fat and minerals). ~Provides the body with structure and support for the muscles and organs. ~Provides movement with joints and muscular system. ~Provides reservoir to store the minerals calcium and phosphorus. -*Bones*: Provide attachment points for muscles. -*Joints*: Include Hinge, Ball-and-Socket, Pivot, Ellipsoid, Gliding, and Saddle Joints. Each bone is attached to two bones: *The Origin and Insertion*. -*Origin*: Remains immobile. -*Insertion*: Bone that moves as the muscle contracts and relaxes. ~Serves to protect the body. -*Cranium*: Protects the Brain. -*Vertebrae*: Protects spine. -*Rib Cage*: Protects heart and lungs. -*Pelvis*: Protects reproductive organs. -*Red Marrow*: Manufactures *red* and *white* blood cells. ~All bone marrow is *red* at birth, but adults have about *one-half red bone marrow* and *one-half yellow bone marrow* -*Yellow Marrow*: Stores fat

Types of RNA

*RNA acts as a help to DNA* and carries out a number of functions. *Types of RNA*: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), and Messenger RNA (mRNA). -*rRNA*: Not believed to have changed much over time. Can be used to *study relationships* in organisms. In the ribosomes. -*mRNA*: Carries a copy of a strand of DNA and transports it from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. ~Transcription: Process whereby DNA uses RNA. ~Translation: Process whereby ribosomes use transcribed RNA to put together the needed protein. -*tRNA*: A molecule that helps in the translation process, and is found int he cytoplasm. -RNA mediates the conversation of the information stored in DNA into the proteins that are encoded in genes. -Viruses can *use* RNA to carry their genetic material to DNA. -Mutations: Errors in sequence and interfere with protein function.

Macromolecular Nucleic Acid Polymers

*RNA and DNA* -Formed from nucleotides. ~Which are monomeric units *joined by phosphodiester bonds.* -Cells require ATP to synthesize proteins from amino acids and replicate DNA. -*Nitrogen Fixation*: Used to synthesize nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins. ~Uses enzyme *nitrogenase* in the reduction of *dinitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3)*

Adaptive Immune System (Respond to Specific Antigen)

*Reaction: Prevention:* *-Cytotoxic T cells -B cells produce* *kill pathogens antibodies* -Activated by antigen and help T cells. -Helper T cells are activated by APC

Dendrites

*Receive impulses from* sensory receptors or Interneurons and *transmit them toward* the cell body. -Strands coming off the Cell body

Adaptive Immune System

*Responds by remembering signature molecules* called Antigens. Functional cells are *Lymphocytes*

Somatic Nervous System

*SNS* -*Controls the 5 senses and the voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.* -Has all the neurons that are connected to the sense organs. -2 Nerves that send signals to neurotransmitters: *Efferent and Afferent*. They help SNS operate the senses and the movement of skeletal muscles. ~*Reflex Arc*

*(Ext.)* Bartholins glands

*Secrete* a lubricating fluid

Nervous System

*Senses, Interprets, and Issues commands* as a response to conditions in the body's environment. Made by a very complex communication system organized as a *grid of neurons*. *Integrates muscles and nerves*.

Communicate

*Sensory Receptors* distributed throughout the skin *send information* to the brain regarding *pain, touch, pressure, an temperature*.

Afferent Nerves

*Sensory* -*Brings signals from* the sensory organs and the muscles *to* the CNS.

Neutrophils

*Short-living phagocytes* that *respond quickly* to invaders

Location of topic

*Should appear near the beginning of the paragraph and include main idea.* -Topic must not be too specific or too general.

General Immune Defense

*Skin*: Intact epidermis and dermis form a formidable barrier against bacteria. *Ciliated Mucous Membranes*: Cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract. *Glandular Secretions*: Secretions from exocrine glands destroy bacteria. *Gastric Secretions*: Gastric acid destroys pathogens. *Normal Bacterial Populations*: Compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina. -Phagocytes and Inflammation: Responses mobilize WBC and chemical reactions to stop infection. ~Responses include: *Localized redness, tissue repair, and fluid-seeping healing agents.* ~Plasma proteins act as the complement system to repel bacteria and pathogens.

Monomer

*Small Molecule* -Single compound that forms chemical bonds with other monomers to make a *polymer*

Shapes and their Formulas

*Square:* A=l*x*l = l2 (squared) *Rectangle*: A=l*x*w *Triangle*: A= 1/2*x*b*x*h *Parallelogram*: A=h*x*b *Trapezoid*: A= 1/2*x*h*x*(b1*x*b2) *Circle*: A= pi*x*r2 (squared) *Rhombus*: A=1/2*x*d1*x*d2

Stereotypes and Biases

*Stereotype: Biased belief about a person or group and doesn't recognize individual differences or social distinction.* ~Influenced by parents, peers, social opinions, and the media. ~Can be positive or negative. Regardless, they have negative consequences. *Bias: Tendency toward a preconceived idea.* ~Preferential viewpoint that often doesn't allow for important or objective discussion. *-Differences that assist in Identification:* *Stereotype:* Writer remains *nonemotional* and uses *general* statements. Writer might have facts based upon *researched biases and falsely supported assumptions.* *Bias:* Writer uses *emotionally* charged word choice and *figuartive* language. Writer purposefully *omits facts* due to a usual *lack of validation.*

Skeletal System

*Structures*: Bone and Cartilage. *>200 Bones*: Divided into 2 parts ~*Axial*: Includes skull, sternum, ribs, and vertebral column (spine). ~*Appendicular*: Includes bones in arms, feet, hands, legs, hips, and shoulders.

Electrons

*Subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus at various levels commonly referred to as layers, shells, or clouds.* -*Orbiting Electrons*: Account for only a *fraction* of the atoms mass. ~Much smaller than the nucleus, are *negatively* charged, and exhibit wave-like characteristics. -Can occupy orbits that are varying distances away from the nucleus and tend to occupy the *lowest energy level* they can. ~If an atom has *all it's electrons*in the lowest available positions, it has a stable electron arrangement. -*Valence Shell:* Outermost electron shell of an atom in it's uncombined state. ~Electrons there are called *Valence Electrons* and it is their number that determines *bonding behavior*. -Atoms react in a manner that will allow them to fill or empty their valence shells.

Catalyst

*Substance that helps change the rate of reaction without changing their form, can increase rate by decreasing the number of steps it takes to form products.* -Mass of catalyst should be that same at the beginning Of the reaction as it is at the end. -Activation Energy: Minimum amount of energy required. ~ Causes particles to collide with sufficient energy to start the reaction. -Enables more particles to react which lowers the activation energy. *Examples:* Manganese Oxide (MnO2), decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, iron in the manufacture of ammonia using the Haber process, and concentrate of sulfuric acid in the nitration of benzene.

Shape of Distribution

*Symmetry*: Divided at center with each side having half the data *Number of Peaks (modal)*: Uni-1 peak, Bi-2 peaks, Bellshaped- Single peak in center *Skewness*: More distribution on one side than the other *~Right-*More towards left side, toward higher *~Left-*More towards right side, toward lower *Uniform:* Data spread equally, no peaks. *Data Trend:* Easy to see in simple graphs instead of complex ~Expected/Unexpected (outliers): "Outsider" plot point

5 Basic Chemical Reactions

*Synthesis Reaction, Decomposition Reaction, Single Replacement Reactions, Double Replacement Reaction, Combustion Reactions*

Systole and Diastole (Contraction Cycles)

*Systole*: Contraction of heart muscles *Diastole*: Relaxation of heart muscles *Controlled*: by a "pacemaker" called the *Sinoatrial Node*, which sends out electrical signal.

Percentage Convert to/from Fraction

*TO* - Convert to decimal first (divide by 100) then put into simplest form *FROM* - Convert to decimal (multiply to get 100 in denominator then divide by denominator) then put decimal into %

Percentage Convert to/from Decimal

*TO* - Divide % by 100 then remove % symbol *FROM* - Multiply by 100 then add % symbol

Subcutaneous (Hyperdermis)

*Technically NOT a layer of skin* -Consists of *Connective Tissue* which binds the skin to underlying muscles. -*Fat deposits* here to help *cushion* and *insulate* the body.

Chemical Reactivity

*Tendency of a substance to engage in chemical reactions.* If tendency is *high* then the substance is said to be *high reactive*. -*Periodicity:* Allows us to predict an elements reactivity based on its position on the periodic table. ~High numbered groups on the right side of the table have *a fuller complement of electrons* in their outer levels. Making them *less reactive.* ~Except He has 2 (in group 18) -Atoms tend to lose and gain electrons to reach an ideal of 8 in the outer level, these elements have a *very low reactivity.*

3 General Functional Types of Neurons

*The Sensory Neurons, Motor Neurons, and Interneurons.

Evaporation

*The change of state in a substance from liquid to a gaseous form at a temperature below its boiling point.* -*Higher temperatures*: Molecules move more rapidly, increasing their numbers with enough energy to break out of the liquid form. ~ Rate of evaporation is *Higher* when more of the surface area of a liquid is exposed (large body of water). ~Amount out of moisture already in the air also *affects* the rate. ~If there is a significant amount of water vapor in the air around a liquid, some evaporated molecules will *return* to the liquid. -Speed of the evaporation process also *decreased by increases atmospheric pressure*.

Cell Cycle

*The process by which a cell reproduces* which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division. -Complex organisms: Use the cell cycle to *replace* cells as they lose their functionality and wear out. -In Animals: Cell Cycle can take 24 hours. -Human Skin Cells: Constantly reproducing. -2 Ways for Cell Reproduction: *Mitosis and Meiosis*

Compare/Contrast themes from Print and Other Sources

*Theme: Broad concept engaged with by a piece of art.* ~Present in short/long works of fiction/nonfiction, no print sources like films and radio broadcasts. Some themes are obvious but other will need different parts of the text pulled in order to recognize them. ~Novels engage with several themes and in several ways.

Persuasive/Argumentative

*To convince the reader to believe something about the topic.* ~Convince to feel, think, or behave a certain way. -Includes: *facts, details, examples, and persuasive word choice along with logical order of thought development.* -Must portray a strong opinion. -The reason answers *why* to any claim (topic), Evidence *shows* (with facts, details, or examples) what the claim *looks* like. Analysis explains *how* the evidence is supporting the claim and wraps up the paragraph.

Sensory Neurons

*Transmit Signals to* the Central Nervous System *(CNS)* from the sensory receptors associated with *touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste*.

Interneurons

*Transmits Signals between* neurons. ~Interneurons receive transmitted signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

Motor Neurons

*Transmits Signals from* CNS *to the rest of the body* such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond.

The Axon

*Transmits the impulses away* from the cell body. -*Insulated* by *oligodendrocytes* and the *Myelin sheath* with gaps knows as *nodes of Ranvier*. -*Terminates* at the synapse. -Impulse transmitted to the next cell using *chemical neurotransmitters* secrets into the synapse from the axon terminals.

Blood

*Transports* Oxygen to cells and *Removes* wastes. -*Carries hormones* and *Defends* against disease.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

*Two Types:* *-Rough ER:* Has ribosomes on surface. ~*Functions*: Manufacture lysosomal enzymes, Manufacture of secreted proteins. (Protein production, protein folding, quality control, and despatch) *-Smooth ER:* Has no ribosomes. ~*Functions*: Manufacture Lipids (fat), Metabolism, Steroid Hormone production (adrenal cortex and endocrine glands), Helps liver detox. -*Tubular Network* that comprises the transport system of a cell. It is *fused* to the nuclear membrane and *extends* through cytoplasm to the cell membrane.

Acids

*Unique class of compounds characterized by consistent properties* -Either donate H+ or accept OH- ions. -Significant Property of an Acid: Not readily observable and gives acids their unique behaviors. ~*Includes:* Ionization of H atoms, or their tendency to dissociate from their parent molecules and take on an electrical charge. ~*Carboxylic acids:* Characterized by ionization, but of the 0 atoms. *Properties that are easy to observe without any experiments:* ~Sour Taste, Change the color of litmus paper to *red*, Produce gaseous H2 in reaction with some metals, Produce salt precipitates in reaction with bases. *Properties that are less easily observed, but no more complex:* ~Most inorganic acids are easily soluble in water and have high boiling points.

Respiratory System Structures

*Upper*: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynk larynx *Lower*: trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchial network)

Point of View

*Way the author considers the subject of writing.* *-Ways to identify POV* for purposes of in-depth comprehension, challenging the author and text, and viewing the subject through licenses: *Read multiple text on same subject:* Compares facts, opinions, biases and stereotypes. *Identify authors word choice:* Recognize tones (authors feeling) *Conclude what is missing from text:* Determine POV by omission *Imagine authors side in a debate:* Evaluate the biases and stereotypes.

Van der Waals Force

*Weak* force between molecules. Much weaker than actual chemical bonds between atoms.

Single Replacement Reaction

*When one reactant is displaced by another took form the final product* ~*(A + BC -> AB + C)* -Can be catatonic or anionic. *Example:* Piece of Copper (Cu) is placed into solution of Silver Nitrate (AgNO3), the solution turns blue. The copper appears to be replaced with a silvery-white material. 2AgNO3 + Cu -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag ~When reaction takes place, the copper dissolves and the silver in the silver nitrate solution precipitates (to solid) resulting in copper nitrate and silver.

Diffusion

*When particles are translated from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.* -*Equilibrium is reached* then diffusion so *stops*. ~ Examples: Gas exchange (CO2 and O2) during photosynthesis and Transport of oxygen from air to blood and from blood to tissue. -*Facilitated Diffusions*: Specific molecules are transported by a specific carrier protein. ~*Carrier Protein:* Vary in terms of size, shape, and charge. ~Examples of substances transported by carrier proteins are *glucose and amino acids*

Rounding Rules

- 5 or *LARGER*, round *UP* (decimals) - 5 or *SMALLER*, Round *DOWN* (decimals) - Numerator is *GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2* the denominator, then round whole # *UP* - Numerator is *LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 1/2* the denominator, then round whole # *DOWN*

Relationship between 2 Variables

- Change in one can cause change in another - Examples- mileage increases/gas decreases (negative relation). Miles increase/radio increases (positive relation) - *Covariance*: Variables increase = Positive Covariance Variable Decrease = Negative Covariance Independent: First variable Dependent: Second variable

Airway

- Lined with cilia to remove microbes and debris -*Lungs*: Bronchial Tree -> lungs -> terminate into alveoli (air sacs) -> gas exchange with blood capillaries *Walls of Alveoli *allow for the exchange of gases* with the blood capillaries that surround them. *Right lung* - 3 Lobes *Left lung* - 2 Lobes -Surrounded by *Pleural Membrane* (reduce friction) -*Muscles*: *Diaphragm*: separates thoracic/abdominal cavities *Intercostal*: between ribs

Percent Increase Equation

- Percent Increase ~ PI= new amount - original amount/ original amount X 100%

Decimal Placement/Converting

- Value greater than 1, Move decimal to right till you get whole number. - Number becomes numerator and 1 becomes denominator with the number of 0's that matches number of moves for decimal. = *Fraction* - Value less than 1. Use whole number as numerator and the *Place value* of *last decimal Digit* as denominator. =*Fraction*

Duodenum produces what enzymes?

-"Brush Border" enzymes -*Proteases, Lactase and other disaccharides, and bicarbonate.*

Muscular System

-*3 Types of Muscle Tissue*: Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac. -*3 Common Properties*: ~*Excitability*: Tissues have an *electric gradient* which can reverse when stimulated. ~*Contraction*: Tissues have the *ability to contract, or shorten*. ~*Elongate*: Tissues *share the capacity to elongate, or relax*.

Alveoli

-*Aqueous Surfactant*: The *median* for gas exchange and keeps lungs from collapsing on itself due to surface tension

Digestive Role in Pancreas

-*Assists in the digestion* of foods by *secreting enzymes* (to the SM.INT.) that help *break down* many foods, like fats and proteins. -*Precursors to enzymes* (zymogens) are *produced* by groups of *exocrine cells* (acini). -*Converted through a chemical reaction* in the gut, to an *active enzyme* (like pancreatic lipsae and amylase) once entered into small intestines. -*Secretes* large amounts of *sodium bicarbonate* to *neutralize* the stomach avid that reaches the small intestines. -*Exocrine Secretions*: ~*Controlled by hormones* released by the stomach/duodenum when food is present. ~Flow into the *main pancreatic duct* and are *delivered to the duodenum* through duct.

Heart Functions

-*Atrial Contraction*: Fills ventricles and then ventricular contractions empty them, forcing circulation "cardiac cycle" -*Cardiac Muscles* attach to each other and signals *for contraction* spreading rapidly. -*Complex Electrical System*: Controls the *heartbeat* -*Cardiac Muscle Cells*: *Produce and conduct* electrical signals.

Different Graphs and Interpretation

-*Bar Graph:* Compare data (has scale) -*Line Graph:* Data INCREASE or DECREASE over time (has legend) -*Pictograph:* Pics or symbols to show data (legend) -*Pie Chart:* Diagram to compare parts as a whole (labeled,legend) -*Histograph:* Like a bar graph, grouped data -*Stem and Leaf plot:* Outline groups of data that fall into range (small to large, left=stem, right=leaf) -*Scatter Plot:* Functions give with data, finding simple regression. 4 different types: positive, negative, nonlinear exponential, nonlinear quadratic

Prophase

-*Chromatin* thickens into *chromosomes* and the nuclear membrane begins to *disintegrate*. -*Pairs of Centrioles* move to opposite sides and *spindle fibers* begins to form. -*Mitotic Spindle* moves chromosomes around wishing the cell.

Small Intestines

-*Enzymes* from pancreas, liver, and stomach are *transported* here to aid digestion. -Enzymes *act on fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins*. -*Gall Bladder*: stores bile (useful in fat break down) -*Epithelial cells* at the surface of villi (microvilli), to *further increase* the ability of the small intestine to serve as the *main absorption* organ.

*Female* Hormones

-*Estrogen*: From ovaries. Causes the egg to mature in the Graafian follicle and the uterine wall thickens. -*Luteinizing hormone (LH)*: From *Pituitary Gland*. Causes the egg to be released.

Diseases of Bone

-*Excess Withdrawal* of minerals from bone can cause *Osteoporosis* (rigidity of bone lost). -*Arthritis*: Cartilage that articulates between joints is damaged. -*Brittle Bone Disease*: Genetic Defect in the *collagen matrix* and cause bones to break easily.

Innate Immune System Barriers

-*External*: Physical (*skin and mucus*) secretions, Chemical barriers (Low pH, Salt, Enzymes), Cellular barriers of commensal micro-organisms. ~If pathogens *breach* the barriers and enters the blood or tissues, *internal barriers* include Antimicrobial peptides; Interferons that *prevent viral replication*; Complement, which involves the binding of antibodies to the pathogen, inflammation reactions, including fever. NK Lymphocyte cells that engulf and digest extracellular pathogens. -Macrophages and Dendritic cells respond to conserved *pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS)* through *toll-like receptors* and trigger an inflammation or *antigen presentation*.

Hormones in Male Reproductive System

-*Follicle-stimulating hormone:* Stimulates *Spermatogenesis* -*Luteinizing hormone:* Stimulates *testosterone* production. -*Testosterone:*Constantly producing. Responsible for the male sex characteristics (production of mammary glands, axial and facial hair, fat deposition patterns, and muscle growth)

Lymphatic System

-*Function*: To *return* excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream. -Consists of *transport vessels and lymphoid organs.* *Lymph Vascular System*: Consists of lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts. -Function: Return excess fluid to blood, Return of protein from capillaries, Transport of fats from the digestive tract, Disposal of debris and cellular waste.

Peritoneal Ligaments that Support the Spleen

-*Gastrolienal*: Connects the stomach to the spleen -*Lienorenal*: Connects the kidney to the spleen -*Middle Section of the Phrenicolic ligament*: Connects the left colic flex use to the thoracic diaphragm

*(Int.)* Bulbourethral (Cowper's)

-*Glands that secrete* a fluid into the *urethra* to *neutralize* the acidity in the urethra.

Pancreas

-*Head*: wider side, *Tail*: Narrower side -Exocrine and endocrine tissue -*Exocrine*: *Secretes digestive enzymes* from a series of ducts that collectively *form the main pancreatic duct*. ~Main pancreatic duct *connects to common bile duct+ near duodenum -*Endocrine*: *Secretes hormones* (insulin) into the bloodstream. -Blood is *supplied* from the splenic artery, gastroduodenal artery, and the superior mesenteric artery.

Printed Public Announcement

-*Inform public about organizations, upcoming events, and services.* -Message is short, design is simple and eye-pleasing, and information is easily accessible. -Content should include: *Link to information access, information about supporting organization, and supporting details* (In images and short phrases, if possible)

Cardiac Muscle

-*Involuntary* muscle found in *only the heart* -Cells are *striated*

Smooth Muscle

-*Involuntary* muscles that are found int he *walls of internal organs* like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. -*Non-striated* -Cells are *shorter and wider* than skeletal muscle fibers. -Found in *sphincters or valves* that control various openings throughout the body.

Liver

-*Largest solid* organ in body, largest gland -*4 Lobes*: Right, left, quadrate, and caudate. -Secured to diaphragm and abdominal walls by *5 ligaments* (falciform, coronary, right triangular, left triangular, and round ligaments). -*Lobules*: Blood *enters here* through branches of the *hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery*. Then *flows* through small channels called *sinusoids*. -*Processes all the blood* that passes through digestive system. -*Nutrients are converted* into forms appropriate for the body to use

4 Bone Types

-*Long*: Long compact hollow shafts containing marrow. Ends are usually made of spongy bone with air pockets. ~Humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, and fibula. -*Short*: Wider than they are long. ~Bones of the toes (metatarsals) and collarbone. -*Flat*:Not hollow but contain marrow. ~Scapula, ribs, and sternum. -*Irregular*:Nonsymmetrical shapes ~Bones of the skull, knee, and elbow.

Reproductive System

-*Male and Female* reproductive systems are *complex* and involve physical structures, hormones, an secretions. -Works with the endocrine system to influence many other parts of the body.

Terms of Direction

-*Medial*: Towards the mid-line, Middle, Away from the side. ~Example: The little finger it medial to the thumb. -*Lateral*: Toward the side, Away from the mid-line. ~Example: Anatomical position, Thumb is lateral to little finger. -*Proximal*: Structures *closer* to the center of the body. ~Example: Hip is proximal to the knee. -*Distal*: Structures *further* away from center of the body. ~Example: Knee is distal to the hip. -*Anterior*: Structures in *front*. -*Posterior*: Structures *behind*. -*Cephalad/Cephalic*: Adverbs meaning towards the head. ~Example: Cranial is the adjective, meaning The Skull. -*Caudad*: Adverb meaning towards the tail/posterior. ~Example: Caudal is the adjective, meaning The Hindquarters. -*Superior*: Above, or closer to the head. -*Inferior*: Below, or closer to the feet.

Stomach Functions

-*Mixing and storing* foods -*Dissolving and degrading* good via secretions -*Controlling passage* of food into the small intestines. Protein digestion begins in stomach

Beginning of Digestion

-*Mouth*: By chewing and mixing of nutrients with saliva. -*Salivary Glands*: Stimulated and secrete saliva. ~*Saliva*: Contains enzymes that initiate the breakdown of starch in digestion. -Once swallowed, food moved down *Pharynx* into the *Esophagus*, headed towards the stomach.

Digestive System Functions

-*Movement*: Mixes and passes nutrients through the system and eliminates waste. -*Secretion*: Enzymes, hormones, and other substances necessary for digestion are secreted into the digestive tract. -*Digestion*: Chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the internal environment -*Absorption*: Passage of nutrients through plasma membranes into the blood or lymph and then to the body.

*Female* Reproductive System

-*Produce* ova (oocytes, or eggs), *transfer* the over to the fallopian tubes for *fertilization*, *receive* sperm from male, and to *provide* a protective, nourishing environment for the *developing embryo/fetus* -*External Structures:* Labia major/minor, Bartholins glands, and clitoris. -*Internal Structures:* Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina.

Liver Function

-*Production* of bile, certain blood plasma proteins, cholesterol -*Storage* of excess glucose in the form of glycogen -*Regulation* of amino acids and blood clotting -*Processing* of hemoglobins -*Conversion* of ammonia -*Purification* of the blood -*Controlling infections* by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria.

Salts

-*Properties:* Formed from acid/base reactions, are ionic compounds consisting of metallic and nonmetallic ions, dissociate in water, and are comprised of tightly bonded ions. ~Common Salts: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Sodium Bisulfate, Potassium Bichromate (K2Cr2O7), and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) ~Potassium Nitrate (KNO3): Used to make fertilizer and in the manufacture of explosives. ~Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3): Used in the making of fertilizer. ~Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate): Salt ~Epson Salt (Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)) -Hydrolysis Reaction: Salt and Water can react to form a base and an acid.

Compare and Order Rational Numbers

-*Rational Numbers*: -6 (-6/1), 5 (5/1), 100 (100/1) -*Irrational Numbers*: Square root (any prime number), pi -*Numeric Order*: Least to Greatest, Greatest to Least. Best in decimal form. Line them up vertically. -*Fraction/Fraction Form*: 5 2/7 (put into decimal) Divide 2 by 7 to get .2857 which will equal 5.2857

*(Ext.)* Scrotum

-*Sac* of skin and *smooth muscle* that houses the testes and keeps them at the proper temperature for *spermatogenesis*.

Secrete

-*Sebaceous Gland* secretes *Sebum* (oil) that waterproofs the skin. -*Sweat Glands* secrete sweat. Associated with body's homeostatic relationship with *thermoregulation*. ~Also, serve as *excretory organs* and help rid the body of metabolic wastes. -Exocrine Glands found in skin. Secrete through ducts to the skin

*(Int.)* Epididymis

-*Stores* sperm as it *matures* -Mature sperm moves *through vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct*.

Respiratory Functions

-*Supplies* body with *oxygen* and *Removes* carbon dioxide (occurs in alveoli) -*Filters Air*: passes through nasal passages -> lungs -*Speech*: Air -> throat -> through larynx, causing vibrations and producing sound before heading to trachea -*Cough*: Particles -> nasal passages/airways -> expelled from body -*Smell*: Chemoreceptors (nasal cavity) respond to airborne chemicals

Skeletal Muscle

-*Voluntary* muscles that work in *pairs* to move various parts of the skeleton. -Composed of *muscle fibers (cells)* that are bound together in parallel bundles. -Known as *striated* muscles due to their stripped appearance under the microscope. -Only muscle to help with the movement of the body.

Midbrain

-Above the pons and the medulla oblongata. -*Parts:* Tectum, the Tegmentum, and the Ventral Tegmentum. -Important Part of *Vision and Hearing.*

Absorption Process

-Acidity *helps break down* the food and *make nutrients* available for absorption. *Smooth muscle contractions* move nutrients into the *small intestines* where absorption process begins.

Thermoregulation (Temperature Homeostasis)

-Activated by *Sweat Glands* -Body maintains a stable body temperature as one component of a stable internal environment. -Temperature of the body is *controlled by the Negative Feedback System* consisting of a receptor, control center, and effector.

Arteries vs. Veins

-Arteries have *thick walls* to withstand the pressure of blood pumped by the hearts. -Veins have *walls with a thinner muscle layer and larger lumen.*

Ions

-Atoms interact by transferring or sharing the electrons furthest from the nucleus. -*Bonds*: Between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. If electrons are transferred *from one atom to another* then the bond is *ionic*. If electrons are shared, then the bond is *covalent* -Atoms of the same element may bond together to *form molecules or crystalline* solid. -*Compound*: Made when *two or more * different types of atoms bind together *chemically*. ~Physical properties reflect the nature of the interactions among their molecules. ~Interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the atoms they consist of and the distances and angles between them.

Immune Response to Antigen

-Can be *anti-body mediated* when the response is *to an antigen*, or *cell-mediated* when the response is *to already infected cells.* ~Responses are *controlled and measured counter-attacks* that recede when the foreign agents are *destroyed*. -Once an invader has attacked the body, if it returns it is immediately *recognized* and a *Secondary Immune Response* occurs. *Secondary Immune Response*: -Rapid and Powerful, much more so than the original response. ~Memory lymphocytes circulate throughout the body for years, alert to a possible new attack.

Chemical Reactions Overview

-Can take place quickly or slowly ~Fractions of a sec or billions of years -Rates of Chemical Reactions are determined by *how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact*. ~Rates are influenced by the *temperature and various properties of the reacting materials. -*Catalysts*: Accelerate chemical reactions, while *inhibitors decrease* reaction rates. ~Some reactions release energy in the form of heat and light. -Some types of reactions involve either electrons or hydrogen ions between reacting ions, molecules, or atoms. *Other Reactions:* Chemical bonds are broken down by heat or ought to form reactive radicals with electrons that will readily form new bonds. ~Radical Reactions: Processes controlled by radicals are *formation of ozone, greenhouse gasses in atmosphere, and burning/processing of fossil fuels.*

2 Integrated Circulatory System

-Closed Circulatory System -Open Lymphatic System

Large Intestines

-Colon -*Concentrates, mixes, and stores* waste material -Rectal wall is distended by waste material, the nervous system *triggers an impulse* in the body to *expel* the waste from the rectum. -*Muscle sphincter* at the end of the anus is stimulating facilitates the *expelling* of waste matter. -Speed of waste movement through colon is *influenced by volume of fiber* and *other undigested materials* present. -*Lack of Bulk in diet*: Bowel obstructions, constipation.

Renal Cortex

-Composed of about one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of the kidney). ~Nephrons contain a cluster of capillaries called *glomerulus* surrounded by the cup-shaped Bowman's Capsule, which leads to tubule. -Kidneys *receive blood from the renal arteries*, which branch off the aorta. Blood flows from renal arteries into arterioles into the glomerulus, where it's filtered. -Glomerular Filtrate: Enters the proximal convulated tubule where water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. -Substance like *urea and drugs* are removed from the blood in the *distal convoluted tubulue*. ~pH of the blood can be adjusted in the DST by the secretion of *hydrogen ions*.

Lymphoid Organs

-Consist of lymph nodes, spleen, appendix, adenoids, thymus, tonsils, and small patches of tissue in the small intestines. *Lymph Nodes*: Located at intervals through the lymph vessel system. Contains *lymphocytes and plasma cells.* *Spleen*: Filters blood, stores of RBC and macrophages. *Thymus*: Secrets hormones. Major site of lymphocyte production.

Peripheral Nervous System

-Consists of *nerves and ganglia* throughout then body and *includes sympathetic nerves* which trigger the *"fight or flight"* response, and the *parasympathetic nerves* which *control basic* body function.

*(Ext.)* Penis

-Contains the *Urethra* - Can fill with *blood* and become *erect*, enabling the *deposition* of semen and sperm into the female reproductive tract. during sex.

Urine

-Contains: Urea, Water, Salts, and other excess Metabolites. Drained from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until expulsion from the body through the urethra.

Sales Tax Equation

-Convert % to decimal then Multiply % times the Original Number (% x Original Price, Original Price + x = ST)

Breathing Process

-Diaphragm/Intercostal muscles *contracts* to expand lungs -*Inspiration* (Inhalation): Diaphragm *contracts* and moves down *increasing* the chest cavity -*Expiration* (exhalation): Intercostal muscles *contract* and ribs *expand*, *increasing size* of chest cavity ~Volume of chest cavity *increases*, then the pressure inside chest cavity *decreases* ~When *relaxed*: Size of cavity *decreases* forcing air out. -Controlled by *Medulla Oblongata* ~*Monitors* carbon dioxide in blood, signals the breathing rate to *increase* when levels are too high.

Valence Layers

-Electron in an atom can orbit different levels around the nucleus. They can *absorb or release* energy, which can change the location of their orbit or even allow them to break free from the atom. -Outermost Layer (Valence Layer): Contains the *valence electrons*. -Valence layer tends to *have or share* 8 electrons. ~Molecules are formed by a chemical bond between atoms. it occurs here.

Lymph

-Essentially plasma with RBCs removed -Large numbers of leukocytes and lymphocytes are enriched in *lymph nodes* -Where they *monitor* and *respond* to foreign molecules washed into the system. -Nodes are enriched in oral, nasal, and genital regions where foreign entities enter the body.

Evaluating Purpose in a given text

-Figure out if text is to entertain, inform, or persuade.

Identify Correct Definition of a Word

-Find context clues to help provide for the meaning of the word. *Root Words and Affixes:* Root is the base of a word and can have a prefix or suffix add to make a meaning. ~Example: Root= fract (break) Suffix= -tion *Comparing Signal Phrases:* Clue being provided to help clarify *Definition:* Provided as a restatement of the phrase *-Example or Illustration:* Examples given to provide a hint towards definition.

Macrophages

-Found traveling in the lymph or fixed in lymphatic tissue are the *largest, long-living phagocytes* that engulf and destroy pathogens.

Protection

-From *pathogens* including bacteria, viruses, and various chemicals from entering the body.

Kidneys

-Functions: filtering blood, creating urine, stabilizing water balance, maintaining blood pressure, and producing the active form of Vitamin D. *Bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm.* *3 Layers*: Renal Cortex, Renal Medulla, and Renal Pelvis. -Cardiovascular System: Pumps blood into the kidneys through the renal artery. Pressure of the blood helps the glomerulus filter out waste and return vital nutrients to the blood through the renal vein. -Produce *renin*: Hormone that regulates blood pressure by retaining or removing water and salt.

*Lock and Key* Analogy

-Highly selective, only interacting with *substrates* that are a *match* for it at an *active site* on the enzyme. ~Analogy: Certain enzyme *only fits* with certain substrates, but the fit is not always perfect.

Urinary Bladder

-Hollow, muscular organ that holds 500 to 1000mL of liquid. -Has sensors that communicate *with Cardiovascular System*. ~Both, *internal and external sphincters* of the bladder must be released for excretion to occur. -*Urethra*: Tube from bladder to an opening. Urine flows from bladder to opening to be expelled out of body.

Endocrine and Circulatory Relationship

-Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland coordinate to serve as a *neuroendocrine control center*. ~Hypothalamus *sends sends signals to* Pituitary and then *they send releasing hormones it to the specific glands*. - Hormones are *made* at the gland and then released directly into the circulatory system. Received by *target cells* or *organ* by hormone-specific receptors. -Endocrine acts more *slowly* than nervous system and the effects last *longer* than the nervous systems impulses.

Pepsin

-Initiates chemical digestion of proteins by this *enzyme* -Activated by *acid and autocatalyst*

Dihybrid Crosses

-Involving *more than one* trait. More combinations are possible. Ratio of genotypes is 9:3:3:1 when the traits are *not* linked. Rate for *incomplete dominance* is 1:2:1, which corresponds to dominate, mixed, and recessive phenotypes. -Genetic Cross for *two traits that each have two alleles*.

Posterior Area

-Known as *Brain Stem* ~*Connected* to the spinal cord. -*3 Parts:* Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata. - *Information* from the body is *sent* to the brain *through* the brain stem, and *information* from the brain is *sent* to the body *through* the brain stem. -*Important part of Respiratory, Digestive, and Circulatory Functions.*

Properties of Water

-Liquid at room temperature Has *High Polarity, Hydrogen a Bonding, Cohesiveness, Adhesiveness, High Specific Heat, High Latent Heat, and High Heat of Vaporization.* -*Polar Molecule*: Has *negatively* charge (oxygen end) and *positively* charged (hydrogen end) sides. Allows it to form hydrogen bonds and demonstrate both *cohesive and adhesive* properties. -*High Specific Heat*: It resists the breaking of its hydrogen bonds and resists heat and motion, which is why it *has relatively high boiling point and high vaporization point.* -*Resist temperature change* -*Cohesiveness:* It is attracted to itself. *Allows to travel through small capillaries without using energy. Creates surface tension by creating a tight-knit layer of water molecules on the surface of any body of water*. ~Solid Water "ice" will float on water because it has a lower density than liquid water. -*Adhesiveness:* Water adheres to another substance, then substance is said to be *hydrophilic*. *Sticks to other molecules*. *Universal Solvent: Many substances dissolve in it* ~Those particularly with *polar ions and molecules*

Occipital Lobe

-Located at the back of the head just above the brain stem. -*Responsible for visual input, processing, and output; specifically nerves from the eyes enter directly into this lobe*.

Temporal Lobe

-Located at the left and right sides of the brain -*Responsible for all auditory Input, processing, and output.

Frontal Lobe

-Located in the front of the brain -*Responsible for a short term/working memory and information processing as well as decision-making, planning, and judgement.*

Parietal Lobe

-Located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head. -*Responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body*.

Pathway of Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide in Lungs How Respiratory System effects Circulatory System

-Lungs are perfumed by blood vessels from the heart to *bring* deoxygenated blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs, where oxygen is *added* and carbon dioxide is *removed* to return oxygenated blood *to the heart* for circulation to the rest of the of the body -*Diffusion*: *Passive transport* mechanism. *Rate of Diffusion* is *directly proportional* to the surface area involved and the concentration gradient, and is *inversely proportional* to the distance between the two. solutions. -Oxygen in the lungs *moves into the blood*, and carbon dioxide in the blood *moves to the lungs*. Lungs then exhale carbon dioxide back out of body.

Gas

-Molecules or atoms of gases move independently of each other, are typically far apart, and do not form bonds. ~*Assumes volume and shape of container, Low density, High compressibility, Very free motion.* ~Little to no attraction to one another ~Constantly in motion ~Separated by distances that are very large in comparison to the size of molecules. ~Easily expand to fill whatever space is available, easily compressible.

Liquid

-Molecules or atoms of liquids move around and have weak bonds, but not weak enough to readily break. ~*Volume remains constant but assumes shape of its container, High density, No compressibility, Move freely.* ~Considerable attraction between molecules, but they are much more mobile, having no structures

2 Types of Bone cells

-Multinucleate *Osteoclasts*:Remove Bone -Mononucleate *Osteoblasts*: Make Bone

Skeletal Muscle Contractions

-Muscle Fibers contains a bundles of *myofibrils*. Composed of multiple repeating contractile units called *Sacromeres*. -*Myofibrils*: Contain 2 Protein Microfilaments. ~*Myosin*: Thick Filament ~*Acting*: Thin Filament ~Dark bands (striations) in skeletal muscles are formed when thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments overlap. ~Light bands are from *thin* filaments overlapped. -*Attraction* occurs when *actin* slides over *myosin shortening* the sarcomere. -*Action potential* reaches a muscle fiber, then *calcium ions* are released. ~Calcium Ions *bind* to myosin and actin, which *assist* in the binding of myosin heads of the thick filament to the actin of the thin filaments. -*Adenosine triphosphate*: Released from glucose provides the energy for contraction.

Physical Properties

-Observed properties of the substance and those that can change the state without changing the identity of the substance. -Categorized as either *Intensive or Extensive*. -Can be *observed our measured.* Includes: Color, elasticity, mass, volume, and temperature. -*Mass:* Measure of the amount of substance in an object. -*Weight:* Measure of gravitational pull of earth on an object -*Volume:* Measure of the amount of space occupied. ~ Many formulas to determine volume. ~*Cubed*: a3, *Rectangle*: l*x*w*x*h, *Irregular shape*: by how much water it displaces, *Density*: D=m/V (g/cm3), *Specific Gravity*: Measure of the *ratio* of a substances density compared to the density of water.

Rephrasing

-Once hints in details are found, you should be able to synthesize the key ideas/points to rephrase ideas. -*First step*: Analyze (break down) the key ideas. -*Second Step (final)*: Rephrase key ideas to understand the main idea. Evaluate the similarities and differences.

Directions

-Once reader has identified all features of procedure. -*Very specific, using language that tells how to accomplish the steps.*

Ureter

-One for each kidney. -Small tubes that carry Urine from the Kidneys to the Urinary Bladder.

Order of Operations

-PEMDAS (No exponent for TEAS 6) -Parentheses *FIRST* -Multiplication and Division *SECOND* (Left to Right) -Addition and Subtraction *THIRD* (Left to Right)

Cerebellum

-Plays a role in the *processing and storing* of implicit memories. ~Specifically, for those memories developed during classical conditioning learning techniques. ~ Discovered by exploring the memory of individuals with damaged cerebellum so. Were unable to develop stimulus responses when presented via a classical conditioning technique. Researcher found that this was also the case for *automatic responses*

Water Molecules

-Polar ~Hydrogen atoms are arranged around the Oxygen atoms in a close tetrahedron. -Oxidized (number of electrons reduced) when it bonds with oxygen to form water. -Hydrogen bonds tend to not only weak, but also short-lived. -Tend to be numerous. -Give water many of its important properties. -*An important component of proteins, nucleic acids, and DNA* -Ice: Has each oxygen atom bound to four hydrogen atoms, two covalently and two by hydrogen bonds. ~Forms an ordered roughly tetrahedral structure that prevents molecules from getting close to each other. ~There are empty spaces in the structure that account for the *low density* of ice.

Recognizing Events in a Sequence

-Powerful benefits like remembering information, understanding text, and analyzing information. -Know the different between Sequential and Chronological

Ratio/Rate Change

-Ratio: Simply just a fraction. Once you add/attach WORDS (units) to fraction then it becomes a RATE. - Example- ~Y2-Y1/X2-X1 rise over run ~Unit Rate - denominator HAS to be 1

Groups (columns) and Periods (row) in terms of Reactivity

-Reading *left to right* shows that the electrons are *increasing by 1*. - As electrons are added, their attraction to the nucleus *increases*, meanings as we read to the right in a period, each atoms electrons are more *densely compacted, more strongly bound to the nucleus, and less likely to be pulled away in reactions.* -Reading *down* a group, each successive atoms outer electrons are *less tightly bound* to the nucleus, thus *increasing* their reactivity, because the principal energy levels are *increasingly full* as we move downward within a group. -*Principal Energy Levels:* Shield the outer energy levels from nuclear attraction allowing the valence electrons to react.

After Investigation

-Scientists *analyze data* to determine possible conclusions. -Conclusions are based one evidence and subjected to scrutiny by other scientists. -Finally, they submit their evidence to journals, where the investigation and data are reviewed. ~Only the most reliable data should pass through this process. ~Hypotheses accepted or rejected through this process.

*(Int.)* Seminal Vesicles

-Secretes *Alkaline fluids with proteins and mucus* into the *ejaculatory duct*, also.

*(Int.)* Prostate Gland

-Secretes* milky white fluid with *proteins and enzymes* as part of semen.

Endocrine System

-Set of organs that secrete *hormones* into the circulatory system. They regulate many patterns in the body for short and long term. -Contains: *Adrenal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pancreas, Thymus, Pineal, Pituitary Glands.

Models of Atoms

-Small -*Atomic Radius:* The average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron. -Electrons close to nucleus revolving around it.

Residual Capacity

-Small amount of stale air. -Remains trapped in alveoli after expiration and mixes with the fresh air brought in by inspiration.

Enzyme Helicase

-Splitting *begins* at the *A-T bases* as there are only *two hydrogen bonds* (C-G bases has 3 bonds). -"Origin of replication": Means *where the splitting start/begins*

Solid

-Structures are rigid or nearly rigid and have strong bonds. ~*Definite volume and shape, High density, No compressibility, and Vibrations around fixed positions.* ~Little or no motion ~Heavily attracted to neighboring molecules, giving them structure. Structure may be ordered/crystalline or random/amorphous.

Blood carrying nutrients passes through? Allowing what to happen?

-Through *hepatic portal duct* to the liver - Allowing liver enzymes to *deaminate amino, convert ammonia to urea, metabolize consumed toxins, and to store glucose as glycogen.*

Lymphatic System in the Immune System

-Tissue Fluid enters *Lymph Capillaries* combined they form *Lymph Vessels*. -Skeletal muscle contractions *move the lymph* one way through the lymphatic system to lymphatic ducts, which *dump back into* the venous blood supply into the *Lymph Nodes*, which are situated alone the *Lymph Vessels*, and filter the lymph of pathogens and other matter. -*Lymph Nodes*: Concentrated in the *neck, armpits, and groin areas.* *Outside the Lymphatic Vessel System* -*Lymphatic Tissue* include the tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, and Peyer's patches. -*Tonsils*: Located in the pharynx, *protect against pathogens* entering the body through the *mouth and throat.* -*Thymus*: Maturation chamber for the *immature T-Cells* that are formed in the bone marrow. -*Spleen*: Cleans the blood of dead cells and pathogens. -*Peyer's Patch*: Located in the small intestine, *protect the digestive system from pathogens*

*Male* Reproductive System

-To *produce, maintain, and transfer* sperm and semen into the female reproductive tracts and to *produce and secrete* male hormones. -*External Structures:* Penis, Scrotum, and Testes -*Internal Structures:* Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Urethra, Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Glands, and Bulbourethral Glands.

Spleen

-Upper left of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below diaphragm. -Lymphoid tissue -Blood vessels are *connected* to the spleen by *splenic sinuses*. -*Function*: Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old RBC) and to help fight infections. -Up to 10% of the population has one or more accessory spleens that tend to form at the hilum of the original spleen.

Renal Medulla

-Urine begins to produce -Unabsorbed materials (salt and water) flow out from the collecting tubule into the collecting duct.

Evaluate and Integrate Data from Sources in Various Formats

-Use multiple data sources so that an understanding can be based on multiple perspectives. ~Library Media Specialist (Information Specialist) will help locate relevant information. -May include: Charts, Graphs, and Diagrams. *Organizing Information:* Organize in a logical manner by using a Coding System that makes sense to you. Like *marking information* with abbreviations, colors, or anything to help physically sort it into physical or electronically folders. *Synthesis:* Putting all information back together.

Typical Immune Response

-When a pathogen/foreign substances *enters* the body, it is *engulfed* by a *macrophage*, and the *killer T cells and B cells* are activated. -Killer T cells (cytotoxic T cells) *search out and destroy* cells presenting the same antigens. -B cells *differentiate* into plasma cells and memory cells. -Plasma cells *produce* antibodies specific to that pathogen or foreign substances. -Memory cells remain in the blood stream to *protect* against future infections from the same pathogen.

1Ib

.45kg

16 oz

1 Ib 453.6 g

1000 mL

1 L

8 oz

1 cup .237 L

12 inches

1 ft (foot) .305 m

1000 mg

1 g

4 quarts

1 gal (gallon) 3.785 L

8 fluid oz

1 glass 240 mL

1000 g

1 kg

1000 m

1 km

100 cm

1 m

1000 mm

1 m

1000 kg

1 metric ton

1000 mcg (micrograms)

1 mg

5280 ft

1 mi (mile) 1.609 km

1000 um (micrometer)

1 mm

16 drams

1 oz 28.35 g

8 drams

1 oz (ounce) 29.573 mL

16 oz

1 pint .473 L

2 pints

1 quarts .946 L

2000 Ib

1 ton 907.2 kg

1 fluid dram

1 tsp 5 mL

3 feet

1 yd (yard) .914 m

Common Denominator

1. Find least on on multiple of denominator 2. Change each fraction to make their denominator the same as least common denominator ~List multiples of each denominator and find SMALLEST number ~Multiply numerator by multiple of LCD, Use LCD as denominator

1kL

1000 L

Subordinating conjunction

Joins two or more clauses Because, though, although, as, as if, when, while

Coordinating conjunctions

Joins two or more words or phrases For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

1 fluid oz

2 tsp 30 mL

1 inch

2.54 cm

Melting and Boiling Point

3 states of matter can be traversed by the *addition or removal* of heat. -In order to transition from a solid to a liquid, *additional heat* must be added at the melting point to overcome the *latent heat of fusion*. ~Solid + Heat = Liquid -Boiling Point: Additional heat must be added at the boiling point to overcome the *latent heat of vaporization* ~Liquid + Heat = Gas *C+273.15=K* *K-273.5=C* *(F-32)*x*5/9* *(K-273.15)*x*9/5+32=F* *(C*x*9/5)+32=F*

4 fluid dram

3 tsp 15 or 16 mL

Purines and Pyramidines

5 bases of DNA and RNA can be *categorized as either pyrimidine or purine according to their structure*. -*Pyramidine Bases*: Include *Cytosine, thymine, and uracil* ~Six-sided and have a single ring shape. -*Purine Bases*: Include Adenine and Guanine. ~Had 2 rings attached. ~One ring has *5 sides and the other has six* -When combined with *sugar*, any of the five bases become *nucleosides* -Nucleosides: Formed *from purine bases* end in *"osine"* and those formed *from pyramidine bases* end in *"idine"* ~*Adenosine and Thymidine* Most basic components.

When a dependent clause precedes an independent clause in a complex sentence; What should separate the two?

A comma

Conclusion definition

A deduction made by the reader about an unstated outcome from a reading passage. Asks the reader to analyze and make a decision based on predictions, details, evidence, and results.

Dependent clause

A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and does not contain a complete thought

Independent clause

A group of words that contain a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought

Small Intestines *Absorb* what?

A lot of water and nutrients

Topic Definition

A noun or noun phrase that encapsulates the subject matter of writing. -Examples: arteries, acid, alleles mammals or recycling

Antecedents

A noun that existed before a pronoun

Simple sentence

A sentence that contains only one clause, and has complete meaning (independent clause) Ex. Some students like to study in the mornings. Ex. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

Phrase

A string of two or more words, that do not have a subject and a verb Ex. because of her glittering smile Ex. broken into thousands of pieces

Clauses

A string of two or more words, with a subject and a verb Ex. When the saints go marching in Ex. Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid raccoon.

"Who"

A subject pronoun, in reference to people Performer of the action Tip: Who=He Ex. Who threw the ball

Apostrophes are used in certain expression of time

A week's vacation

Comprehension defintion

Ability to understand

Villi and Microvilli function?

Absorb polar digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons, and B12

Words end in -cede

Accede, antecede, concede, intercede, recede, retrocede

Cell Membrane

Acting as a *barrier*. Helps keep cytoplasm *in* and substances located outside the cell *out*. -Helps determine what is allowed to *exit and enter*.

Verbs

Action verbs Passive verbs Linking verbs

Prefix

Added to the beginning of the word to modify it

Suffix

Added to the end of the word to modify it

Conjunctive adverbs

Adverbs that act like conjunctions; therefore they connect the information in two clauses or sentences.

Homophones: Affect and Effect

Affect (verb): To have an effect on Effect (noun): Something that is brought about by a cause

Prefix: re

Again: Readjust

Respiratory Directions

Air -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Lungs -> Alveoli

Duodenum receives what from gall bladder?

Alkaline bile juices.

Homophones: All ready and Already

All ready (adjective): Everyone or everything is ready Already (adverb): By this time

Homophones: All together and Altogether

All together (adjective): Everyone in a group Altogether (adverb): Entirely, completely

Sentence: Description

Allen is malcontent

Constant of Proportionality

Also known as *Rate of Change* Ratio between two quantities ~Y=k*x (k is constant, y and X are direct proportion) ~One variable is always the product of the other and a constant, the two are said to be directly proportional.

Atomic Mass

Also known as the *mass number*. Total number of *protons and neutrons* in the nucleus of an atom. ~*Referred to as A* ~Represented by the equation *A = Z+N* -Mass of electrons in an atom is insignificant because *it is so small*. -*Atomic Weight:* Referred to as "Relative atomic mass", should *NOT BE* confused with atomic mass. ~Ratio of the average mass per atom of a sample (various *isotopes* of an element) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

Homophones: Altar and Alter

Altar (noun): A structure used in worship Alter (verb): To change

To be verbs

Am, is, are

Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas

Amongst the *groupings of exocrine cells* are groups of endocrine cells, called *islets of Langerhans*. -Islets of Langerhans are made up of *insulin-producing beta cells (50-80% total) and *glucagon-releasing alpha cells*. -Major hormones produce: *Insulin and Glucagon* -*Insulin* affects *fat metabolism and can change livers ability to release stored fat*. ~Body uses insulin to *control carbohydrate metabolism* by lowering the amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. -*Glucagon* has opposite effect of insulin. Body uses it to *increase* blood sugar levels. ~Body uses glucagon to *control carbohydrate metabolism*. Level of Insulin and Glucagon are *balanced to maintain the optimum level of blood sugar throughout the day.

Tidal Volume

Amount of air breathed *in and out* of lungs

"Whom"

An object pronoun, in reference to people. The receiver of the action. Tip: Whom=Him Ex. Jim threw the ball to whom?

How do you show omission of letters or numbers as in contractions or dates

Apostrophe Ex. '05; can't

How do you pluralize letters, numbers, and words

Apostrophe Ex. Dot your i's and cross your t's; 4's; no if's and's or but's about it

What do you add to a noun or indefinite pronoun (that doesn't end in "s") to form a possessive case

Apostrophe Ex. The boy's cat was stuck in the tree.

How do you form a possessive case of a plural noun that ends in an "s"

Apostrophe Ex. The tree's look beautiful

Cilia

Appendages extending *from the surface* of the cell. -*Moves* the cell and results in fluid being moved by the cell.

Homophones: Ascent and Assent

Ascent (noun): A slope that angles upwards Assent (noun): Agreement

Identify supporting or key ideas

Ask the topic sentence: *Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How?*

How to identify purpose of the reading

Asking "What am I reading about?" And "What is important to know about it?" -Author will *include key details, or supporting details that systematically show and support the point the author is trying to make*. -Once topic is identified, you should be able to identify and rephrase key ideas/points.

Expository

Author *informs, explains, or tells how to.* -Does not include opinions but only uses facts and examples. -Uses logical order of least to most important, most to least important, or detailed step-by-step.

Narrative

Authors can entertain, inform, and challenge reader through diverse structures. Tell stories through sensory details that assist readers in experiencing events. - Use chronological order - Or use devices that foreshadow, flash back, and created an image in the readers mind. *-Signal Words:* Abruptly, after a few days, gradually, instantly, from this point, this instant, until now, sporadically, on the next occasion, not long ago, previously, recently.

Homophones: Bear and Bare

Bear (verb): To carry or support Bare: (verb): To expose

Suffix: ism

Belief in: activism

Chyme neutralized by?

Bicarbonate in pancreatic secretions

Direct object

Bob and Mitch played soccer last night. 1. Find the action verb= played 2. Find the subject= Bob and Mitch 3. Who/What (Direct object)= soccer

Rational Numbers can be represented by?

By *fractions* Includes: Whole Numbers, Positives/Negatives, Zero, and all decimals that either terminate or repeat. ~Irrational numbers will not concern us at this point

How are messages sent across *Plasma Membrane*?

By Action Potential

Procedures

Can be found in an text, like recipes and manuals. *Sequential information offers readers the ability to safely, effectively, and efficiently, complete activities.* -Process of writing, editing, and revising.

Glucose

Can be further broken down by *respiration or fermentation* by *glycosis* -Involved in the metabolic energy cycles of *Photosynthesis and Respiration*

What is the structure of the text?

Can help determine authors intent. *Narrative:* -Appear in stories or poetry, often serve to entertain. -*Include*: A plot and one or more characters trying to overcome an obstacle or solve a problem. *Informational:* -Can take many forms (Instructions, Textbooks), but include section headings that may be in bold or underlined types. -*Includes*: Bulleted/Numbered lists, Short phrases that might not complete sentences, Images with captions, Maps, and Diagrams. *Persuasive:* -Advertisments (to sell a service, product, or idea), Newspaper (express opinions intended to persuade about topic/local interest). Some may be disguised.

Homophones: Capital and Capitol

Capital (noun): A leading or governing city Capitol (noun): A building that houses the states lawmakers

CO2

Carbon Dioxide

Interphase

Cell *prepares* for division by *replicating its genetic and cytoplasmic material.* -Further divided into G1, S, G2 (Meiosis)

Epithelial Tissue

Cells are joined together *tightly* -Example: Skin Tissue

Metaphase(2)

Centromeres contain *two kinetochores* (pulls the chromosomes to the poles) that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles.

Protein Hormones

Change the activity of *existing enzymes* in target cells.

Strong or Weak Acids and Bases

Characteristic properties derive from the tendency of atoms to ionize by *donating or accepting charged particles*. -*Strength:* Is a reflection of the degree to which its atoms ionize in solution. ~Example: *Acetic acid (HC2H3O2)* Is a *weak* acid because its only O2 atoms ionize in solution. ~Can consider elements *reactivity*. High reactive acids/bases are strong because they tend to form and break bonds quickly and most of their atoms ionize int he process.

Chemical Bonds and Electron Shells

Chemical Bonds involve a *negative-positive attraction* between an electron or electrons and the nucleus of an atom or nuclei of more than one atom. -Attraction: Keeps the atom *cohesive*, but also *enables formation* of bonds among other atoms and molecules. -*4 Energy Levels (or Shells)* of an atom has a maximum number of electrons they can contain. -Each level must be completely filled before electrons can be added to the valence level. The farther away from the nucleus an electron is, the more energy it has. -*First Shell (K-shell):*Can hold a maximum of *2 electrons* -*Second Shell (L-shell):* Can hold *3 electrons* -*Third Shell (M-shell):* Can hold *18 electrons* -*Fourth Shell (N-shell):* Can hold *32 electrons* ~Shells can also have *subshells* -Chemical Bonds form and break between atoms when atoms *gain, lose, and share* an electron in the outer valence shell. -*Polar Bonds:* Refers to a covalent type of bond with a serparation charge. One end is *negative* and the other is *positive*. ~Example: Hydrogen-Oxygen bond in water.

Endothermic Reaction

Chemical reactions that *absorb heat* -Covalent Bonds made by endothermic *removal of a water* polymer (dehydration or condensation synthesis).

Exothermic Reaction

Chemical reactions that *release heat*

Homophones: Cite and Site

Cite (verb): To use as an example, to quote Site (noun): A location

Bone

Classified as *long. short, flat, irregular* -*Connective tissue* with a base of pulp containing *collagen and living cells.* -Red Marrow: RBC Production, fills spongy tissue of bones -*Bone Tissue*: Constantly regenerating itself as the mineral composition changes. Allows for special needs during growth period and maintains calcium level for the body. -*Bone Regeneration*: Deteriorate in old age, particularly among women, leading to *Osteoporosis* -Bones are articulated to other bones through *ligaments* and to muscle through *tendons*. -*Hyaline Cartilage*: Covering articulating surfaces of bones. Prevents bones from grinding against each other. -Covered by fibrous sheath called *Periosteum* (contains nerves and blood vessels) -Synthesized in tubular structures (*Osteon- Composed of calcium and phosphate-rich Hydroxyapatite*) embedded in a collagen matrix.

Explicit information definition

Clearly stated

Solve Equations in One Variable

Collecting all variable terms to *one* side of the equal sign and all the constants on the other side, using addition or subtraction. Once all like terms are combined, last step is to divide. Could also be multiplication by the reciprocal ( One divided by original number).

Renal Pelvis

Collecting ducts drain into renal pelvis which opens into the Ureter.

What is placed between two independent clauses, if the latter clause expands on the former clause?

Colon

What is used between a title and sub-title of a book?

Colon

What should be used to herald something, that is to immediately follow an independent clause?

Colon

What should follow a salutation of an informal letter?

Colon

Root: chrom

Color: monochrome

Pons

Comes between midbrain and medulla. -*Information* is *sent across* the pons *from* the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum.

Parenthetical expressions should be offset by what?

Comma

What is used to separate a quotation from interrupting text?

Comma

What should separate a city from a state?

Comma

Introductory words (yes and no) should be separated by what?

Comma Ex. "Yes, sir"

What should follow the salutation of an informal letter?

Comma Ex. Dear Mom,

Underline/Italics

Common features but often more confusing to interpret. *Standard uses for Italics:* -Titles of works (books), foreign words/phrases, and for emphasis

Homophones: Complement and Compliment

Complement (noun): An element that completes Compliment (noun): A remark of appreciation

Relevant ideas defintion

Connected to the idea being discussed -*Relate back to topic sentence.*

Appendicular Skeleton

Consist of *126* Bones and includes the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and appendages. -*Pectoral Girdle*: Consist of scapular (shoulders) and clavicles (collar bone). -*Pelvic Girdle*: Consists of 2 pelvic (hip) bones, which attach to the sacrum. -*Upper Appendages*: *Arms* include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. -*Lower Appendages*: *Legs* includes femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Brain

Consist of *Hindbrain (medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons) Midbrain integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals, Forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus) -*Cerebral Cortex*: Thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum. -*2 Hemispheres*: Left and Right. Responsible for multiple functions.

Cytoskeleton

Consist of *microtubules* that help *shape and support* the cell.

Chromosomes

Consists of *Genes*: Single Units of genetic information. -*Genes*: Made up of DNA. -*DNA*: Nucleic Acid located in the cell nucelus. ~Also, in Mitochondria. -DNA replicates to pass on genetic information. In almost all cells, DNA is the same. Also, involved in *biosynthesis of proteins*. -*Structural Gene*: Converted into a short-lived RNA message that is *decoded* by the ribosome and assembled into proteins hat go on to build the body. -*Regulatory Gene*: Control the expression of protein-coding genes by turning on or off activity, either *directly or through a protein intermediate*. Control the expression of different subsets of structural genes in different cell types.

Chromatin

Consists of the *DNA* and *Proteins* that make up chromosomes.

*(Ext.)* Clitoris

Contains *erectile tissue and nerve endings* for sexual pleasure

Animal Cell Structure

Contains: Centrosomes, Centriole, Lysosome, Cilia, Flagella

Root: ortho

Correct: unorthodox

Homophones: Council and Counsel

Council (noun): A body of people assembled for advice Counsel (noun): Advice

Centriole

Cylinder-shaped structures near the nucleus. -Involved in *Cellular Division* -Each cylinder consist of *9 Groups of 3 Microtubules*. Occurs in pairs.

Homophones: Descent and Dissent

Descent (noun): A slope that angels downward Dissent (noun): Disagreement

Adjectives

Describe a noun

Adverbs

Describe a verb

Delineate defintion

Describe precisely

What is the authors tone?

Determined by examining specific words used in a piece of writing. -*Inform*: Use straightforward, neutral language that lacks emotional correlation. -*Persuade*: Use emotionally-charged language coupled with images to evoke a specific emotion in readers. -Paying attention to the authors words can help determine the intended message.

Denotative Meaning of Words

Dictionary definition -Using a Dictionary (Merriam-Webster, Oxford English)

Difference between RNA and DNA

Differ in terms of *structure and function* *RNA*: *DNA* -*Has Ribose Sugar -Has Deoxyribose Sugar* -*Uracil found in RNA -Thymine found in DNA* -*Single Strand -Has two Strands* -*One Backbone -Has two Side Rails -*Hydroxylated Sugar Pentose -Deoxyribose ~Includes extra Oxygen -*Supports DNA function ~Aides in gene expression, replication, and transportation

Prophase(2)

Disappearance of the *nucleoli and the nuclear envelope* again as well as the *shortening and thickening* of the chromatids. Centrosomes *move to the polar regions* and *arrange spindle fibers* for the second meiotic division.

What else is important for key ideas?

Discerning between relevant and irrelevant ideas

Fraction Convert to Decimal

Divide numerator by denominator

Interphase(1)

Divided into 3 Parts: *-G1 Phase:* Cell synthesizes proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA. *-S Phase:* The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere. *-G2 Phase:* DNA Replication

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of ANS -*Controls the body's reaction to extreme, stressful, and emergency situations*. ~Example: Sympathetic NS *increases* heart rate, *signals* the adrenal glands to *secrete* adrenaline, *triggers* the dilations of the pupils and *slows* digestions.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of ANS -*Counteracts the effects of the Sympathetic NS* ~Example: Parasympathetic NS *decreases* hearts rate, *signals* adrenal glands to *stop secreting* adrenaline, *constricts* pupils, and *returns* the digestions process to normal.

Small intestines include what structure in the order of digestion?

Duodenum->jejunum->ileum

Homophones: Dying and Dyeing

Dying (verb): Ceasing to live Dyeing (verb): Coloring a fabric

Root: geo

Earth: geode

Root: terra

Earth: terrace

Periodic Table

Elements are arranged by *atomic mass* -Table shows elements *atomic weight (decimal), atomic number, and the element symbol* in each box. -Arrangement enables classification, organization, and predictable trends observable in atoms. -Majority of known elements are *metals, 17 nonmetals, and 8 metallics.* -Representative Elements: Last digit of the group number reveals the number of *outer-level electrons.* -Groups of elements share predictable characteristics, most important is that their outer energy level have that same configuration of electrons. *Last column "group" is Noble Gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn* ~ Group 18, has full outer shell -Column 1: 1 electron in outer level -Column 2: 2 electron. -Column 13: 3 electron -Column 14: 4 electron. -Column 15: 5 electron -Column 16: 6 electron. -Column 17: 7 electron -Column 18: 8 electron except *He has 2 electron*.

Words ending in -ceed

Emceed, exceed, proceed, succeed

Sentence: Contrast

Emphasizes the differences rather than the similarities.

*(Ext.)* Labia Major/Minor

Enclose and Protect the vagina.

=

Equal, equal to, is, was, were, will be, yields, becomes

C2H6O

Ethanol

Mitosis

Events that occur: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.

Sentence: Comparison

Explains how two items are similar

Parenthetical expressions

Expressions that are not really part of the main idea of the sentence, or that interrupt the main sentence. Ex. The tortoise, as far as we know, likes eating lettuce

Procedure Signal Words

First, next, then, last, in closing, to begin with, accordingly, to finish.

Blood Pressure

Fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle. *Arterial*: Functions by transporting oxygen-poor blood into the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the body tissues. -Arteries branch into smaller arterioles which *contract and expand* based on signals from the body. -Arterioles are where *adjustments are made* in blood delivery to specific areas based on complex communication from body systems. *Capillary Beds*: Diffusion sites for exchanges between *blood and interstitial fluid.* *Capillary*: Has thinnest wall of any vein, consisting of single cell endothelial cells. *Merge into venues which in turn merge with larger diameter tubules called veins.* -Veins *transport* blood *from* body tissues *back* to the hearts. Thin and contain smooth muscle and function as blood volume reserves. -Valves inside the veins facilitate this transport.

Bolus

Food packaged into small parcels Then swallowed

Root: ped

Foot: millipede

3 Types of White Blood Cells

Form the foundation of the body's immune system. *Macrophages*: Phagocytes that alert T-Cells to the presence of foreign substances. *T Lymphocytes*: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria. *B Lymphocytes*: Cells target specific bacteria for destruction. *Others that contribute to body's defense*: -Memory cells, Suppressor T-Cells, Helper T-Cells

Root: morph

Form: morphine

Ionic Bond

Formed when an atom transfers an electron to *another atom* -When an atom *gains or loses* electrons it becomes *negatively or positively* charged, turning it into an ion. *Relationship between two oppositly charged ions.*

Covalent Bond

Formed when atoms *share electrons* -Electrons shared *equally* have a non-polar bond, while electrons shared *unequally have a polar bond.* -Attraction to *repulsion stability* that holds these molecules together. -*Resultant Bonds:* Always stronger than the intermoelcular hydrogen bond and are similar in strength in ionic bonds. -Covalent bonds occur *most frequently* between atoms with similar electronegativities. ~Nonmetals are more likely to form covalent bonds than metals since it is more difficult for nonmetals to *liberate* an electron. -*Electron Sharing:* Takes place when one species encounters another species with similar electronegativity. -Metals: Bonding important in both process *chemistry and industrial catalysis*.

Modes

Forms of writing. Classification of rhetorical writing. *-Persuasive, expository, narrative.*

Homophones: Forth and Fourth

Forth (adverb): Forward in place or time Fourth (noun): The element in a series that is after the 3rd

Structure for Conclusion

Found by *key terms and descriptions* providing structure for common understanding. -Ask "What can I infer based on what I've just read?"

Brains 4 Lobes

Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal Lobe

Conjunctive adverbs

Furthermore, accordingly, indeed, nonetheless

Capitalization

Geographical locations Cardinal directions Historical documents and events Nationalities, races, and religions Monuments, ships, and planes Proper names and titles of rank Showing family relationship (when they stand alone or are followed by a personal name) Main words or titles of books poems, plays, etc. Deities The first word of a quotation Names of seasons if they are personified

C6H12O6

Glucose

Tool for measuring a range of volumes in the lab

Graduated Cylinder

>, _>_

Greater than, IS more than Greater than or equal to, is at least, is no less than

Organ Systems

Group of organs that work together to perform specific functions. -Includes: *Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, Nervous, Muscular, Integumentary, Endocrine, Renal/Urinary, Immune, and Skeletal.*

Organs

Group of tissues that work together to perform specific functions.

Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses

Groups of words that don't contain information that is necessary to interpreting the meaning of the sentence Should be offset by commas Ex. Jack Smith, who studied drama in New York City, was ideal.

Properties of Substances

Have unique properties that allow them to distinguish from other substances. -All substances have *physical and chemical properties.*

Suffix: ic, ical, ac

Having to do with: physical, cardiac, endoscopic

Sentence: Explanation

He was awarded a degree posthumously; He died a month before graduation

Highest Occurring Components of Procedural Writing are?

Headings/subheadings, numbering/alphabetizing, steps, charts, diagrams, and photographs for step clarification.

Pathologies (Health Issues)

Heart attack, stroke, aneurysms, atherosclerosis, arrhythmia and hypertension.

Root: therma

Heat: exothermal

Muscle Tissue

Helps *support* and *move* the body. -3 Types: *~Smooth:* Provides tension in the blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis. *~Cardiac:* Only found in the *heart* *~Skeletal:* Includes the muscles commonly called *biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.*

Colon Rules

Herald something that is to immediatly follow an independent clause: this usually comes in the form of a list ...

Converting within/between Standard and Metric Systems

Length, volume, mass are directly related Daily Basis prefixes: *Kilo=1,000* *Deca=10* *Deci= 1/10* *Centi=1/100* *Milli=1/1,000* Example: How to Convert 3Ib/#we know = xKG/# to find = #kg -Cancel metric symbol out then multiply

<, _<_

Less than, IS fewer than Less than or equal to, is at most, is no more than

Root: bio

Life: biochemistry

Endocrine System Regulates Body Functions

Like *Blood production, appetite, reproduction, brain functions, sleep cycle, salt-and-water homeostasis, growth, sexual development, and response to stress and anxiety.* -*Non-polar, Fat-soluable Hormones*: Estrogen and Progesterone. Released in a pattern set by *age* and *development* an their effects are long-lasting. -*Other polar, Water-soluable hormones*: Epinephrine. Released acutely in response to stress, actions are short lived. *Hormone Imbalance can cause Metabolic Diseases like Diabetes, Hyperthyroidism, and Gigantism.*

Nucleoplasm

Liquid *within* the membrane and is *similar* to cytoplasm.

Hierarchy of Structures

Lowest Hierarchy level is at *Organelles within a cell*. They obtain energy from food and reproduction. -Cells with the same function are collected into larger groups called *Tissues*. -Tissues are collected into *Organs*, carry out single task, like oxygenated blood (lungs), or filter out waste (kidneys). -Organs work together in systems that perform coordinated large-scale functions, like *nourishing the body* (digestive) or *protecting the body from attacks* (immune).

Mucus

Lubricates the food in the saliva

Nominalization

Making a noun from a verb, adverb, or adjective

Telophase(2) and Cytokinesis(2)

Marked by *decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes* and the *disassembly of the spindle*. *Nuclear envelopes reform* and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually *produces a total of four daughter cells*, each with a *haploid set* of chromosomes.

Connective Tissue

May be *dense, loose, or fatty.* -It *protects* and *binds* body parts.

Anaphase(1)

Microtubules shorten, and homologous pairs of chromatids are separated and travel to different poles.

Connotative

More complex, and is a combination of a words definition and its suggested meaning based on context and emotions or associations evoked by a word.

Structure of Digestive System

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus.

Peristalsis

Moves *bolus* down to stomach through gastric sphincter (prevents back flow into esophagus)

Calculating a Solids volume

Multiplying the measurements of *length, width, and height* -Measure using a ruler, meter stick, or measuring wheels.

Disorders that Disrupt Signals and Responses

Muscle Strain, Sprains, Muscular Dystrophy

How reader uses the text

Must observe facts, delineate arguments and discern valid information provided. Then must combine what the author has provided with individual experiences to draw inference from the selection.

Common Noun

Name general people, animals, places, and things Ex. Firefighter, City, Mountain

Proper Nouns

Name specific People, animals, places, and things. They always begin with a capital letter. Ex. John, New York, Mt. Rushmore

What controls the Digestive System?

Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Framework for Nervous System

Network fans out across the body forming the framework. -The *direction the information* flows *depends* on the specific organizations of nerve *circuits and pathways*.

Nervous Tissue

Neurons form a *network* through the body that control responses to change in the *external and internal* environment. Some send signals to *muscles and glands* to trigger responses. -Located in *brain, spinal cord, and nerves*

Irrelevant ideas defintion

Not applicable to the idea -*Unrelated, and some times random.*

Prefix: in

Not: Invisible

Prefix: dis

Not: disorganized

Prefix: un

Not: unarmed

Stimulations

Occur in a *sequence* from the stimulation point of *One* neuron to its *contact* with another neuron.

When do messages occur?

Occur when a *neuron* is *Stimulated* past a necessary thresholds.

Catabolic Reaction

Opposite from Anabolic. *Larger molecules are broken down into small, simpler molecules.* -Release energy

O2

Oxygen

Percent Decrease Equation

PD = original amount - new amount/ original amount X 100%

Centrosome

Pair of centrioles located at *right angles to each other* and *surrounded by protein*. -Involved in *Mitosis and Cell Cycle*

Anaphase

Pair of chromosomes, *sisters*, begin to *pull apart* and may bend. When they separate, they are called *daughters*. Grooves then appear in cell membrane.

Metaphase(1)

Pair of homologous chromosomes move along the metaphase plate.

Telophase(1) and Cytokinesis(1)

Pairs arrives at poles and cell is pinched apart, separating into two cells.

What encloses supplementary or explanatory material that interrupts the main sentence?

Parentheses

Microtubules

Part of cytoskeleton. -Help *support* the cell. -Made of *proteins*

Passive verb

Past tense Ex. Was cooked. Was seen.

Solve Real World Problems with Percentage

Percent *LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO* 100% ~(50% -> 50 out of 100%) Percent *MORE THAN* 100% ~(150% is 150 for each 100) -Percent off sales tax, annual percent interest rate at a bank, annual percent gain or loss for a company or business, percent commission for sales person, percent depreciation of assets, percentages of ingredients in a mixture or recipe.

Nouns

Person, place, thing, animal, idea, or feeling

Medulla Oblongata

Piece of the brain stem that *connects* the spinal cord to the brain. -*Important* role with *autonomous nervous system* in the circulatory and respiratory system.

Semicolon rules

Placed between two related independent clauses Precede conjuctive adverbs: However, therefore When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, the division between the elements should be a semicolon

KCl

Potassium Chloride

Dendritic Cells

Present *Antigens* (Foreign Particles) to T Cells.

Action Verbs

Present tense Ex. Sheila and Tom are walking in the park

Homophones: Principal and Principle

Principal (noun): Chief or Leader Principle (noun): A belief or rule of conduct

Ventilation

Process of aerating the lungs

B Lymphocytes (B Cells)

Produce antibodies

Evidence defintion

Proof to support idea

What is used to enclose chapters, articles, and short stories, songs, plays, etc?

Quotation marks

What is used to enclose technical terms or slang?

Quotation marks

Proportions

Ratio in fraction form set equal to another ratio in fraction form. ~Example: 50mi/1cm = X/12.6cm (cross multiply) -> 50mi*x*12.6cm/1cm=X*x*12.6cm/12.6cm (cancel out 12.6cm on Num. and Den.) -> 50mi*x*12.6cm/1cm (cancel out cm) = X -> 630mi = X

How to identify main idea

Read that passage then locate the sentences that emphasize, elaborate, or clarify this information.

Identifying Primary Sources in various media

Refers to *artifacts, letters, recordings, images, and other media that have not been altered from original state*. The only thing separating the reader from its creator. -Example: Pictures in museum that are the "original" are Primary Source Documents but if those pictures are put into textbooks they are just "copies" and are no longer Primary Source Documents. -May include secondary sources within them. Secondhand accounts of events. -Used to gain valuable information about a specific time or place.

Cytoplasm

Refers to Cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found *within the plasma membrane*, but *not* within the nucleus.

Anaphase(2)

Remaining centromeric cohesin is cleaved allowing the sister chromatids to *segregate.* The sister chromatids by convention are now called *sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.*

Appositives

Renames a noun in another part of the sentence Ex. Our teacher, Paul, will be online later today

Root: arch

Ruler: tetrarch

Vacuoles

Sacs used for *storage, digestion, and waste removal*. -Plant: Has *one large* vacuole -Animal: Has *small, sometimes numerous* vacuoles.

Meiosis

Same phased as Mitosis, except it happens *twice* and *different* event occur during some phases. -*First Phase:* Interphase(1), Prophase(1), Metaphase(1), Anaphase(1), Telophase(1), and Cytokinesis(1) -*Second Phase:* Prophase(2), Metaphase(2), Anaphase(2), Telophase(2), and Cytokinesis(2).

Words that need to be hyphenated

Self-sufficient Self-esteem

What is placed between two related independent clauses?

Semicolon

What precedes conjunctive adverbs?

Semicolon

When a sentence contains a series of elements that contain one or more commas, what Divides the elements?

Semicolon

Translate Phrases and Sentences into Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities

Sentence Fragments become *Expression* and Full Sentences becomes *Equations and Inequalities*. -Examples: *Expressions:* 3x-5 , , y , 3(2x+7) *Equations:* 3x-5=70 , y=36 , 3(2x+7)=4x-9 *Inequalities:* x-5>70 , y<36 , 3(2x+7)_<_4x-9

Random comma rules

Separate quotations from text: "Yo", dad exclaimed When an independent clause preceeds a dependent clause: Some of us could not spend it more foolishly, If time were gold. Separate city from state: Las Vegas, NV

What is used when making a quotation inside of a quotation?

Single quotes

Vesicles

Small organelle *within* a cell, has a membrane. -Functions: *Moving materials* within a cell.

NaBr

Sodium Bromide

NaCl

Sodium Chloride

Implicit information defintion

Something not clearly stated

Root: audio

Sound: audiovisual

Telophase

Spindle *disintegrates*, nuclear membranes *reform*, and the chromosome *revert* to chromatin. -Animals Cells: Membrane is *pinched* -Plant Cells: New cell wall begins to form

Metaphase

Spindle moves to the *center* of the cell and chromosome pairs *align* along the center of the spindle structure.

Where does Gastrointestinal start and end?

Starts at mouth Ends at Anus

Suffix: ia, y

State or condition: amnesia, democracy

Homophones: Stationary and Stationery

Stationary (adjective): Not moving Stationery (noun): Paper for writing letters

Nucleolus

Structure contained *within* the nucleus, consists of *proteins.* Small, Round, and does *not* have a membrane. Involved in *protein synthesis, and synthesizes and stores RNA.*

First person

Subjective Singular: I Plural: We

Terms Related to Operations

Sum (+) , Difference (-) , Product (x) , Quotient ( / ) , Per 100 (#% _<_ 100%), Is or Of (#% _>_ 100%)

Words ending in -sede

Supersede

Flagella

Tail-like structures on cell that use *whip-like* movements to help move the cell. Longer than Cilia. Only has one or a few flagella.

Phases of substances depend on what 2 conditions?

Temperature and Pressure -Temperature: Increasing temp has a tendency to move the particles of matter *apart* -Pressure: Increasing pressure has a tendency to *pack* them closer together.

"That" and "Which"

That= people and things Which= things

Effector

The *Sweat Glands, Blood Vessels, and Muscles* (shivering). -*Evaporation of sweat* across the surface of the skin *cools* the body to maintain tolerance range. *Vasodilation*: Dilated blood vessels when body is *warm.* Carry blood to the blood vessels near the surface to release heat into the environment. *Constriction*: Constricted blood vessels when body is *cold.* So, that less blood is carried to the surface. *Looks Like: Flushed cheeks.*

Simplified Overview of the Heart Cycle

The *ventricles contract* (ventricular systole), causing the *Atrioventrcular Valves* (including mitral and tricuspid vavles) to close, making a *"lub"* sounds. Subsequently, the empty ventricles are filled with blood pushed out during *Atrial Systole*. Same time, the *Semilunar Valves* in the aorta and pulmonary arteries close, preventing blood from falling back into the ventricles, making a *"dub"* sound, and completing the *"lub-dub"* sound of the heart.

Indirect object

The Cook baked the children cookies. 1. Find the action verb= baked 2. Find the subject= The Cook 3. Who/What (Direct object)= cookies 4. To/For whom (Indirect object)= children

Cumulative sentence

The independent clause is at the beginning of a sentence Ex. He dipped his hands in the bichloride solution and shook them--a quick shake, fingers down, like the fingers of a pianist above the keys

Periodic sentence

The meaning of the sentence isn't revealed until the end, usually in the form of an independent clause

Sentence: Example

The menu listed such delicacies as frog legs, snails, etc.

Sentence: Synonym

The ophthalmologist, or eye doctor told me to wear these

Suffix: ology

The study of: archeology

Types of Writing

The text that fall under each mode. -Expository: *Compare/Contrast, Procedure, and Cause and Effect.* -Narrative: *Myths, Biographies, Short stories, Poetry, and Novels.*

Homophones: Their, They're, and there

Their (adjective): Belonging to them They're: Contraction of "they are" There (adjective): In that place

Indefinite Pronoun

They don't refer to anything or anyone specific (vague). Ex. They

Where are commas used within dates

They separate two textual or two numerical elements Ex. Saturday, January 14, 2031

Key terms include what?

Those that *provide sequence or chronology, descriptive words and phrases, and words that convey value judgements and opinion*. -Can provide explicit information and implicit information that allow the reader to make inference.

Homophones: To, Too, and Two

To (preposition): Indicates movement or intent Too (adverb): Also Two (adjective): Something that has two units

Cardiovascular System Functions

Transporting nutrients, waste, chemical messengers,and immune molecules.

Hormone Secretion

Triggered by a variety of signals including *hormonal signals, chemical reactions, and environment cues.* -Cells with particular receptors can benefit from *hormonal influence*. ~*"Lock and Key"* model for hormonal action

Steroid Hormones

Triggers *gene activation* and *protein synthesis* in some target cells.

Tools to Measure Mass

Triple Beam Balance: Second most accurate Electronic Balance: Most accurate

Compound adjectives

Two or more words that are modifying or limiting a noun. Ex. Follow the step-by-step instructions.

Sentence: Antonym

Unlike life in the country, henderson was a quaint existence

Sidebars

Used in History textbooks. -*Include*: Photograph or imagine of person along with additional details or two of personal life.

Footnotes

Used in informational text to offer more in-depth information about a topic. Usually use numbers in subscript, or small numbers set slightly abode the line of text. Found at the bottom of the paper.

SI Unit- Mole

Used to measure the amount of a substance at molecular level. *Mole* Convert Grams to % - Then %*x*1mol/am= mole - # of molecules/6.022x10^23 mol/mole *Molar Mass*: # of Atoms *x* Atomic Mass = X ~Add all results together to get molar mass.

Ellipses

Used to suggest hesitation, attempt to conceal something, unfinished thought, or difficulty expressing oneself

Words of direct address

Uses the names of the people to whom you are speaking, or it may use other words which take the place of the actual names Ex. Boys, are you ready to go? (boys)

Mitochondria

Vary in terms of *size* and *quantity*. Has various functions. *-Functions:* Production of Cell Energy (ATP) (Main function), Cell Signaling (Communications are carried out), Cell Differentiation (Cell transforms into a cell with more *specialized purpose*), Cell Cycle and Growth Regulation (Growth and Death, Reproduction). -Inner and Outer membrane: ~*Inner:* Encloses the matrix. Contains mtDNA and ribosomes. ~Between the 2 Membranes: Cristae (Folds). Chemical reactions occur here that *release energy, Control Water Levels in cells, and Recycle and Create Proteins and Fats.* *-Aerobic Respiration:* Occurs in Mitochondria.

Active verb

Verbs that show an action performed by the subject of the sentence Ex. Sheila and tom take a walk in the park

Vice Cops Will Want No Punishment At All

Verbs; Cross out prepositional phrases; Who/what subject; No nouns; Pronouns; At adjectives; All adverbs

Tool used to measure *large* volumes of liquid

Volumetric Flask

Tool used to measure *small* volumes of liquid

Volumetric Pipette

H2O

Water

Hydrolysis

Water is added. -H is added to one of the smaller molecules and OH is added to another molecule being formed. -Reaction in water is *broken down* into Hydrogen Cations (H or H+) and Hydroxide Anions (OH or OH-).

Hydrogen Bond

Weak bond between a *hydrogen atom of one molecule* and *an electronegative atom* (like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) of another molecule. -Form between *two different* parts of the same molecule. ~As in the structure of DNA and other large molecules.

Direct Dialogue

When you quote, exactly, directly, what a person said.

Homophones: Whose and Who's

Whose (adjective): Belonging to whom Who's: Contraction of "who is"

Selective Permeability

With regard to size, charge, and solubility. *-Size:* Membrane allows small molecules to diffuse through it. Oxygen and Water molecules are small and can pass through the cells membrane. *-Charge:* Ions on a cells surface either *attracts or repels* ions. Ions with *like* charges are *repelled*, and ions with *opposite* charges are *attracted* to the surface. *-Solubility:* Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually pass through the membrane. Many are *not* able to diffuse the membrane, and if anything they'll have to be moved through by *active transport and vesicles.*

Suffixed for words ending in "e"

Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with vowel, drop the letter "e" when adding the suffix: age+ing=aging Word ends in silent "e", added suffix begins with consonant, keep the letter when adding suffix: awe+some=awesome

Root: graph

Written: biographic

Second person

You use the second-person point of view to address the reader, as I just did Singular: Mom can you grab the keys Plural: Everyone needs to raise their hand if they have a question

Homophones: Your and You're

Your (adjective): Belonging to you You're: Contraction of you are

Articles

a, and, the Never capitalize articles unless necessary to another rule

Prefixes for Subdivisions

deci (d): 10^-1 centi (c)L 10^-2 milli (m): 10^-3 micro (u): 10^-6 nano (n): 10^-9 pico (p): 10^-12

Prefixes for Multiples

deka/deca (da): 10^1 hecto (h): 10^2 kilo (k): 10^3 mega (M): 10^6 giga (G): 10^9 tera (T): 10^12

Pronoun: Objective

me, you, him, her, it, us, them

Pronoun: Possessive

my, mine, your, your's, his, her, her's, it's, our, ours, their, theirs

Suffix: or, er

one who takes part in: conductor, fighter

Root word

the root meaning of the word