TEST 2 OVERALL

How does signal transduction take place in the hair cells under the tectorial membrane in the ear? (Mechanistic)(Ch 10, pg 350, 351, figure 10.18, figure 10.19, a,b,and c.)

A type of cilia on hair cells is stereocilia that have trap doors which open and close ion channels with excitation and inhibition. In excitation, the hair cell bends one way, depolarizing the cell and increases action potential. This floods the synaptic clef with neurotransmitters. In inhibition, the hair cell bends the opposite way, closing ion channels and hyper polarizing the cell with fewer cations entering. The synaptic clef has no neurotransmitters.

What is a vagatomy pg 381?

A vagatomy is the clipping of the vagus nerve. It is usually used to treat stomach ulcers but has mostly been abandoned. The vagus nerve interacts with most of our critical organs.

How do Physiological Functions Exhibit Circadian Rhythms? Mechanistic approach, chapter 9, Physiological Functions Exhibit, Circadian Rhythms, page 312, last paragraph, lines 2-7

A very simple interpretation of recent experiments on the molecular basis of the clock is that clock cycling is the result of a complex feedback loop in which specific genes turn on and direct protein synthesis. The proteins accumulate, turn off the genes, and then are themselves degraded. In the absence of the proteins, the genes turn back on and the cycle begins again. The clock has intrinsic activity that is synchronized with the external environment by sensory information about light cycles received through the eyes.

How does myosin move along actin filaments? figure 12.9 on page 387.

ATP binds to myosin, causing the myosin to release from actin. Myosin then hydrolyzes ATP. The energy from this rotates the myosin head to the cocked position. Myosin binds weakly to actin. The powerstroke is initiated when tropomyosin moves off the binding site. At the end of the powerstroke, myosin releases ADP.

Why is tonic control important and different from antagonistic control? (Teleological), pg. 410, paragraph 1 under "Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Hormones", lines 1-7

Antagonistic control is control by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Tonic control is control by only one of the two autonomic branches. In tonic control, the response is graded by increasing or decreasing amount of neurotransmitter released onto the muscle.

How do isotonic and isometric contractions differ from one another?

Any contraction that creates force and moves a load is an isotonic contraction. Contractions that create force without moving a load are isometric contractions, or static contractions. P.399 Left top column.

How does the body prevent itself from damage due to overstretching? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 446, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

Any movement that increases muscle length also stretches the muscle spindles, causing their sensory fibers to fire more rapidly. This creates a reflex contraction of the muscle (called the stretch reflex), which prevents damage from overstretching.

Explain the difference between associative and nonassociative learning. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, page 300, left column, second/third paragraphs, 2-5th/1-2nd lines

Associative learning occurs when two stimuli are associated with each other, such as Pavlov's classic experiment in which he simultaneously presented dogs with food and rang a bell. Nonassociative learning is a change in behavior that takes place after repeated exposure to a single stimulus

Why (teological) are astrocytes crucial to the functioning of neurons? (Chapter 8, p. 253, Subsection Glial Cells Provide Support for Neurons, right column, paragraph 4, lines 4-12)

Astrocytes have multiple roles. The terminals of some astrocyte processes are closely associated with synapses, where they take up and release chemicals. Astrocytes also provide neurons with substrates for ATP production, and they help maintain homeostasis in the CNS extracellular fluid by taking up K+ and water. Finally, the terminals of some astrocytes processes surround blood vessels and become part of the so called blood-brain barrier that regulates the movement of materials between blood and extracellular fluid.

Why are axons an important part of the nervous system?(Teleological approach) Chapter 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 231, right column, seventh paragraph, 1-5th line

Axons are important to the nervous system because they transmit electrical signals from the integrating center of one neuron to target cells at the end of the axon. These signals usually cause secretion of a chemical messenger molecule. In some central nervous system neurons, these electrical signals can pass directly to the next neuron through gap junctions.

Why is conduction faster in myelinated axons? telelogical approach, page 273, Left column, Conduction is faster in myelinated axons, Paragraph 1, Lines 1-3

B/c high-resistance membranes prevent current from leaking out of the cell.

What is one reason why complex endocrine reflexes for most anterior pituitary hormone pathways often require hormone feedback signals? Telelogical Approach, Pg 262, Right column, all of 1st paragraph

B/c often, the anterior pituitary hormones exert effects on multiple other tissues in subtle ways that are difficult or impossible for the body to monitor. Having one of the hormones downstream in the pathway act as a feedback inhibitor of the anterior pituitary is a way to get around this problem.

Why are Schwann cells important? Telelogical appraoch, Page 395, Left column and right column, A somatic motor pathway consists of one neuron, Paragraph 4, Lines 5-9

B/c schwann cells secrete a number of chemical signals important for the formation and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions.

Where are the following beta receptors found in; B1, B2, and B3? (Teleological, Ch. 11, The Autonomic Division, pg. 367, top chart

B1 is found in heart muscles and the kidneys. B2 is found in certain blood vessels and smooth muscles of some organs. B3 is found in adipose tissue.

How are the three main subtypes of beta receptors different from each other? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 366, right column, sixth paragraph, 2-9th line

B1 receptors respond equally strongly to both norepinephrine and epinephrine. B2 receptors are more sensitive to epinephrine compared to norepinephrine. They are also not innervated. B3 receptors are more sensitive to norepinephrine and are found on adipose tissue.

Why is sensory input important for a babies development? (Teleological Approach), pg. 233, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Babies who are neglected or deprived of sensory input may experience delayed development because of the lack of nervous system stimulation.

What are the good and the bad when it comes to synaptic transmission in the nervous system? (page 268, 2nd column, paragraph 1. )

Bad: Synaptic transmission is the most vulnerable step in signaling through the nervous system. It is the point at which many things can go wrong, leading to disruption of normal function. Good: The receptors at the synapses are exposed to the ECF, making them more accessible to drugs than intracellular receptors are. Drugs that target synaptic activity are the most widely used of all pharmacological agents.

Why do fast-twitch motor units and slow-twitch motor units exist? (Teleological), pg. 397, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Because all muscle fibers in a single motor unit are of the same fiber type. The kind of muscle fiber that associates with a particular neuron appears to be a function of the neuron.

Why do hormones need to be the feedback signal in complex endocrine reflexes? (Teleological), pg. 214, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-6

Because for most anterior pituitary hormone pathways, there is no single response that the body can easily monitor. The hormones act on multiple tissues and have different, subtle effects in different tissues.

Why does each side of the brain control the opposite side of the body? Telelogical appraoch, page 311, Right column, Medulla, Pargraph 2, Lines 1-4

Because in a region of the medulla called the pyramids, 90% of corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite sides of the body

Why are peptide hormones lipophobic? (Teleological approach, chapter 7, The classification of Hormones, Left column, page 214, paragraph 3-4, Lines 1-12)

Because peptide hormones are lipophobic, they are usually unable to enter the target cell. Instead, they bind to surface membrane receptors. The hormone receptor complex initiates the cellular response by means of a signal transduction system. Many peptide hormones work through cAMP second messenger systems. A few peptide hormone receptors, such as that of insulin, have tyrosine kinase activity or work through other signal transduction pathways.

Why does synaptic transmission disorders cause many diseases? Page 268, Right Column, First paragraph, Lines 1-4 tele

Because synaptic transmission is the most vulnerable step in the process of signalling through the nervous system. It is the point where many things go wrong, leading to disruption of normal function

Why is the motor domain of myosin considered the myosin ATPase? Telelogical approach, Page 406, right column, Myofibrils are muscle fiber contractile structures, Paragraph 3, Lines 1- 5.

Because the motor domain binds ATP and uses energy from ATP's high energy phosphate bond to create movement

What actions make up the cellular mechanism of action of the hormone? Chapter 7 Introduction to the Endocrine System: Hormones, page 199, right column, second paragraph, lines 1-3

Binding to target cell receptors and initiating biochemical responses

How does the choroid plexus create a gradient? (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 280, The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluids, right column, paragraph 1, lines 5-8

Choroid plexus cells selectively pump sodium and other solutes from plasma into the ventricles, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water along with the solutes.

How does the choroid plexus work? (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 280, Chapter 9, right column, under The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

Choroid plexus is similar to kidney tissue and consists of capillaries and a transporting epithelium derived from the ependyma. The choroid plexus cells selectively pump sodium and other solutes from plasma into the ventricles, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water along solutes.

Give both the sympathetic response and parasympathetic response for the heart and lungs. (Chapter 11, Teleological, The Autonomic Division, p. 363, table)

Heart Lungs Parasympathetic | Slows rate | Bronchioles constrict Sympathetic | Increases rate | Bronchioles dilate | and force of | | contraction |

What is conducted hearing loss and how is it corrected? (teleological and mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 335, The Ear: Hearing, right column, paragraph 6, lines 2-9

Conducted hearing loss is when sound cannot be transmitted either through the external ear or middle ear. Correction includes microsurgical techniques in which the bones of the middle ear can be reconstructed

How (mechanistic) do dendrites and dendritic spines assist in communication? (Chapter 8, p. 251, Subsection Dendrites Receive Incoming Signals, paragraph 3, lines 1-10)

Dendrites are thin, branched processes that receive incoming information from neighboring cells. Dendrites increase the surface area of a neuron, allowing it to communicate with multiple other neurons. A dendrite's surface area can be expanded even more by the presence of dendritic spines that vary from thin spikes to mushroom-shaped knobs.

Why do dendrites increase the surface area of the neuron? (teleological) Chapter 8, page 231, Neurons Carry Electrical Signals, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6

Dendrites are thin, branched processes that receive incoming information from the neighboring cells - so increasing the surface area in this way allows the neurons o communicate with multiple other neurons.

How do dendrites aid in communication of neurons? (Mechanistic, Ch. 8, left column, 4th paragraph, lines 1-5)

Dendrites receive information from neighboring cells. They increase the surface area of a neuron allowing it to communicate with other neurons.

Why are Golgi Tendon Organs important according to more recent research? Telelogical Approach, Page 445, Left column, Golgi Tendon Organs Respond to Muscle Tension, Paragraph 3, all of it

Historically, Golgi tendon organs were thought to be part of a protective reflex initiated by muscle contraction and ending with muscle relaxation. Research has shown that Golgi tendon organs primarily provide sensory information to CNS integrating centers

What are four properties of homeostasis? (teleological approach) Ch 11, Antagonistic Control is a Hallmark of the Autonomic Division, page 414, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-5

Homeostasis needs to preserve the fitness of the internal environment. There is also up-down regulation by tonic control and antagonistic control of different aspects. Finally, homeostasis involves chemical signals that have different effects in different tissues.

How does long-loop negative feedback work? Chapter 7, Control of hormone release, page 213, left column, fifth paragraph, lines 2 - 7

Hormone secreted by periphery gland feeds back to the glands that released the trophic hormone that activated the hormones release. In essence, all the hormones in the pathway control each other

How do hormones act on their target cells (3 ways)? (Mechanistic Approach) Page 197, paragraph 4

Hormones act on target cells (1) by controlling the rates of enzymatic reactions, (2) by controlling the transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes, (3) by controlling gene expression and the synthesis of proteins.

How can hormone action be terminated?

Hormones are dreaded into inactive metabolites and excreted into the urine or bile. The rate of breakdown of the hormone is based on its half-life. (Hormone Action Must be Terminated, pg 223)

Why are hormones so efficient? (tele) 199, left, paragraph 5, lines 1-4

Hormones are effective at extremely low concentrations. This means that even with concentrations between the nano and pico ranges, the chemical signal can be sent to distant targets because there are specific target receptors for these hormones.

How do pheromones differ from hormones? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, pg. 198, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-3

Hormones are secreted into the blood while ectohormones are signal molecules secreted into the external environment. Pheromones are specialized ectohormones that act on other organisms of the same species to elicits a physiological or behavioral response. Also used to attract members of the opposite sex for mating.

Why (teological) are autonomic agonists and antagonists important tools in research and medicine? (Chapter 11, Subsection Autonomic Agonists and Antagonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine, p. 395, left column, paragraphs 2, lines 7-10)

Direct agonists and antagonists combine with the target receptor to mimic or block neurotransmitter action. Indirect agonists and antagonists act by altering secretion, reuptake, or degradation of neurotransmitters. They both have important implications in drug development.

Why are the hypothalamic control centers important in the body's function? (Teleological Approach), pg. 369, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-7

Direct damage to the hypothalamic control centers may disrupt the body's ability to regulate water balance or temperature.

Patients suffering from Parkinson's Disease have low levels of which neurotransmitter? (Pg. 457, paragraph 3, sentence 2)

Dopamine

What neurotransmitter is associated with Parkinson's disease?

Dopamine (Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease Refect Basal Ganglia Function, pg.457)

Why do patients suffering from Parkinson's disease take L-dopa instead of straight Dopamine? (Teleological approach) Page 431, Paragraph 3

Dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, so patients take l-dopa, a precursor of dopamine that crosses the blood-brain barrier, then is metabolized to dopamine.

What processes do hormones control? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 197, Hormones, left column, paragraph 1, lines 4-7

Hormones control metabolism, regulation of the internal environment (temperature, water balance, ions), and reproduction, growth, and development

How do addictive drugs work? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, Brain Function, page 313, right column, paragraph 5, lines 1-9

Drugs that are addictive act by enhancing the effectiveness of dopamine, which increases pleasurable sensations perceived by the brain. Then, use of these drugs rapidly becomes a learned behavior.

What are hormones degraded into?

Hormones in the blood stream are degraded into inactive metabolites by enzymes found primarily in the liver and kidneys. Pg. 199, Section: Hormone Action Must Be Terminated,column 2, lines: 40-41

How does Duchenne muscular dystrophy affect people with the disease? (mech) 403, left, paragraph 1, lines 4-10

Duchenne muscular dystrophy occurs from the absence of dystrophin, which links actin to proteins in the cell membrane. In the muscle fibers that don't have dystrophin, extracellular Ca2+ enters the fiber through small tears in the membrane or possible through stretch activated channels. Calcium entry activates intracellular enzymes, resulting in the breakdown of the fiber components. This causes progressive muscle weakness and most patients die before 40 because of failure in the respiratory muscles.

How do hormones with antagonistic actions work? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, Antagonistic Hormones Have Opposing Effects, page 227, paragraph 2, Lines 1-9)

Hormones with antagonistic actions do not necessarily compete for the same receptor. Instead, they may act through different metabolic pathways, or one hormone may decrease the number of receptors for the opposing hormone. For example, evidence suggests that growth hormone decreases the number of insulin receptors, providing part of its functional antagonistic effects on blood glucose concentration.

How do hormones work? Page 199, Right column, 2nd para lines 1-6 mech

Hormones work by binding to target receptors and initiating biochemical responses, also known as cellular mechanisms of action

Why do humans have the Olfactory system? How is the sense of smell connected to the amygdala? (teleological and mechanistic) (Ch 10 pg 341, paragraph bottom right, pg 342 1st paragraph at top of left side, 2nd, and 5th)

Humans have sense of smell to help taste food, distinguish between good things to eat and harmful things to eat, one of the oldest senses. It also helps with memory and emotion, coming from the amygdala, associates those in ways not understood.

How do patients with hyperinsulinemia show signs of diabetes despite having high blood insulin levels? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, Endocrine Pathologies, page 217, right column, paragraph 4, 1st-10th lines

Hyperinsulinemia occurs when high levels of insulin are present in the blood. To diminish the response, the cells remove insulin receptors from their membranes (down-regulation) and thus, the patients may show signs of diabetes.

How can patients with high blood insulin levels have signs of diabetes? mechanistic-Chapter 7 Introduction to the Endocrine System: Endocrine Pathologies, page 217, right column, fourth paragraph, lines 4-10)

Hyperinsulinemia-sustained high levels of insulin in the blood cause target cells to remove insulin receptors from the cell membrane

Why do graded potentials lose strength as they move through the cytoplasm (Teleological) Chapter 8, page 242, Graded Potentials Reflect Stimulus Strength, left column, 2nd and 3rd full paragraphs

Due to current leak (some positive ions leak to of the cell across the membrane as the depolarization wave moves through the cytoplasm, decreasing the strength of the signal moving down the cell) and cytoplasmic resistance (The cytoplasm provides resistance to the flow of electricity, just as water creates resistance that diminishes the waves from the stone) The combination of current leak and cytoplasmic resistance means that the strength of the signal inside the cell decreases over distance

Why do dividing convolutions called gyri exist? Chapter 9, page 313, The Cerebrum is the site of higher brain functions, second paragraph

During development, the cerebrum grows faster than the surrounding cranium ,causing the tissue to fold back on itself to fit into a smaller volume. The degree of folding is directly related to the level of processing of which the brain is capable. More advanced species have more folding.

What happens on the molecular level that allows us to discriminate between thousands of different smells? (page 325, 3rd paragraph on the right column)

Each individual olfactory sensory neuron has a single type of olfactory receptor that responds to a limited range of odorant molecules. The axons of cells with the same receptors converge pm a few secondary neurons in the olfactory bulb, which can then modify the information before sending it to the olfactory cortex. The brain uses information from hundreds of olfactory sensory neurons in different combinations to create the perception of many different smells.

Describe the structure of muscle spindles. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Muscle spindles respond to muscle stretch, page 421, right column, second paragraph, 1-6th line

Each muscle spindle consists of a connective tissue capsule that encloses a group of small muscle fibers known as intrafusal fibers. Intrafusal muscle fibers are modified so that the ends are contractile but the central region lacks myofibrils. The noncontractile central region is wrapped by sensory nerve endings that are stimulated by stretch

What occurs at the end of a power stroke? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, pg 385

Each myosin head releases actin, then swivels back and binds to a new actin molecule, ready to start another contractile cycle.

How is the specificity of sensory pathways established? Page 317, Left column, Para 2, Lines 1-10 Mech

Each receptor is most sensitive to a particular type of stimulus. A stimulus above threshold initiates action potentials in a sensory neuron that projects to the CNS. Stimulus intensity and duration are coded in the pattern of action potentials reaching the CNS. Stimulus location and modality are coded according to which receptors are activated or in the case of sound by the timing of receptor activation. Each sensory pathway projects to a specific region of the cerebral cortex dedicated to a particular receptive field. The brain can then tell the origin of each incoming signal.

How do neurons communicate at synapses? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Neurons Communicate at Synapses, page 253, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-4

Each synapse has two parts: (1) axon terminal of presynaptic cell and (2) membrane of the postsynaptic cell. Information moves from presynaptic cell to postsynaptic cell (neurons, non-neuronal cells). In most neuron-to-neuron synapses, the presynaptic axon terminals are next to either the dendrites or cell body of postsynaptic neuron.

How is a taste bud constituted? Page 327, Right column, Para 2, Lines 1-5 Mech

Each taste receptor cell is a non-neural polarized epithelial cell tucked down into the epithelium so that only a tiny tip protrudes into the oral cavity through a taste pore. Taste buds contain four morphologically distinct cell types designated I, II, III, plus basal cells. Type i cells are glia-like support cells, type II cells/ receptor cells and type III cells, or pre-synaptic cells, are taste receptor cells.

How are efferent neurons subdivided? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Organization of the Nervous System, page 228, left column, first paragraph, 3-7th line

Efferent neurons are subdivided into somatic motor neurons and autonomic neurons. The somatic motor neurons control skeletal muscles while autonomic neurons control smooth and cardiac muscles, exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, and some types of adipose tissue.

How are efferent neurons from the Central Nervous system categorized?

Efferent neurons are subdivided into the somatic motor division, which controls skeletal muscles and can be consciously controlled, and the autonomic division, which controls smooth and cardiac muscles, exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, and some types of adipose tissue. These targets cannot be consciously controlled. (P.229 Top left column)

How are physical or chemical stimuli converted into a change in membrane potential? (page 312,second column, first full paragraph)

Either directly or indirectly via a secondary messenger, the stimulus opens or closes ion channels in the receptor membrane.

What is the function of electrical synapses? ( teleological approach , chapter 8, neurons communicate at synapses, page 253, line 1-3, right column, paragraph 4)

Electrical synapses pass an electrical signal, or current, directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to another through the pores of gap junction proteins.

What is the function of electrical synapses? (teleological approach) ch 8 pg 253

Electrical synapses pass an electrical signal, or current, directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to another through the pores of gap junction proteins.

What are the steps of hearing transduction in Hearing? (Page, 348, Paragraph 2)

Energy from sound waves in the air becomes 1) mechanical vibrations, the 2) fluid areas in the cochlea, 3) electrical signals released by the receptor, 4) neurotransmitters, and then finally 5) action potentials

What are two reason neurotransmitter activity becomes terminated? CH8 pg 258

Enzymes in the synaptic cleft deactivate the neurotransmitters. Extracellular Fluid carries these neurotransmitters back inside the presynaptic cell in a form of reuptake.

What is the function of ependymal cells? ( teleological approach) ch 8 pg235

Ependymal cells is a class of glial cells that create a selectively permeable epithelial layer, the ependymal, that separates the fluid compartments of the central nervous system.

What is the function of ependymal cells? ( teleological approach, chapter 8, Glial cells provide support for neurons, page 235, right column, paragraph 10, line 1-6)

Ependymal cells is a class of glial cells that create a selectively permeable epithelial layer, the ependymal, that separates the fluid compartments of the central nervous system. The ependymal is one source of neural stem cells, immature cells that can differentiate into neurons and glial cells.

What are catecholamines and what hormone type are they similar to? Chapter 7 Introduction to the Endocrine System: Control of Hormone Release, page 206, left column, second paragraph, lines 2-4)

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are neurohormones that bind to cell membrane receptors in a manner similar to peptide hormones.

Why is it important for the production rate of endolymph to not exceed the drainage rate? (teleological) Chapter 10, page 337, The Vestibular Apparatus Provides Information about Movement and Position, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-7

If the production exceeds the drainage rate, buildup of old in the inner ear may increase fluid pressure within the vestibular apparatus. Too much endolymph is believed to contribute to to Meniere's disease. If there is too much fluid pressure within the vestibular apparatus, the organ of Corti in the cochlear duct can be damaged, possibly causing hearing loss

How does the concept of summation work for muscle contractions? (Mechanistic, Ch 12, Pg. 396, Left Column, Paragraph 2, lines 5-10)

If two action potentials occur within a short enough time period, the muscle fibers do not have the time to relax completely and thus the force of the two action potentials is added which causes one bigger contraction. Essentially, the action potentials are close enough that their effects are added.

How does the disease Myasthenia gravis affect the body? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 11, The Neuromuscular Junction Contains Nicotinic Receptors, page 397, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 5-10.

In Myasthenia gravis arises from production of antibodies that block ACh receptors at the NMJ, causing disruption of communication between the motor neuron and the muscle. This causes the weakening of skeletal muscle, including those needed for breathing.

How do actin and myosin molecules arrange together? Chapter 12, page 407, Myofibrils, last paragraph

In a 3D array, they form a lattice of parallel, overlapping thin and thick filaments, held in place by their attachments to the z-disks and M-line proteins, respectively

What makes a spinal reflex unique to other neural reflexes? (Teleological, Chapter 9, The Brain, pg. 285, figure 9.7)

In a spinal reflex sensory information that enters the spinal cord is acted on without input from the brain, acting as a self-contained integrating center. Signals pass from a sensory neuron through the gray matter to an efferent neuron.

How does a two-point discrimination test work? (Mechanistic, Ch. 10. Pg. 312, Right Column, Paragraphs 6 and 7, entirety of both paragraphs)

In a two-point discrimination test, two pins are touched to the skin at a certain distance apart. Depending on how many primary neurons are connected to a single secondary neuron, the person may feel the two pins as a single pin or as two separate pins. This determines the sensitivity of an area.

Why does alpha-gamma coactivation have a constant spindle firing rate whereas without gamma motor neurons, the spindle firing rate decreases? (Teleological approach) Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 448, Figure 13.4

In alpha-gamma coactivation, spindle function is maintained when muscle contracts because the stretch on centers of intrafusal fibers are unchanged, causing the firing rate to remain constant. Without gamma motor neurons, muscle contraction causes the spindle firing rate to decrease because there is less stretch on intrafusal fibers' centers.

Why are brain capallaries so much less permeable than other capillaries?

In brain capillaries, the endothelial cells form tight junctions with one another, junctions that prevent solute movement between the cells. (Pg. 282, Section: The Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the Brain, Column 2, lines: 9-11)

How are the brain capillaries less permeable than the other capillaries in the body? (Mechanistic, Ch. 9, pg. 281, right column paragraph 2, lines 1-9)

In brain capillaries, the endothelial cells prevent solutes from moving between the cells because they form tight junctions unlike the leaky cell-cell junctions and pores that can be found in the cells of the capillaries in other parts of the body.

What happens, though, when an object is closer than 20 feet to the lens? Mechanistic approach, chapter 10, The lens focuses on the Retina, Page 360, right column, last paragraph, lines 1-6

In that case, the light rays from the object are not parallel and strike the lens at an oblique angle that changes the distance from the lens to the object's image. The focal point now lies behind the retina, and the object image becomes fuzzy and out of focus.

What is a difference between an oligodendrocyte and Schwann Cell? ( Pg. 245, paragraph 1, sentence 1-3)

In the CNS, one oligodendrocyte branches and forms myelin around portions of several axons In the PNS, one Schwann Cell associates with one axon.

How does the long-loop negative feedback function in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathways? (Mechanistic approach) ch 7, Feedback Loops are Different in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Pathway, page 213, left column, paragraph 2, line 1-7

In the hypothalamic-pituitary pathways, the hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland feeds back to suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary and hypothalamic hormones.

Explain the sliding filament theory of contraction?

In this model, overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction. When the muscle contracts, the thick and thin filaments slide past each other. The Z disks of the sarcomere move closer together as the sarcomere shortens. The I band and the H zone, regions where actin and myosin do not overlap in resting muscle, almost disappears. P.385 Right column top

What happens during smooth muscke contraction?

Increase in calcium then released into sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium binds to calmodulin Phosphorylation of myosin light chains which enhances ATPase activity and results in muscle contraction (Myosin Phosphorylation Controls Muscle Contractions, pg. 429)

How do individual neurons and glial cells differ from neural tissue? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, page 293, left column, paragraph 5, lines 2-5

Individual neurons and glial cells have highly organized internal cytoskeletons that maintain cell shape and orientation. Neural tissue has minimal extracellular matrix and must therefore rely on external support for protection from trauma.

Why is there a suspected link between odors and memory/emotion? The CNS Integrates Sensory Information, 3rd paragraph, line 2-10

Information about odors travels from the nose through the first cranial nerve and the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex in the cerebrum. This direct input to the cerebrum may be why.

How does information flow through the nervous system? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Organization of the nervous system, page 227, right column, first paragraph, 5-8th line

Information flow through the nervous system follows the basic pattern of a reflex: stimulus -> sensor -> input signal -> integrating center -> output signal -> target -> response

How and why are stimuli habituated? (Mechanistic/Teleological, Chapter 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, right column, pg. 313, lines 18-23)

Inhibitory modulation allows habituation of a stimulus. Inhibitory modulation diminishes above-threshold stimuli until they are below the perceptual threshold. This allows the receptors to modulate an ongoing stimulus until they are important.

How is habituation accomplished by inhibitory modulation? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 313, The CNS Integrates Sensor Information, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-4

Inhibitory modulation diminishes a suprathreshold stimulus until it is below the perceptual threshold

Why are feedback loops different in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathway? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 7, Feedback Loops are Different in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Pathway, page 213, left column, paragraph 1, line 3

Instead of the response acting as the negative feedback signal, hormones themselves are the feedback signal.

What are some of the varied effects of the hormone insulin? (teleological) Chapter 7, page 199, Hormones Act Binding to Receptors, right column, paragraph 1, lines 7-12

Insulin alters glucose transport proteins and enzymes for glucose metabolism in muscle an adipose tissues and modulates enzyme activity but has no direct effect on glucose transport proteins in the liver. In the brain and other certain tissues, glucose metabolism is totally independent of insulin

How does the body know when to stop secreting insulin? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, Hormone action must be terminated, right column, page 211, paragraph 1, Lines 3-9)

Insulin is secreted when blood glucose concentrations increase following a meal. As long as insulin is present, glucose leaves the blood and enters cells. However, if insulin activity continues too long, blood glucose levels can fall so low that the nervous system becomes unable to function properly a potentially fatal situation. Normally the body avoids this situation in several ways: by limiting insulin secretion, by removing or inactivating insulin circulating in the blood, and by terminating insulin activity in target cells.

What is the major duty of the posterior Pituitary gland?(Teleo) Ch7, Control of Hormone release, pg 209, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

It is the storage and release site for 2 neurohormones: oxytocin and vasopressin clustered together in areas of the hypothalamus known as the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei.

What is the major parasympathetic tract? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 363, right column, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, paragraph 3, lines 3-6

It is the vagus nerve, which contains about 75% of all parasympathetic fibers and carries both sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to organs.

What does the conformational change of an action potential reaching a DHP receptor cause? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12, page 389, Acetylcholine Initiates Excitation-Contraction Coupling, left column, 4th paragraph, lines 5-8

It opens the RyR Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the stored Ca2+ then flows down its electrochemical gradient into the cytosol, where it initiates contraction

What does the meaning of "pertaining to food or nourishment" refer to? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Control of Hormone Release, pg. 221, column 2, paragraph 6, lines 3-4)

It refers to the manner in which the trophic hormone "nourishes" the target cell.

Why is the pituitary gland important? PG 209 CH 7

It regulates the rest of the endocrine system and is important in development in growth.

What is the primary function of monoamine oxidase (MAO)? teleological approach (chapter 11, autonomic neurotransmitters are synthesized in the axon, page 366, left column, paragraph 4, line 7-8)

It serves as the main enzyme responsible for degradation of catecholamines.

Describe the two functions of Titin.

It stabilizes the position of the contractile filaments and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length. Pg. 383, section: Myofibirils Are Muscle Fibers Contractile Structures, column 2, lines: 10-12.

The anterior pituitary gland in the brain targets a bunch of organs. Name 3 and state how it decides where to send the cells. (Ch 7 pg 220 figure 7.8 part b)

It targets the mammary glands, musculoskeletal system, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, the ovaries and the testes. It secretes six different types of hormones to target different cells in the different organs.

How does the absence of a negative feedback loop affect the trophic hormone levels? Chapter 7, Hyposecretion Diminishes or Eliminates a Hormone's Effects, paragraph 2, lines 1-10

It'll cause it to rise as the trophic hormones attempt to make the defective gland increase its hormone output.

how does the perceptual threshold work? (mechanistic) (Ch 10 pg 330 2nd paragraph)

It's a part of the CNS that is the level of stimulus intensity necessary for someone to be aware of a sensation. Because the brain sifts through a lot of information, the only way to overcome habituation is by having the secondary and higher neurons allow for the sensory neural response to reach the brain.

How is the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones controlled? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 209, The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones , right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-4

It's controlled by hypothalamic neurohormones. The pathways can be complex because some hypothalamic neurohormones alter the secretion of several anterior pituitary hormones.

How is the monosynaptic reflex named? Chapter 13, page 442, Neural Reflex Pathways Can Be Classified in Different Ways, last paragraph, lines 1-9

It's named for the single synapses between the two neurons in the pathway: a sensory afferent neuron and an efferent somatic motor neuron.

Why is K+ important? CH pg 266 left column

K+ is an electrolyte that is important in the amount of action potential required to stimulate the muscle. Muscle can become week if the stimulation level required becomes too high.

How is equilibrium maintained in the ear? (pg 337, The Vestibular Apparatus Provides Information about Movement and Position, paragraph 1)

Equilibrium is mediated through hair cells in the vestibular apparatus and semicircular canals of the inner ear.

How does a skeletal muscle contract? Page 383, Right column, Para 3, Lines 1-10. Mech

Events at the neuromuscular junction convert an acetyl choline signal from a somatic motor neuron into an electrical signal in the muscle fiber. Excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling is the process by which muscle action potential initiate calcium signals that in turn activate a contraction-relaxation cycle. At the molecular level, a contraction-relaxation cycle can be explained by the sliding filament theory of contraction. In intact muscles, one contraction-relaxation cycle is called a muscle twitch.

What is alpha-gamma coactivation?

Excitation of gamma motor neurons and alpha motor neurons at the same time. Pg. 424, Section: Muscle Spindles Respond to Muscle Stretch, column 1, lines: 2-4.

How can genetic alterations in signal transduction pathways impact humans? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Endocrine Pathologies, page 218, left column, first paragraph, 1-6th line

Genetic alterations in transduction pathways can lead to symptoms of hormone excess or deficiency. For example, patients with pseudohypoparathyrodisim have signs of low parathyroid hormone even though they have normal levels of the hormone. Because the signal transduction pathway doesn't work, target cells are not able to respond to the parathyroid hormone, leading to signs of hormone deficiency.

What are the three components of the neuromuscular junction? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, page 370, left column, 4th paragraph.

(1) motor neuron's presynaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria (2) synaptic cleft (3) postsynaptic membrane

What are the 4 properties of a stimulus? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, page 314, right column, 1st paragraph.

(1) nature or modality, (2) location, (3) intensity, (4) duration

What are the four modulatory systems in the reticular formation? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, page 294, right column, 6th paragraph.

(1) noradrenergic, (2) serotonergic, (3) dopaminergic, (4) cholinergic

How do glial cells effect both the PNS and the CNS? Give an example from each PNS and CNS. (mechanistic) (Ch 8, pg 246, figure 8.5)

Glial cells are found in both the PNS and the CNS, and are the unsung heroes of the nervous system. They do a lot of things, such as in the CNS they are barriers between comparments, a source of neural stem cells, take up water, secrete neurotrophic factors, help form blood-brain barrier, provide substrates to make ATP. For the PNS, the also secrete neurotrophic factors and support cell bodies.

Why is regeneration of axons less likely to occur in the central nervous system? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 236, left column, fourth paragraph, 1-4th line

Glial cells in the central nervous system tend to seal off and scar the damaged region of the axon, and when cells of the CNS are damaged, they tend to secrete factors that inhibit axon regrowth.

What are the four major events of EC coupling? Page 388, Right column, Para 2, Lines 1-5

1. Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the somatic motor neuron. 2. ACh initiates an action potential in the muscle fiber 3. The muscle action potential triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. Calcium combines with troponin and initiates contraction

How does acetylcholine initiate excitation -contraction? Page 388, right column, first paragraph.

1. Acetylcholine is released from the somatic motor neuron. 2. Acteylcholine then initiates an action potential in the muscle fiber 3. The muscle action potential triggers calcium release from the SR. 4. Calcium combines with troponin and initiates contraction.

How is norepinephrine (NE) released and removed at a sympathetic neuroeffector junction? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, Figure 11.7, page 365, left column, paragraph 1, line 1-8

1. Action potential arrives at variscosity. 2. Depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca+2 channels 3. Ca+2 entry triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles 4. NE binds to adrenergic receptor on target 5. Receptor activation ceases when NE diffuses away from the synapse 6. NE is removed from the synapse 7. NE can be taken back into synaptic vesicles for re-release 8. NE is metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO)

Tell the 3 steps of alpha-gamma coactivation. (pg 424, figure 13.4)

1. Alpha motor neuron fires and gamma motor neuron fires 2. Muscles and intrafusal fibers both contract 3. Stretch on on centers of intrafusal fibers unchanged. Firing rare of afferent neurons remains constant.

What are the molecular events for smooth muscle contraction? Page 406, right column, first paragraph.

1. An increase in cytosolic calcium initiates contraction. This calcium is released from the SR but also enters from the ECF. 2. Calcium binds to calmodulin, a calcium binding protien found in the cytosol. 3. Ca2+ binding to calmodulin is the first step in a cascade that ends in phosphorylation of myosin light chains. 4. Phosphorylation of myosin light chains enhances myosin ATPase activity and results in contraction. Thus, smooth muscle contraction id controlled through myosin linked regulatory processes rather than through tropomyosin.

Why do glycolytic fibers run out of work faster than oxidative fibers? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscle Is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, page 394, right column paragraph 1, 1-10

Glycolytic fibers rely on glycolysis, which produces an excess of H+, while oxidative fibers use the TCA cycle as well. Glycolytic fibers' excess H+ result in acidosis, which may cause fatigue.

How can one distinguish sympathetic and parasympathetic branches from each other?

1. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (ACh) onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors (nAChR) on the postganglionic cell. 2. Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell. 3. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors on the target cell. P.364 Second paragraph left column.

How are Graded potentials used in the body and what are they? Mechanistic appraoch, Page 264, Left column, current flow obeys ohm's law, Lines 3-8.

Graded potentials are variable-strenght signals that travel over short distances and lose strength as they travel through the cell. They are used by the body by allowing for short-distance communication .

How do graded potentials and action potentials differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 240, left column, second paragraph, 3-11th line

Graded potentials are variable-strength signals that travel over short distances and lose strength as they travel through the cell. They are used for short-distance communication. They can turn into action potentials if the depolarizing graded potential is strong enough. Action potentials are very brief but large depolarizations that travel for long distances through a neuron without losing strength. Their function is rapid signaling over long distances.

How are neural reflexes classified? page 418, left column, first paragraph under neural reflexes

1. By the efferent division of the nervous system that controls the response 2. By the CNS location where the reflex is integrated 3. By whether the reflex is innate or learned 4. By the number of neurons in the reflex pathway.

How are neural reflex pathways classified?

1. By the efferent division of the nervous system that controls the response. 2. By the CNS location where the reflex is integrated 3. By whether the reflex is innate or learned 4. By the number of neurons in the reflex pathway. P.418 Left bottom column

How does skeletal muscle contract (major steps leading up to contraction)? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Muscle Contraction Creates Force, page 383, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

1. Events at neuromuscular junction convert an acetyl-choline signal from a somatic motor neuron into an electrical signal in the muscle fiber. 2. Excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling - muscle action potentials initiate calcium signals that in turn activate a contraction-relaxation cycle 3. Ca+2 signal 4. Contraction-relaxation cycle (twitch)

What are the steps in neurotransmitter release? Hint: There are 5 steps. (page 258, column 1, paragraph 2 and 3)

1. In response to depolarization, the axon terminal membrane has voltage gated calcium channels that open in response to depolarization. 2. Calcium ions move with their concentration gradient into the cell because they have a higher concentration in the ECF. 3. Exocytosis os synaptic vesicle contents is triggered by calcium entry into the cell. 4. Neurotransmitters enter the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. 5. Binding of neurotrsnsmitters with their receptors initiates a response in the postsynaptic neuron.

How does the body avoid prolonged insulin activity? (page 199, Hormone Action must be terminated, right column, paragraph 1)

1. Limiting insulin secretion 2. removing or inactivating insulin circulating in the blood 3. terminating insulin activity in target cells.

What are 2 reasons why NMDA receptors are unusual? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 256, Amino Acids, right column, lines 2-6

1. They are nonselective cation channels that allow Na+, K+, and Ca2+ to pass through the channel 2. Channel opening requires both glutamate binding and a change in membrane potential

List two ways factors of abnormal tissue responsiveness and the adaptive significance of this. (Teleological, Chapter 6, Endocrine Pathologies, pg. 217, right column)

Abnormal tissue responses can lead to endocrine diseases. Changes in the target tissue response are usually caused by abnormal interactions between the tissue and its receptor such as in hyperinsulinemia- down-regulation of receptors in endocrine system-, and by alternations to signal transduction pathways-protein receptor may be absent or nonfunctional

Why are accessory structures important for many sensory systems? (Teleological approach)Page 311, paragraph 3

Accessory structures are critical to the operation of many sensory systems. The hairs on our arms help somatosensory receptors sense movement in the air millimeters above the skin surface. Accessory structures often enhance the information gathering capability of the sensory system.

Why are accessory structures important to sensory systems? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 328, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

Accessory structures often enhance the information-gathering capability of the sensory system. For example, the hairs on our arms help somatosensory receptors sense movement in the air millimeters above the skin surface.

How (mechanistic) do the electrical and mechanical events in a muscle fiber (in the form of E-C coupling) lead to contraction? (Chapter 12, Subsection Acetylcholine Initiates Excitation-Contraction Coupling, p. 417, right column, paragraph 1-2, all lines)

Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the somatic motor neuron. ACh initiates an action potential in the muscle fiber. The muscle action potential triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium combines with troponin and initiates contraction.

What are the 4 ways neural reflexes can be classified> (pg 418, table 13.1)

1. efferent division that controls the effector 2. integrating region within the CNS 3. Time at which reflex develops 4. Number of neurons in reflex pathway

How does axonal transport occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, figure 8.3, page 232

1. peptides are synthesized on rough ER and packaged by the Golgi 2. fast axonal transport walks vesicles and mitochondria along microtubule network 3. vesicle contents are released by exocytosis 4. synaptic vesicle recycling 5. retrograde fast axonal transport 6. Old membrane components digested in lysosomes

How do skeletal muscle reflexes differ from autonomic reflexes? (mechanistic) (Ch 13 pg 443 figure 13.1)

All autonomic reflexes are always polysynaptic, where as skeletal muscles can be monosynaptic or polysynaptic. Autonomic responses also have postganglionic neurons instead of efferent neurons.

How do graded potentials and action potentials differ? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, Current Flow Obeys Ohm's Law, page 240, left column, sixth paragraph, lines 1-11

Graded potentials are variable-strength signals that travel over short distances and lose strength as they travel through the cell. They're used for short-distance communication. Action potentials are brief, large depolarizations that travel for long-distances through a neuron without losing strength. They're used for rapid, long-distance signaling

How can an isometric contraction create force if the length of the muscle doesn't change significantly? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12: Skeletal Muscle, page 399, right column, 4th paragraph, lines 1-9

All muscles contain elastic fibers in the tendons and other connective tissues that attach muscles to bone, and in the connective tissue between muscle fibers. In muscle fibers, elastic cytoskeletal proteins occur between the myofibrils and as part of the sarcomere. All of these elastic components behave collectively as if they were connected in series to the contractile elements of the muscle

Why do single receptive fields fail the two-point discrimination test? (mechanistic approach) ch 10, pg 335, The Sensory Neuron has a Receptive Field, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-8

All of the primary sensory neurons in a receptive field synapse onto a single secondary neuron. This single secondary neuron is only capable of determining all the inputs as 'one' location, so a two-point discrimination test just feels like one point.

What neurotransmitter do all preganglionic autonomic neurons secrete and onto what type of receptors is it secreted? (Teleological, Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, p. 369, right column, summary point #2.

All preganglionic autonomic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto nicotonic receptors.

How do graded potentials and actions potentials function differently? Chapter 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 240, left column, second paragraph lines 3-11

Graded potentials can vary in strength and travel short distances and become weaker as they travel. They can initiate action potentials. Action potentials are very short, very strong depolarizations that can travel for long distances without losing strength

Why are graded potentials called graded and how do they reflect stimulus strength? (Chapter 8, Teleological, Electrical Signals in Neurons, pg. 240, left column, lines 21-25)

Graded potentials in neurons are depolarizations or hyperpolarizations that occur in the dendrites and cell body, or near the axon terminals. They are called graded because their amplitude is directly proportional to the strength of the triggering event. A large stimulus causes a strong graded potential, and a small stimulus results in a weak graded potential.

How do gray matter and white matter differ from one another? Chapter 9, page 301, The CNS is divided into Gray and White Matter, 2nd and 3rd paragraphs

Gray matter consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and axons, while white matter is mostly myelinated axons and contains very few cell bodies.

Where do most parasympathetic pathways originate and where are parasympathetic ganglia generally found? Ch. 11, pg. 363, right column, para. 2, lines 1-6

Many parasympathetic pathways originate in the brain stem. Other originate in the sacral region. Generally, ganglia are located either on or near their target organs.

What functions do modulators have in regards to their interactions with autonomic neurotransmitters? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic Pathways Control Smooth and Cardiac Muscle and Glands, page 364, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

Modulators associated with autonomic neurotransmitters usually serve one of two functions: either facilitate or inhibit neurotransmitters release.

Why does the distinction of somatic and autonomic divisions being called voluntary and involuntary divisions of the nervous system not always hold true? (Teleological) Chapter 11, page 359, left column, paragraph 3, lines 7-13

Most movement controlled by somatic pathways requires conscious thought, but some skeletal muscle reflexes like swallowing and the knee jerk reflex are involuntary. Autonomic reflexes are mainly involuntary, but a person can use biofeedback training to learn to modulate some autonomic functions like heart rate and blood pressure.

Why is the classification of somatic and autonomic divisions as voluntary and involuntary divisions of the nervous system not entirely true? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, Introduction, page 378, left column, paragraph 3, lines 5-13

Most movement controlled by somatic pathways requires conscious thought, but some skeletal muscle reflexes such as swallowing and the knee jerk reflex are involuntary. Autonomic reflexes are mainly involuntary but people can use biofeedback training to modulate some autonomic functions like heart rate and blood pressure.

Where do most sympathetic pathways originate and where are sympathetic ganglia primarily found? Ch. 11, pg. 363, right column, lines 5-8

Most pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Sympathetic ganglia are found primarily in two ganglion chains that run along either side of the bony vertebral column, with additional ganglia along the descending aorta.

What is one difference between the postganglionic sympathetic neurons and the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons? mechanistic approach (chapter 11, page 364, the autonomic nervous system uses a variety of chemical signals, left column, paragraph 1, line 7-12)

Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine (NE) onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell. On the other hand, most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors (mAChR) on the target cell.

Name and describe the functions of the three types of muscle tissue. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Muscles, page 378, left/right column, third/fourth paragraphs, 2-8th/1-4th lines

Most skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton, enabling these muscles to control body movement. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and moves blood through the circulatory system. Smooth muscle is the primary muscle of internal organs and tubes, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and blood vessels

Why do sympathetic pathways have short preganglionic neurons and long postganglionic neurons? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, page 363, right column, 1st paragraph.

Most sympathetic ganglia lie close to the spinal cord (shorter distance to travel).

Where do most sympathetic pathways originate and where are sympathetic ganglia found? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 363, right column, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, paragraph 1, lines 4-8

Most sympathetic pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Sympathetic ganglia are found primarily in two ganglion chains that run along either side of the bony vertebral column.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically? (page 363, first and second paragraph on the right column)

Most sympathetic pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Sympathetic ganglia are found primarily in two ganglion chains that run along either side of the vertebral column. Many parasympathetic pathways originate in the brain stem, and their axons leave the brain in several cranial nerves. Other pathways originate in the sacral region near the lower end of the spinal cord and control pelvic organs. They are generally located on or near their target organs.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically in terms of origin? Chapter 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, 1st paragraph, lines 1-8

Most sympathetic pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord; most parasympathetic pathways originate in the brain.

How do smooth and cardiac muscle differ from other visceral muscles in contraction? (Mechanistic), pg. 431, right column, under "Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles", paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Most viscera; muscle contraction is reflexively controlled by the autonomic nervous system, but smooth and cardiac muscle can generate their own action potential independent of an external signal. The heart and digestive tract have spontaneously depolarizing muscle fibers called pacemakers that give rise to rhythmic, regular contractions.

How does the brain change and develop from 11 weeks into childhood? And why is this structure so important to animals? (mechanistic and telelogical) (Ch 9 pg 292 figure 9.2, e-g, pg 291 paragraph 3 on left)

Mostly in the cerebrum. At 11 weeks, while the cerebrum is now the biggest and growing the most rapidly, it has a lot more growing to do for birth (around 40 weeks). At birth, the cerebrum has covered most of the other brain regions, and will continue to grow and make neuron connections. The cerebrum

What is the role of basal nuclei and where do they receive their input from?

Motor planning and the cerebral cortex (Table 13.3, pg.454)

List the 6 anterior pituitary hormones and briefly describe their function. (Teleological, Chapter 7, Control of Hormone Release, pg. 213, left column, lines 5-23)

2 Anterior Pituitary hormones with hypothalamic release-inhibiting hormones: -prolactin (PRL): controls lactation in female breast. -Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin): affects metabolism of many tissues and stimulates hormone production in liver. Four pituitary hormones-endocrine gland is primary target: -Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)+Luteinizing hormone (LH)= gonadotropins: effects on ovaries and testes. -Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): controls hormone synthesis and secretion in the thyroid gland. -Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): acts on certain cells of adrenal cortex to control synthesis and release of the steroid hormone cortisol.

How do alpha and beta adrenergic receptor pathways differ from one another? (page 366, right column, paragraph 3)

Alpha 1 receptors activate phospholipase C, which makes IP3 and diacylglycerol. Diacylglycerol starts a protein phosphorylating cascade. IP3 opens calcium channels, which create intracellular calcium signals. Activation of this pathway creates muscle contraction or secretion by exocytosis. Activation of the alpha 2 pathway causes smooth muscle relacation in the GI tract or decreased secretion in the pancreas. Beta receptors when activated increase cyclic AMP and trigger phosphorylation of intracellular proteins. The response of the target cell then depends on the subtype of receptor. For Beta 1 pathways, cardiac muscle contraction is activated. For beta 2 receptors, smooth muscle in many tissues is relaxed.

Referring to the previous question, define tropic hormones? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Control of Hormone Release, pg. 221, column 2, paragraph 5, lines 5-6).

A tropic hormone is a hormone that controls the secretion of another hormone.

Why are alpha motor neurons important to skeletal muscle reflexes? (Teleological) pg 445, paragraph 4, lines 1-3.

Alpha motor neurons are a special kind of somatic motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle contractile fibers. Essentially, they are responsible for carrying the outgoing signal to the contractile fibers.

How (mechanistic) are alpha receptors different from the different types of beta receptors? (Chapter 11, Subsection Most Sympathetic Pathways Secrete Norepinephrine onto Adrenergic Receptors, p. 392, right column, paragraphs 5-7, all lines)

Alpha receptors are the most common sympathetic receptors and they respond strongly to norepinephrine and only weakly to epinephrine. B1-receptors respond equally strongly to norepinephrine and epinephrine. B2-receptors are more sensitive to epinephrine than to norepinephrine. Interestingly, the B2-receptors are not innervated (no sympathetic neurons terminate near them), which limits their exposure to the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. B3-receptors, which are found primarily on adipose tissue, are innervated and more sensitive to norepinephrine than to epinephrine.

Tell which adrenergic receptors respond most strongly to. (pg 390, table 11.2)

Alpha receptors respond most strongly to norepinephrine; beta 1 receptors respond equally to norepinephrine and epinephrine, and beta 2 receptors respond most strongly to epinephrine.

How do alpha receptors and beta receptors differ? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 366, Sympathetic Receptors, left/right column, paragraphs 1 and 2

Alpha receptors respond strongly to norepinephrine and only weakly to epinephrine. Beta receptors differ in their affinity for catecholamines. Beta 1 receptors respond equally strongly to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Beta 2 receptors are more strongly sensitive to epinephrine than to norepinephrine. Beta 3 receptors are more sensitive to norepinephrine than to epinephrine

How do each of the types and subtypes of sympathetic receptors function? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic receptors have multiple subtypes, page 366, left column, second and third paragraphs, 4-6th/2-9th lines

Alpha receptors- the most common sympathetic receptor- respond strongly to norepinephrine and only weakly to epinephrine. Beta1-receptors respond equally strongly to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Beta2-receptors are more sensitive to epinephrine. Beta3-receptors are are innervated and more sensitive to norepinephrine

How do tonically active neurons differ from bursting neurons? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Nervous System, page 273, right column, paragraph 3, lines 2-8

Although both are electrical signaling patterns, tonically active neurons fire regular trains of action potentials whereas bursting neurons have bursts of action potentials rhythmically alternating with intervals of quiet.

How does the blood-brain barrier function? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, The blood-brain barrier protects the brain, page 282, right column, first paragraph, 7-10th line

Although not a literal barrier, the highly selective permeability of brain capillaries shelters the brain from toxins and from fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances such as neurotransmitters in the blood

Why can your brain filter out and "turn off" certain stimuli? teleological, Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 313, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Although stimuli are constantly present, we have a perceptual threshold that requires a certain level of stimulus intensity to be aware of a particular sensation.

What is an endocrine reflex? Ch 206 right column

An endocrine reflex is the steps taken in the body to regulate the production of a hormone.

How do feedforward postural reflexes occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 13, page 429, The CNS Integrates Movement, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-10

An example is when pitcher starts to pitch and must adjust his body position. The feedforward postural reflects adjust the body position by shifting weight slightly to be ready for the changes that will occur. Action potentials move quickly through divergent pathways to somatic motor neurons that control the muscles used for pitching. Some neurons are excited while some are inhibited. The neural circuitry allows precise control over antagonistic muscle groups.

What is one possible cause of hyposecretion of thyroid hormone? (Mechanistic approach) ch 7, hyposecretion diminishes or eliminates a hormone's effects, , page 217, left column, paragraph 1, line 5-6

An insufficiency of dietary iodine prevents the thyroid from being able to create more hormone. This results in goiter and an enlarged thyroid, as the thyroid continues to receive signals that it is not producing enough hormone (which it is simple unable to do)

Describe the differences between isotonic and isometric contraction, and provide an example of each. (Mechanistic) Ch 12, Isotonic Contracions Move Loads Isometric Contractions Create Force Without Movement, Page 421, left column, entire first and second paragraphs.

An isotonic contraction is any contraction that creates force and moves a load. ex) Curling dumbbells with you arms. An Isometric contraction is any contraction that creates force without moving a load. ex) holding the dumbbells stationary (still causes contraction, but load is not being moved).

What is a pacemaker potential? (Pg. 433, paragraph 3, sentence 1 and 2)

Oscillating membrane potentials that have regular depolarizations that always reach a threshold and fire an action potential to create a regular rhythm of contractions.

Briefly describe the Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction,. (Mechanistic Ch 12, Actin and Myosin Slide Past Each Other During Contraction, Page 406, Right column, 2nd paragrah, bottom 3 lines.

Overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction.

How does the sliding filament theory of contraction explain contraction? Chapter 12, page 409, Actin and Myosin, 4th paragraph, lines 1-5

Overlapping actin and myosin filaments of iced length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction.

Which muscle fibers are responsible for a slow twitch?

Oxidative Muscle Fibers (Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch Muscles, Figure 12.17, pg. 416)

How is parathyroid hormone secreted? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, Control of Hormone Release, page 206, right column, paragraph 4, 4th-10th lines

Parathyroid endocrine cells monitor Ca2+ ion concentrations through G protein-coupled Ca2+ ion receptors. Ca2+ inhibits the secretion of parathyroid hormone, but if the concentration of Ca2+ falls, parathyroid hormone can be secreted by parathyroid cells.

How does parathyroid hormone function? Chapter 7, Control of hormone release, page 206, right column, fourth paragraph, lines 4 - 13

Parathyroid endocrine cells monitor calcium concentration in the blood plasma using G-protein coupled receptors on their membranes. When calcium concentration falls, fewer of these receptors are bound, inhibition of parathyroid is decreased, and parathyroid hormone is secreted and acts on bone, kidneys, and intestines to increase calcium concentration

How does the parathyroid hormone function in the body? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, the endocrine cell is the sensor in simple endocrine reflexes, right column, page 206, paragraph 2, 1-6)

Parathyroid hormone controls calcium homeostasis and uses a simple endocrine reflex. The parathyroid endocrine cells monitor plasma calcium concentration with the aid of G protein-coupled Calcium ion receptors on their cell membranes.

How does olfactory information travel in the body? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 330, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-11

Olfactory information is the only sensory information that is not routed through the thalamus. Information about odors travels from the nose through the first cranial nerve and olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex in the cerebrum.

What is the reason scientists believe is behind the idea that smell is linked so closely to memory and emotion? (Pg. 330, paragraph 2, sentence 3-4)

Olfactory information travels from the nose through the first cranial nerve and olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex of the cerebrum. Since it is directly inputed into the cerebrum (without going into the thalamus) odors are closely linked to memory and emotion.

What is the cause of Duchenne muscular dystrophy? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 12, Page 427, Muscle Disorders Have Multiple Causes, left column, 1st paragraph, lines 4-10.

Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy experience progressive muscle weakness and usually die before the age of 30 from respiratory muscle failure. This muscle weakness is caused by the absence of dystrophin, the structural protein that links actin to proteins in the cell membrane. Consequently, Ca2+ enters the cell from gaps in the membrane and activates cellular enzymes that leads to the breakdown of protein fibers.

Why does the sodium channel have two gates in the inner pore? (Teleological) pg 258, Figure 8.10

One of the gates is used for activation of the channel. When the voltage is depolarized enough, the gate will open, allowing for the Sodium ions to pass through. The other gate is used for inactivation of the channel, to prevent the passage of ions.

How are Schwann cells different from oligodendrocytes? (Mechanistic, Ch. 8, Pg. 233, Right Column, 5th paragraph, lines 1-5)

One oligodendrocyte forms myelin around multiple axons whereas Schwann cells only bind to one axon.

Why is conduction more rapid in myelinated axons? Chapter 8, page 273, Conduction is faster in Myelinated Axons, 5-6 paragraph

Only the nodes need Na+ channels because of the insulated properties of the myelin membrane; the action potential passes along and it's not slowed by channel opening. It's like pressing tab to go across a screen, instead of pressing the space bar

Why does one action potential not alter ion concentration? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, One Action Potential Does Not Alter Ion Concentration Gradients, page 245, left column, paragraph 1, line 2-3

Only very few ions move across the membrane in a single action potential, so the relative Na+ and K+ concentrations inside and outside the cell remain relatively the same.

How do opioid drugs help alleviate pain? Chapter 10, Somatic senses, page 323, left column, paragraph 2, lines 6-11

Opioid drugs act directly on the central nervous system opioid receptors. Once these opioid receptors are activated, they block pain perception by decreasing neurotransmitter release from primary sensory neurons and by postsynaptic inhibition of the secondary sensory neurons

How do opioid pain-killers like morphine actually stop pain? (Mechanistic, Ch. 10, Pg. 323, Left Column, 2nd Paragraph, lines 1-11)

Opioids act on the opioid receptors in the CNS. Those receptors respond to endogenous opioid receptors and the activation of these receptors blocks pain by decreasing the amount of neurotransmitters released from the primary sensory neurons and by postsynaptic inhibition of the secondary sensory neurons.

Why are the responses to peptide hormones usually rapid?(page 202, Cellular Mechanism of Action of Peptide Hormones, right column, 2nd paragraph)

Peptide hormone response is usually rapid because second messenger systems modify existing proteins.

Why is it tough for peptide hormones to enter the target cell? (Teleological approach) Page 202, paragraph 6

Peptide hormones are lipophobic, therefor making them usually unable to enter the target cell (Lipid cell membrane repels does not allow them to cross). Instead, they bind to surface membrane receptors.

What are some differences between peptide hormones and steroid hormones?

Peptide hormones are made in advance and stored in secretory vesicles, while steroid hormones are synthesized when needed from precursors. Peptide hormones can dissolve in blood plasma while steroid hormones are bound to protein carriers. Receptor for peptide hormones are located on the cell surface, while steroid hormones can be located in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Fundamentally, peptide hormones cannot diffuse across the cell membrane while steroid hormones can. p. 202 Top chart

How are the responses to peptide hormones maintained? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 7, Classification of Hormones, page 202, right column, 2nd paragraph, line 4-6

Peptide hormones are soluble in water. If a response is to be sustained for a long time, then the specific hormone has to be secreted continuously.

Why must a peptide hormone be continually secreted for a sustained response? (tele) 202, right, paragraph 2, lines 2-5

Peptide hormones are water soluble and dissolve easily in the extracellular fluid for transport. For a prolonged response, these hormones must be continually secreted because they have a very short half life--ranging a few minutes.

How do peptide hormones initiate cellular response? (mechanistic). Chapter 7, The classification of hormones, page 202, right column column, paragraph 3, 2nd-8th lines

Peptide hormones bind to surface membrane receptors, which initiates a signal transduction system. This system comes in a variety of forms, including cAMP second messenger systems and can have tyrosine kinase activity.

Why (teological) is the presence of perceptual threshold necessary? (Chapter 10, Subsection The CNS Integrates Sensory Information, p. 338, right column, paragraph 2, lines 2-8)

Perceptual threshold is the level of stimulus intensity necessary for you to be aware of a particular sensation. Stimuli constantly bombard your sensory receptors, but your brain can filter out and turn off some stimuli. You experience a change in perceptual threshold, for example, when you tune out the radio while studying.

How does the perceptual threshold relate to the CNS? (Mechanistic approach) Page 313, paragraph 4

Perceptual threshold is the level of stimulus intensity necessary for you to be aware of a particular sensation. This allows you to "tune out" or focus on something else while that other thing is going on in the background. The neurons higher in the pathway dampen the perceived signal so that it does not reach the conscious brain.

How does peripheral fatigue occur? Page 393, Left column, Para 1, Lines 1-10 Mech

Peripheral fatigue, also known as fatigue within the muscle fiber could occur in extended submaximal exertion with the depletion of glycogen stores. In short-duration maximal exertion, the increased level of inorganic phosphate (Pi) produced when ATP and phosphocreatine are used for energy in muscle fiber may slow Pi increase from myosin and thereby alter the power stroke due to elevated cytoplasmic Pi

How is the effect of thyroid hormone on maturation of the reproductive system an example of permissiveness? (Teleological and Mechanistic) Chapter 7, Hormone Interactions, page 216, left column, paragraph 1, 1st-11th lines

Permissiveness is the concept that a hormone requires another hormone in order to fully express its effects. In the case of the reproductive system, thyroid hormone is needed in order for the reproductive hormones to produce normal development of the reproductive system. Without thyroid hormone, maturation of the system is delayed.

How are pheromones different from other hormones. CH 7 pg 198 right column

Pheromones act on other organisms of the same species, while hormones act on the person who released them.

Define ectohormone and give an example. (Ch 7, Hormones Are Secreted into the Blood, pg 222, paragraphs 1 and 2)

Pheromones are specialized ectohormones that act on other organisms of the same species to elicit a response. Ectohormones are signal molecules secreted into the external environment.

How does phosphocreatine function in the muscles during exercise? mechanistic approach (chapter 12, skeletal muscle contraction requires a steady supply of ATP, page 391, right column, paragraph 3, line 1-6)

Phosphocreatine, which serves as the backup energy source of muscles, transfers its high-energy phosphate group to ADP, creating more ATP to power the muscles.

What are Photo-receptors? What are the two main types? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, Photoransduction Occurs at the Retina, Page 363, first paragraph, lines 1-5

Photoreceptors are the neurons that convert light energy into electrical signals. There are two main types of photoreceptors, rods and cones, as well as a recently discovered photoreceptor that is a modified ganglion cell. - Rods function well in low light and are used in night vision, when objects are seen in black and white rather than in color. - Cones are responsible for high-acuity vision and color vision during the daytime, when light levels are higher.

How is movement classified?

Movement is classified into 3 types. Reflex movements are the least complex and are integrated primarily in the spinal cord. Postural reflexes help maintain body position as we stand or move through space. They are integrated in the brain stem, and require continuous sensory input from visual and vestibular sensory systems and from the muscles themselves. Voluntary movements require integration at the cerebral cortex, and can be initiated at will without external stimuli. P.427 Right column

How are electrical signals created by hair cells? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 10, The Ear: Hearing, page 331, right column, 3rd paragraph, line 1-2

Movement of the cochlear duct opens or closes ion channels on hair cell membranes to create electrical signals.

What is multiple sclerosis and what are some of its symptoms? (teleological approach, chapter 8, conduction is faster in myelinated axons, page 249, right column, paragraph 8, line 1-4)

Multiple sclerosis is the best-known demyelinating disease and is characterized by a variety of neurological complaints, including fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty walking, and loss of vision.

How can muscles create graded contractions of varying force if each motor unit contracts in an all-or-none manner? Chapter 12, page 421, Contraction Force, 1st paragraph, line 1-8

Muscles are composed of multiple motor units of different types; this diversity allows the muscle to vary contraction by changing the types of motor units that are active or changing the number of motor units that are responding at any one time

How does plasticity of muscles affect their classification? (pg 448, Skeletal Muscle is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, paragraph 1)

Muscles have plasticity and can shift their type depending on activity. The currently accepted muscle fiber types include slow twitch fibers, fast twitch oxidative-glycolytic fibers, and fast twitch glycolytic fibers.

Why do muscles need both muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs? (telelogical) (ch 13 pg 445 figure 13.2, a and b)

Muscles need muscle spindles because they send information from the muscles to the CNS, and golgi tendon organs consist of sensory nerve endings interwoven in the collagen fibers, and both are important functions.

What is the importance of myelin? (teleological) Chapter 8, Myelin-Forming Glia, page 233, right column, first paragraph, lines 6-8

Myelin provides support, acts as insulation around axons, and speeds up their signal transmission

Why does the conduction of action potentials down an axon occur faster in axons with high-resistance membranes? (teleological) Chapter 8, page 249, Conduction Is Faster in Myelinated Axons, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

This is so that the current leak out of the cell is minimized. Unmyelinated axons have low resistance to current leak because the entire axon membrane is in contact with the extracellular fluid, and its ion channels allow current to leak through.

Why does generalized sympathetic dysfunction, called dysautonomia, occur? (teleological) Chapter 11, page 369, Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Are Relatively Uncommon, left column, paragraph 3, lines 4-8

This may result from systemic diseases like cancer and diabetes mellitus. Other conditions, like multiple system atrophy, also cause CNS control centers for autonomic functions to degenerate.

How does the vagus nerve function in parasympathetic innervation? Chapter 11 Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control: The Autonomic Division, page 363, right column, paragraph 3, lines 2-6

This nerve carries both sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to the organs.

Why can pain in the heart and other internal organs be felt in areas far removed from the site of the stimulus? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, Nociceptor pathways, page 322, right column, second paragraph, 5-11th line

This referred pain apparently occurs because visceral and somatic sensory pain inputs converge on a single ascending tract. When painful stimuli arise in visceral receptors, the brain is unable to distinguish visceral signals from the more common signals arising from somatic receptors. As a result, it interprets the pain as coming from the somatic regions rather than the viscera

How do selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) work? (Mechanistic, Ch. 9, Pg. 299, Right column, paragraph 2, lines 6-12)

Those antidepressants work by slowing down the removal of serotonin and norepinephrine from the synapse which causes them to stay in the synaptic cleft longer, thereby increasing those transmitter-dependent activities in the post-synaptic neurons.

Why are Z-bands involved in muscle contraction? (Teleological) pg 404, paragraph 2, lines 7-9

Z bands serve as the attachment site for thin filaments.

What is the function of the pigment epithelium layer? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 346, Phototransduction Occurs at the Retina, left column, 2nd full paragraph, lines 2-4

To absorb any light rays that escape the photoreceptors, thus preventing distracting light from reflecting inside the eye and distorting the visual image

What is the function of the pons?

To act as a relay station for information transfer between the cerebellum and cerebrum, the pons is often grouped with the cerebellum. (Pg. 287, Section: The Brain Stem is the Oldest Part of the Brain, Column 2, lines: 35-38.)

How are receptors divided? (teleological) Chapter 10, page 312, Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-8

Receptors are divided into four groups based on the type of stimulus to which they are most sensitive. 1. Chemoreceptors: respond to chemical ligands that bind to receptor (ex: taste and smell) 2. Mechanoreceptors: répond to various forms of mechanical energy (ex: pressure, vibration, gravity, acceleration, and sound) 3. Thermoreceptors: respond to temperature 4. Photoreceptors respond to light for vision

Why do we study reflex pathways and what are the components of a reflex pathway? (teleological), pg. 206, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

To classify hormones and simplify learning steps that regulate their secretion. All reflex pathways have similar components- a stimulus, a sensor, an input signal, integration of the signal, output signal, one or more targets and a response.

What is the function of the cerebellum? (pg 303, The Cerebellum Coordinates Movement, paragraph 1, sentence 3)

To process sensory information and coordinate movement.

How does the process of reciprocal inhibition explain the extension of the leg? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 13, Stretch Reflexes and Reciprocal Inhibition Control Movement around a Joint, page 424, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-10

Reciprocal inhibition refers to the relaxation of the antagonistic flexor (hamstring) muscles. This allows for the contraction of the extensor muscles (quadriceps) that extend the leg.

What is the purpose of dendrites in the peripheral nervous system? (Teleological ) Chapter 8, page 231, Cells of the Nervous System, left column, 5th paragraph, lines 1-3

To receive incoming information and transfer it to an integrating region within the neuron

Describe the difference in adaptation speeds of tonic and phasic receptors. (pg 318, Figure 10.7)

Tonic receptors adapt slowly and respond for the duration of a stimulus. Phasic receptors rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off.

What is the difference between tonic receptors and phasic receptors?

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated then slow down. Phasi receptors are rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant (Duration of the Stimulus, pg. 340)

What is the difference between tonic and phasic receptors?

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present. Phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus is constant. Pg. 316, Section: Duration of the Stimulus, Column 1, lines: 8-17.

Explain the biological mechanism of referred pain. (Teleological, Chapter 10, Somatic Senses, pg. 322, right column, lines 16-20)

Referred pain is when you sense pain from a part of the body is not actually coming from. Biologically this occurs when visceral (from internal organs) and somatic sensory pain inputs converge on a single tract. The brain can't tell the difference between the visceral signals from the more common signals coming from somatic receptors, so it interprets pain as coming from somatic regions rather than viscera.

What is the final step of the muscle stretch reflex? (Teleological, Ch. 13, Autonomic Reflexes, pg. 423, top diagram)

Reflex contraction initiated by muscle stretch restores arm position and prevents damage from over-stretching.

How are reflex movements executed? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13 pg 428

Reflex movements do not require input from the cerebral cortex. Proprioceptors provide information to the spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebellum. The brain stem is in charge of postural reflexes and hand and eye movements.

How are reflex movements executed? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, The CNS integrates movement, page 428, right column, second paragraph, 1-8th line

Reflex movements do not require input from the cerebral cortex. Proprioceptors provide information to the spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebellum. The brain stem is in charge of postural reflexes and hand and eye movements. It also gets commands from the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for fine-tuning movements. The result is reflex movement

How are reflexive and declarative memories different? Chapter 9, page 325, Memory is the Ability to Retain and Recall Information, 12-14th paragraph

Reflexive memories is automatic and do not require conscious processes for either creation or recall, while declarative memories require conscious attention for its recall.

How is reflexive memory created? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 9, Brain Function, page 301, right column, 3rd paragraph, line 5-7

Reflexive memory is automatic, and is acquired through repetition.

How do tonic receptors differ from phasic receptors?

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present. Pressure-sensitive baroreceptors, irritant receptors, and some tactile receptors and proprioceptors fall into this category. In contrast, phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant. P.316 Left column

How are rhythmic movements initiated and maintained? mechanistic approach (chapter 13, page 428, movement can be classified as reflex, voluntary, or rhythmic, left column, paragraph 5, line 3-6)

Rhythmic movements are initiated and terminated by input from the cerebral cortex, but once activated, networks of CNS interneurons called central pattern generators maintain the spontaneous repetitive activity.

Explain rhythmic movements and central pattern generators?

Rhythmic movements, such as walking or running, are a combination of reflex movements and voluntary movements. Rhythmic movements are initiated and terminated by input from the cerebral cortex, but once activated, networks of CNS inter-neurons called central pattern generators maintain the spontaneous repetitive activity. P.428 Left column top

How do tonic receptors and phasic receptors differ in function? (Mechanistic), pg. 316, left column, paragraphs 2 and 3

Tonic receptors: slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated then slow and maintain their firing so long as the stimulus is present. Phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first recieve a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant. They are attuned specifically to changes in parameter. they adapt to steady states and turn off.

How does sensorineural hearing loss occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 336, Hearing Loss May Result from Mechanical or Neural Damage, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Sensorineural hearing loss arises from damage to the structures of the inner ear, including death of hair cells as a result of loud noises.

What three specializations can we divide the cortex into if we examine it from a functional viewpoint? (Mechanistic) page 291, The Cerebral Cortex Is Organized into Functional Areas, right column, paragraph 1, lines 4-7

Sensory areas (which receive sensory input and translate it into perception), motor areas (which direct skeletal muscle movement), and association areas (which integrate information from sensory and motor areas)

Why are autonomic reflexes important for homeostasis? Page 360, Left column, Para 1, Lines 1-5 tele

Sensory information from somatosensory and visceral receptors goes to homeostatic control centers in the hypothalamus, pons, and medulla. These centers monitor and regulate important functions such as blood pressure, temperature control, and water balance.

How does the cerebellum receive the sensory information that it must process to coordinate execution of movement? (mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 288, The Cerebellum Coordinates Movement, left column, paragraph 2, lines 7-11

Sensory input comes from somatic receptors int he periphery of the body and from receptors for equilibrium and balance found in the inner ear. The cerebellum also receives motor input from neurons in the cerebrum.

How does Transduction occur? (Mechanistic approach) Page 312, paragraph 2

Transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into information that can be processed by the nervous system. In many receptors, the opening or closing of ion channels converts mechanical, chemical, thermal, or light energy directly into a change in membrane potential.

How do transverse tubules contribute to the contraction of a muscle fiber? (Mechanistic Approach) Chpater 12, Muscle Fiber Anatomy, page 382, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-7

Transverse tubules (t-tubules) allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae nearly simultaneously. This is necessary for speedy Ca2+ efflux from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in order to promote contraction of a sarcomere.

A hormone that controls the secretion of another hormone is known as a _____________. Ch 7, The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones, Page 209, right column, paragraph 2, lines 5-6

Trophic Hormone.

What is the purpose of trophic hormones? (tele) 209, right, paragraph 4, lines 4-5

Trophic hormones are hormones that control the secretion of other hormones. They help in maintaining homeostasis.

How does tropomyosin prevent contraction? Mechanistic approach, Page 410, Left column, Calcium Signals initiate contraction, Paragraph 2, FIrst 3 lines and Last 3 lines

Tropomyosin in the "off" position covers actin's myosin binding site, preventing contraction.

Where is tropomyosin located in resting skeletal muscle? (pg. 407, paragraph 8, sentence 1)

Tropomyosin wraps around actin filaments and partially covers actin's myosin binding site

How do calcium signals initiate muscle contraction? Chapter 12, Skeletal muscle, page 386, left column, paragraph 5, lines 2-8

Troponin C binds to calcium and this complex pulls tropomyosin away from actin's myosin binding sites which allows formation of cross bridges to carry out power strokes to move the actin filament and continue to do so in cycles

Why is sleep considered an "active state" and why wasn't it considered that before? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, Brain Function, page 309, right column, paragraph 5, lines 1-7

Sleep used to be thought of as a passive state that resulted from withdrawal of stimuli to the brain. However, experiments have shown that neuronal activity in the ascending tracts from the brain stem to the cerebral cortex was required for sleep. Additionally, because the sleeping brain consumes as much oxygen as the awake brain, we consider sleep to be an active state.

Describe the difference between slow axonal transport and fast axonal transport? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Axons carry outgoing signals, page 231, right column, second and third paragraphs, 1-5th lines

Slow axonal transport moves material by axoplasmic or cytoplasmic flow from the cell body to the axon terminal. Material moves as a rate of only 0.2-2.5 mm/day, which means that slow transport can be used only for components that are not consumed rapidly by the cell, such as enzymes and cytoskeleton proteins. Fast axonal transport moves organelles at rates up to 400 mm per day. The neuron uses stationary microtubules as tracks along which transported vesicles and mitochondria "walk" with the aid of attached foot-like motor proteins

Why does smooth muscle use less energy to generate and maintain a given amount of force? (teleological) Chapter 12, page 404, Smooth Muscle Is More Variable Than Skeletal Muscle, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-8

Smooth muscles can develop force rapidly, but they have the ability to slow down their myosin ATPase so that the cross bridges cycle slowly and maintain their force. Thus, their use of ATP is much lower than that of striated muscles. Smooth muscle thus have less mitochondria than striated muscles and rely more on glycolysis for ATP production.

How do somatic motor pathways differ from autonomic pathways? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Somatic Motor Division, page 371, left column, first paragraph, 1-7th line

Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the CNS and projects its axon to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle. Somatic motor pathways are also excitatory while autonomic pathways may be excitatory or inhibitory.

How do somatic motor pathway differ from autonomic pathways? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The somatic motor division, page 371, left column, first paragraph, 3-7th lines

Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the CNS and projects its axon to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle. Somatic pathways are always excitatory, unlike autonomic pathways, which may be either excitatory or inhibitory

How are somatic motor pathways different from autonomic pathways? Mechanistic approach, chapter 11, The somatic Motor division, page 391, left column, paragraph 1 lines 3-7,

Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the CNS and projects its axon to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle. Somatic pathways are always excitatory, unlike autonomic pathways, which may be either excitatory or inhibitory.

How does the somatic motor pathway differ from the autonomic pathways functionally? (left column, page 371, first paragraph)

Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the CNS and projects its axon to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle. These pathways are always excitatory. Autonomic pathways usually consist of more than one neuron and can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

How does the somatic motor division differ from autonomic pathways both anatomically and functionally? Page 371, left column, para 1. Lines 1-4 Mech

Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the cns and projects its axon to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle. Somatic pathways are always excitatory, unlike autonomic pathways, which may be either excitatory or inhibitory

How does synergy work in terms of hormones? (page 215, In synergism, the effect of interacting hormones is more than additive, right column 1st paragraph)

Sometimes, when two or more hormones interact with the same target cell at the same time, their combine effects can be greater than the effects of the sum of the effects of the hormones individually.

How does a sour stimulus get recognized by the tongue, biochemically? (Mechanistic) pg 345, figure 10.14

Sour stimuli have a high proton concentration. These protons can enter the cells, which increase Calcium levels in the cytoplasm, which causes an increase in neurotransmitters, which can be released to send an action potential to the brain.

How do we categorize senses? (mechanistic approach) Page. 310, paragraph 3

Special senses are vision, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium. Somatic senses are touch, temperature, pain, itch, and proprioception.

How can some people who have damaged spinal cords retain some reflexes? (mech) 360, right, paragraph 1, lines 2-7

Spinal reflexes are influenced by descending pathways from the brain but do not require this input. Although the connection between the brain and spinal cord might be disrupted, these reflexes can be retained even if they lose the ability to sense or control them.

What type of hormone is synthesized on demand from precursors instead of made in advance and stored? And how is it transported in the blood? (Ch 7 pg 212 table 7.1)

Steroid Hormones are not made in advance. And they are transported by being bound to carrier proteins.

Why are steroid hormone molecules bound to protein carrier molecules?

Steroid hormones are not very soluble in plasma and other body fluids. Pg. 204, Section: Steroid Hormones are Derived form Cholesterol, column 2, lines: 9-11.

Why do steroid hormones have a similar chemical structure? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, The Classification of Hormones, page 204, left column, first paragraph, 1-4th line

Steroid hormones have a similar chemical structure because they are all derived from cholesterol. Steroid hormones, unlike peptide hormones, are also only made in a few organs.

How do steroid hormones move out of the cell? (Mechanistic approach) Page 204, paragraph 3

Steroid-secreting cells cannot store hormones in secretory vesicles. So they synthesize their hormone as needed. When the stimulus activates the endocrine cell, precursors in the cytoplasm are rapidly converted to active hormone. The hormone concentration rises and the hormones move out of the cell by simple diffusion.

Why can't steroid-secreting cells store hormones in secretory vesicles? (Teleological approach) Ch 7, Classification of Hormones, page 204, right column, first paragraph, line 2-4

Steroids are lipophilic and diffuse across membranes easily. This is why these hormones are made as they are needed. They move out and into cells by diffusion.

Why are cold receptors and blowing to the eye classified as labeled line coding? (Teleological) Chapter 10, page 315, Sensory Modality, paragraph 1, lines 4-7

Stimulation of a cold receptor is always perceived as cold whether the actual stimulus was cold or an artificial depolarization of the receptor. The blow to the eye causes us to "see" a flash of light.

Why are I bands named like that? (Teleological approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, page 383, left column, fifth paragraph, 2-7th line

The I from I bands comes from the word isotropic, and it is called isotropic because this region reflects light uniformly under a polarizing microscope. They are the lightest color bands of the sarcomere and represent a region occupied only by thin filaments.

What is the neuromuscular junction composed of? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 370, A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6

The NMJ has three components: (1) the motor neuron's presynaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria, (2) the synaptic cleft, and (3) the postsynaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber

What is the difference between the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) equation and the Nernst Equation for predicting Membrane Potential? (Chapter 8, Teleological, Electrical Signals in Neurons, pg. 236-237)

The Nernst equation predicts the membrane potential that would result if the membrane were permeable to only one ion. The GHK equation calculates the membrane potential that results from the contribution of all ions that can cross the membrane.

What is the difference anatomical between Wernicke's area and Broca's area? (Teleological, Ch. 9, Brain Function, pg. 303, column 1, paragraph 1, lines 5-7)

The Wernicke's area is at the junction of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobe. The Broca's area is in the posterior part of the frontal lobe close to the motor cortex.

Why are some chemical signals that require high dosages to work not considered hormones despite having overall similar characteristics? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Pg. 199, Left Column, Paragraph 6, lines 1-5)

The ability to work in low concentrations is one of the characteristics of hormones, and thus these other chemicals don't count because they don't work in low concentrations.

Why can't action potentials fire during the absolute refractory period? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 8, Action Potentials Will Not Fire during the Absolute Refractory Period, page 270, right column, 1st paragraph, lines 5-8.

The absolute refractory period is the time it takes for the Na+ channel gates to return to their resting positions. Because an action potential requires all Na+ channels to be at their original positions, an action potential cannot fire before the absolute refractory period is over.

What is the significance of having the absolute refractory period during the firing of an action potential? (teleological approach, action potentials will not fire during the absolute refractory period, line 7-12, paragraph 1, page 246, right column)

The absolute refractory period represents the time required for the Na+ channel gates to reset to their resting positions, thus preventing a second action potential to occur before the first has finished. As a result, action potentials moving from trigger zone to axon terminal cannot overlap and cannot travel backward.

How does an action potential begin? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 243, Na+ and K+ Move Across the Membrane During Action Potentials, right column, paragraph 1, lines 3-5

The action potential begins when a graded potential reaching the trigger zone depolarizes the membrane to threshold (-55 mV). Then, as the cell depolarizes, the voltage-gated Na+ channels open which makes the membrane much more permeable to Na+. Then the Na+ flows into the cell, down its concentration gradient and attracted by the negative membrane potential inside the cell.

How does opioid receptor activation block pain perception? mechanistic, Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology, Somatic Senses, left column, lines 8-10

The activation of opioid receptors blocks pain perception by decreasing neurotransmitter release from primary sensory neurons and by postsynaptic inhibition of the secondary sensory neurons.

How can synaptic activity be altered? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 8, Integration of Neural Information Transfer, page 266, right column, 4th paragraph, line 1-4

The activity can be altered by changing the structure, affinity, or number of neurotransmitter receptors.

Why are phasic receptors, rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant, important? (teleological) Chapter 10, page 316, Coding and Processing Distinguish Stimulus Properties, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

The adaption of phasic receptors allows us to filter out extraneous sensory information and concentrate on what is new, different, or essential.

How does the adrenal medula work without axons? (mech) 367, left, paragraph 3, lines 1-10

The adrenal medula is a modified sympathetic ganglion. Because it laxs axons, there are chromaffin cell secrete the neurohormone epinephrine directly into the blood.

How is the adrenal medulla involved in the sympathetic nervous system? (Mechanistic) pg 386, column 2, paragraph 1, lines 3-8.

The adrenal medulla is responsible for secreting catecholamines, such as epinephrine.

Why do efferent neurons have varicosites? (teleological approach) Ch 8, page 247, Cells of the Nervous System, right column, paragraph 2, lines 3-8

Varicosites serve as a region of the axon of efferent neurons that store and release neurotransmitter. This allows the sometimes very long efferent axons to maintain enough neurotransmitter to function without requiring ribosomal or cell body intervention

Define varicosity? (Teleological, Ch. 11, The Autonomic Division, pg. 364, column 1, paragraph 6, lines 2-4)

Varicosity is a series of swollen areas of the distal end of the autonomic postganglionic axon ends.

What is the function of vasopressin? (Teleological) Chapter 7, Control of hormone release, page 209, left column, paragraph 6, 2nd-4th lines

Vasopressin is a hormone used to regulate water balance within the body

What is another name for vasopressin and what is its function within the body? (Teleological approach, chapter 7, the posterior pituitary stores and releases two neurohormones, page 209, left column, paragraph 4, line 2-4)

Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone or ADH, acts on the kidneys to regulate water balance in the body.

Why (teological) does the posterior pituitary release vasopresin? (Chapter 7, p. 229, Subsection The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-4)

Vasopressin, which is also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), regulates the water balance in the body and prevents swelling, shrinking, and other extreme behaviors.

How does phototransduction occur in rods? Chapter 10, The eye and vision, page 349, right column, paragraphs 3 and 4

When a rod is in darkness and rhodopsin is not active, cGMP is high and CNG and K+ channels are open, resulting in depolarization at -40 mV, causing calcium to flow and release glutamate. When light activates rhodopsin, G protein is activated decreases cGMP and thus calcium flow stops and so does glutamate release, which in turn causes the release of retinal and transmits the signal.

How is spindle function maintained when the muscle contracts? (mechanistic) Chapter 13, page 423, Muscle Spindles Respond to Muscle Stretch, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-11

When alpha motor neurons fire, the muscle shortens which releases tension on the muscle spindle capsule. However, the spindle must keep functioning normally, so gamma motor neurons that innervate the contractile ends of the muscle spindle fire at the same time. This causes the spindle intrafusal fibers to contract and shorten, which pulls on the central region of the spindle and maintains stretch on the sensory nerve endings - this means the spindle remains active even while the muscle is contracting. This process where gamma and alpha motor neurons are active and firing at the same time is called alpha-gamma coactivation.

How does a muscle spindle remain active even when the muscle contracts? (Mechanistic approach)Page 424, Paragraph 1

When alpha motor neurons fire, the muscle shortens, releasing tension on the muscle spindle capsule. To keep the spindle functioning normally, gamma motor neurons innervating the contractile ends of the muscle spindle also fire at the same time. The gamma motor neurons cause the spindle intrafusal fibers to contract and shorten. This contraction pulls on the central region of the spindle and maintains stretch on the sensory nerve endings.

What occurs within the neuromuscular junction when an action potential arrives at the axon terminal?

When an action potential arrives at the axon terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open. Calcium entry causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. Pg. 392, Section: Somatic Motor Neurons and the Neuromuscular Junction, Chart 11.10, lines: none.

How does troponin regulate the off-on positioning of tropomyosin? Page 386, Left Column, Para 3, Lines 1-7 Mech

When contraction begins in response to a calcium signal, one protein of the complex-troponin C binds irreversibly to Ca2+. The calcium-troponin C complex pulls tropomyosin completely away from actin's myosin-binding sites. This "on" position enables the myosin heads to form strong, high-force cross bridges and carry out their power strokes, moving the actin filament. Contractile cycles repeat as long as binding sites are uncovered.

How (mechanistic) are sound waves converted into neural signals in the ear? (Chapter 10, Subsection The Cochlea Is Filled with Fluid, p. 357-358, right and left columns, last paragraph and first paragraph, all lines)

When hair cells move in response to sound waves, their stereocilia flex, first one way, then the other. The stereocilia are attached to each other by protein bridges called tip links. The tip links act like little springs and are connected to gates that open and close ion channels in the cilia membrane. When the hair cells and cilia are in a neutral position, about 10% of the ion channels are open, and there is a low level of tonic neurotransmitter released onto the primary sensory neuron.

Why do humans and other animals develop specific hunger? (Teleological approach) Ch 10, Chemoreception: Smell and Taste, page 329, left column, 6th paragraph, line 2-4

When humans or animals are lacking a specific nutrient, they may develop a craving for that substance.

Why does shining light into one eye cause the pupils to constrict in both eyes? (tele) 342, left and right, paragraph 3 cont, lines 1-7

When light hits the retina in one eye, this elicits a consensual reflex where the efferent neurons constrict the pupils in both eyes. This is mediated by parasympathetic fibers.

What are the five components of a sarcomere? (pg 437, Myofibrils Are Muscle Fiber contractile Structures, paragraph 2)

Z disks, I bands, A band, H zone, and M line.

What is tetanus? Ch 12, p 418, Force of Contraction Increases with Summation, left column, paragraph 2

a state of maximal contraction achieved by the muscle fiber

Why does alpha-gamma coactivation exist in the body? pg. 424, left column, Fig. 13.4, lines 1-3

alpha-gamma coactivation keeps the spindles stretched and maintains spindle function when the muscle contracts.

How do muscles get the ATP they need to be able to work? Mechanistic approach, chapter 12, Skeletal muscle contraction requires a steady supply of ATP, page 413, right column, first paragraph, lines 1-7

The amount of ATP in a muscle fiber at any one time is sufficient for only about eight twitches. As a backup energy source,muscles contain phosphocreatine, a molecule whose high energy phosphate bonds are created from creatine and ATP when muscles are at rest. When muscles become active, such as during exercise, the high-energy phosphate group of phosphocreatine is transferred to ADP, creating more ATP to power the muscles.

How is the angle of refraction affected? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 10, The Eye and Vision, page 343, left column, 3rd paragraph, line 1-5

The angle of refraction depends on the difference in density of the two medium, and the angle at which the light meets the surface of the medium it is passing into.

How (mechanistic) does a calcium signal turn muscle contraction on and off? (Chapter 12, Subsection Calcium Signals Initiate Contraction, p. 415, right column, paragraph 3, all lines)

The answer is found in troponin (TN), a calcium-binding complex of three proteins. Troponin controls the positioning of an elongated protein polymer, tropomyosin. In resting skeletal muscle, tropomyosin wraps around actin laments and partially covers actin s myosin-binding sites. This is tropomyosin's blocking or off position. Weak, low-force actin-myosin binding can still take place, but myosin is blocked from completing its power stroke, much as the safety latch on a gun keeps the cocked trigger from being pulled. Before contraction can occur, tropomyosin must be shifted to an on position that uncovers the remainder of actin's myosin-binding site.

Why is the pituitary gland called the master gland of the body? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Control of Hormone Release, page 213, left column, first paragraph, 1-5th line

The anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that control many vital functions in the body. These functions include metabolism, growth, and reproduction, all very complex processes.

How does the Central Nervous System develop from the neural plate? (mech) 277, right, paragraph one (lines 2-5) and paragraph three (lines 3-6)

The anterior portion of the neural tube specializes into the fore brain, mid brain, and hindbrain while the tube posterior to the hindbrain becomes the spinal cord. Later, the central cavity of the neural tube enlarges to form the ventricles. The central cavity also becomes the central canal of the spinal cord.

How is sensitization adaptive? Mechanistic Approach, Page 324, Right column, Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, paragraph 1 (first full paragraph), lines 6-8.

by allowing us to avoid potentially harmful stimuli

How do neurotransmitters from autonomic postganglionic neurons get to the receptors in target cell membrane? Mechanistic approach, Page 388, Right column, Autonomic pathways control smooth and cardiac muscle and glands, Pargraph 1, Lines 1-5

by being released into interstitial fluid from the varicosities to diffuse to wherever receptors are located.

How are joint receptors stimulated? Mechanistic approach, Page 445, Left column, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, Paragraph 1 after the numbered section, Lines 2-6

by mechanical distortion that accompanies changes in relative positioning of bones linked by flexible joints.

What is the importance of synaptic plasticity? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, page 260, right column, 2nd paragraph.

can enhance activity at synapse or decrease it, according to the needs at the time

How does a damaged neuron react? Page 235, Right Column, Para 3-6 Tele

The axon cytoplasm leaks out at the injury site until membrane is recruited to seal the opening. The segment of axon still attached to the cell body swells as organelles and filaments brought in by axonal transport accumulate. In distal site of axon, synaptic transmission ceases, myelin sheath unravels and microglia/phagocytes clean up.

How does control of voluntary movement occur? (Mechanistic). Chapter 13: The integrated control of body movement, page 428, right column, 4th paragraph, lines 1-5

The cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia must coordinate. This control is divided in 3 steps: 1. Decision making and planning 2. Initiating the movement 3. Executing the movement

How does the cerebrospinal fluid serve the brain and spinal cord? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 9, Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, page 280, right column, 3rd paragraph, line 1-2

The cerebrospinal fluid acts as a cushion for physical protection and maintains a specific extracellular fluid for chemical protection.

Why do we not die when there is a blow to our heads? Teleological approach, chapter 9, The brains floats in the Cerebrospinal, page 296, paragraph 3, lines 1-5.

The cerebrospinal fluid also provides protective padding. When there is a blow to the head, the CSF must be compressed before the brain can hit the inside of the cranium. However, water is minimally compressible, which helps CSF cushion the brain.

What is the most dramatic change in vertebrate brain evolution?

The change is seen in the forebrain region, which includes the cerebrum. As organisms evolve, a larger forebrain relative to other parts of the brain becomes apparent. In humans, the cerebrum is the largest and most distinctive part of the brain, with deep grooves and folds. Cerebrum makes us human by allowing reasoning and cognition. P. 277 Left column top.

How can the lens, which is clear and does not have any muscle fibers in it, change shape? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, The Eye and Vision, page 361, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-8

The ciliary muscle is a ring of smooth muscle that surrounds the lens and is attached to it by the inelastic ligaments called zonules. If no tension is placed on the lens by the ligaments, the lens assumes its natural rounded shape because of the elasticity of its capsule. If the ligaments pull on the lens, it flattens out and assumes the shape required for distance vision.

How does spatial summation differ from temporal summation?

The combination of several nearly simultaneous graded potentials is called spatial summation, which can be both excitatory or inhibitory. Summation that occurs from graded potentials overlapping in time is called temporal summation. p.266 Left column middle

How is the concentration of neurotransmitter in the synapse modulated? Autonomic Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in the Axon, page 390, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 3-8.

The concentration of neurotransmitter is determined by its rate of removal from the synapse. Neurotransmitter can be removed by diffusion out of the synapse, metabolism by enzymes, or by uptake of neurotransmitter into cells around the synapse.

Why is conduction faster in myelinated axons? Page 249, Left Column, Para 1, Lines 1-3 Tele

The conduction of action potentials down an axon is faster in axons with high resistance membranes so that current leak out of the cell is minimised. low resistance --> high contact with intracellular fluid.

Why is the corpus callosum an important structure for brain function? teleological approach (chapter 9, the cerebrum is the site of higher brain functions, column 2, page 289, paragraph 1, line 3-7)

The corpus callosum connects two hemispheres of the brain and ensures that the two hemispheres can communicate and cooperate with each other.

What is the corpus callosum and what is its purpose? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, The cerebrum is the site of higher brain functions, page 289, right column, first paragraph, 4-7th line

The corpus callosum is a distinct structure formed by axons passing from one side of the brain to the other. This connection ensures that the two hemispheres can communicate and cooperate with each other

Why is the hypothalamus so important despite the fact that it only makes up about 1% of the brain volume? (Teleological, Ch. 9, Pg. 289, paragraph 3, lines 2-7)

The hypothalamus is so important because it controls some of the most vital centers such as those for homeostasis, and behavioral drives like hunger and thirst. The hypothalamus is also important because it helps control parts of the autonomic part of the nervous system and parts of the endocrine system.

How do muscles use phosphocreatine, their backup energy source? Page 391, right column, first full paragraph.

When muscles are at rest, ATP and creatine come together to make phosphocreatine, a molecule with high-energy phosphate bonds. When muscles become active, the high-energy phosphate group from phosphocreatine gets transferred to ADP, which makes more ATP for the body to use.

Why (teological) is phosphocreatine contained in muscle cells (Chapter 12, Subsection Skeletal Muscle Contraction Requires a Steady Supply of ATP, p. 420, right column, paragraph 1, lines 4-10)

When muscles become active, such as during exercise, the high-energy phosphate group of phosphocreatine is transferred to ADP, creating more ATP to power the muscles.

What are the three layers of membrane that provide protection to the brain and what are their functions? (Telelogical, Chapter 9, The Central Nervous System, pg. 280, left column, lines 16-30)

The meninges lie between the boners and tissues of the CNS. From the bones moving inward toward neural tissue the three membranes are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater.

What is the purpose of the meninges? (Teleological, Ch. 9, Anatomy of the CNS, pg. 280, column 1, paragraph 3, lines 2-5).

The meninges lie between the bones and tissues if the CNS. They help stabilize the neutral tissue and protect it from against the bones of the skeleton.

What parts of the brain evolved the most (in vertebrates)? (teleological) Chapter 9, page 277, Evolution of Nervous Systems, left column, paragraph 8 (lines 1-8) and 10 (lines 1-6)

The most dramatic changes are seen in the forebrain (which includes the cerebrum) and in the cerebellum, which is a region in the hindbrain

Name the three components of the neuromuscular junction

The motor neuron's presynaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria, the synaptic cleft, the postsynaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber. Pg. 391, Section: A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron, Column 1, lines: 38-42.

What happens to phosphocreatine during exercise? Mechanistic, Chapter 12 Muscles: Skeletal Muscles, page 391, right column, lines 1-6

The muscles are activated and the high-energy phosphate group of phosphocreatine is transferred to ADP to make more ATP for powering the muscles.

Why (teological) is the concept of competitive inhibitor useful to the process of drug making? (Chapter 7, p. 235, Subsection Antagonistic Hormones Have Opposing Effects, left column, paragraph 2, lines 4-12)

When one molecule binds to the receptor but does not activate it, that molecule acts as a competitive inhibitor, or antagonist, to the other molecule. This type of receptor antagonism has been put to use in the development of pharmaceutical compounds, such as the estrogen receptor antagonist tamoxifen, which is used to treat breast cancers that are stimulated by estrogen.

What are the origin, ganglion location, and pathways for the parasympathetic nervous system? (Chapter 11, Mechanistic, The Autonomic Division, p. 362, figure 11.5)

The parasympathetic branch of the nervous system originates in the brainstem and sacral segments of the CNS. The ganglion location is on or close to targets. The pathways are long preganglionic, shortpanglionic neurons.

How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches different? Chapter 11, the Autonomic Division, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-11

The parasympathetic branch takes command of routine, quiet activities of day-to-day living, such as digestion (rest and digest). The sympathetic branch is dominant in stressful situations like fight-or-flight response.

How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions antagonistic in regards to the intestines? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 382, Figure 11.5

The parasympathetic division causes the intestines to increase motility and secretion, whereas the sympathetic division causes the intestines to inhibit digestion.

How does opening ion channels in cell membranes decrease membrane resistance? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 239, Current Flow Obeys Ohm's Law, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-9

The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is normally an excellent insulator, and a membrane with no open ion channels has very high resistance and low conductance. If ion channels open, ions flow across the membrane if there is an electrochemical gradient for them.

How does reciprocal inhibition occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 13, page 424, Stretch Reflexes and Reciprocal Inhibition Control Movement around a Joint, left column paragraph 4, lines 1-13

When one set of muscles in a myotactic unit (the collective unit of synergistic and antagonistic muscles that controls a single joint) contracts, the antagonistic muscles relax.

How is pain modulated during an emergency? (page 322, right column, staring with the 4th paragraph)

When survival depends on ignoring an injury, pain can be suppressed. In such emergencies, descending pathways that travel through the thalamus inhibit nocireceptor neurons in the spinal cord.

What is the function of the perceptual threshold?(Teleo) ch 10, General properties of sensory systems, pg 313, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-4

When the CNS is processing sensory information, the level of stimulus intensity necessary for you to be aware of a particular sensation.

How does a flexor differ from an extensor?

When the bones attached to a muscle are connected by a flexible joint, contraction of the muscle moves the skeleton. The muscle is called a flexor if the centers of the connected bones are brought closer together when the muscle contracts. The muscle is called an extensor if the ones move away from each other when the muscle contracts. P.379 Left column bottom

Why is fatigue highly variable? Teleological approach, chapter 12, Fatigue has multiple causes, page 414, left column, last paragraph, lines 1-4.

The physiological term fatigue describes a reversible condition in which a muscle is no longer able to generate or sustain the expected power output. Fatigue is highly variable. It is influenced by the intensity and duration of the contractile activity, by whether the muscle fiber is using aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, by the composition of the muscle, and by the fitness level of the individual.

There are many locations where hormones come from. Name three in the cranium, and an example of a hormone each secretes.

The pineal gland secretes Melatonin, the hypothalamus secretes trophic hormones, the posterior pituitary releases oxytocin and the anterior pituitary secretes prolactin. (among other hormones)

How is the pineal gland involved in affecting your biological clock? (Mechanistic) pg 229, figure 7.16

The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which is only secreted at night time, and transmits information to the brain about your sleep and wake cycle.

Why is the pinna important in detection of sound stimuli? (Teleological) pg 347,

The pinna can collect sound stimuli, and direct sound waves into the ear.

How is the pituitary gland actually two different tissue types: epithelial and nervous? (Mechanistic approach) Page 209, paragraph 2-3

The pituitary gland is actually broken down into two structures the anterior pituitary gland and the posterior pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary is a true endocrine gland of epithelial origin, derived from embryonic tissue that formed the rood of the mouth. The posterior pituitary is an extension of the neural tissue of the brain.

How does Calcium play a role in initiation of contraction of a muscle? (Mechanistic) pg 407, figure 12.8

When the calcium levels increase in the cytosol, they bind to troponin, which causes tropomyosin to move away from the myosin binding site of actin, causing myosin to be able to bind to actin and cause muscle contraction.

Describe the structure of the pituitary gland and its functions (mechanistic)

The pituitary gland is composed of 2 different tissue types that merged, with the anterior pituitary being a true endocrine gland of epithelial origin, and its hormones are adenohypophyseal secretions. The posterior pituitary, is an extension of the neural tissue of the brain. It secrets neurohormones made in the hypothalamus, region of the brain that controls many homeostatic functions. p. 209 Left Column second paragraph

How can the pituitary do what it does as a gland? pg 209 ch 7

The pituitary gland is made up of an anterior, which is a true part of the endocrine system, and a posterior that is made of neural tissue. The two merged into what we know today.

What is the function of the pons? (teleological) Chapter 9, page 287, The Brain Stem Is the Oldest Part of the Brain, right column, paragraph 8, lines 3-7

The pons acts as a relay station for information transfer between the cerebellum and cerebrum. It also coordinates the control of breathing along with centers in the medulla

How can the posterior pituitary gland regulate the amount of water in the body? (Mechanistic) pg 221, paragraph 2, line 2.

The posterior pituitary gland can release vasopressin (ADH), which then travels to the kidney in order to increase the amount of water reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

How are the postganglionic neurons associated with the adrenal medulla different from those in the normal sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways? Mechanistic approach (chapter 11, left column, the adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines, paragraph 3, page 367, line 1-7)

The postganglionic neurons of the adrenal medulla is modified into a neuroendocrine organ, thus lacking the axons that would normally project to target cells. Instead, the axonless cell bodies , called chromaffin cells, secrete the neurohormone epinephrine directly into the blood.

How does the power stroke cause movement? (mech) 388, left, paragraph 2, lines 1-8

The power stroke starts when Ca2+ binds to troponin which then uncovers the myosin binding site. The crossbridges transform into high force bonds as myosin releases P1. When P1 is released, the myosin head can move towards the M line, sliding the attached actin filament with it. In the end, the myosin head and hinge angle changes degrees from 90 to 45.

How do the two efferent neurons in the autonomic pathways differ in structure and function? (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 361, right column, under "Autonomic Pathways Have Two Efferent Neurons in Series", paragraph 1, lines 1-9

The preganglionic neuron is from the central nervous system and projects to an autonomic ganglion outside of the central nervous system. The postganglionic neuron is the second neuron in the pathway that has a cell body in the ganglion and projects its axon to the target tissue.

How does signal transduction occur in hair cells that are in the cochlea? (mechanistic approach) ch 10, pg 332, The Ear: Hearing, right column, paragraphs 1-3, lines 2-23

When the cochlea picks up vibrations due to sound waves, it vibrates through the entire ear and into the fluid of the cochlea. The vibrations cause hair cells in the cochlea to move, which are attached to ion channels on the membrane. The mechanical vibrations cause the channels to be pulled open, eventually causing a depolarization.

What are the primary neurotransmitters and what do they have in common? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 11, Autonomic neurotransmitters are synthesized in the Axon, page 385, paragraph 2, lines 2-6

The primary autonomic neurotransmitters are acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine, both small molecules easily synthesized by cytoplasmic enzymes.

Why do patients with Parkinsons have to take a precursor of dopamine rather than dopamine itself? (Teleological), pg,. 431, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

The primary current treatment of Parkinson's is with drugs that enhance dopamine activity in the brain. Patients have to take L-dopa, a precursor to dopamine, because dopamine cannot cross the blood brain barrier. This precursor is later metabolized to dopamine.

How is the resting membrane potential of living cells determined? Mechanistic approach, chapter 8, Ion movement creates Electrical signals, page 250, right column, second to last paragraph, lines 1-4.

The resting membrane potential of living cells is determined primarily by the K+ concentration gradient and the cell's resting permeability to K+ , Na+ , and Cl- . A change in either the K+ concentration gradient or ion permeabilites changes the membrane potential.

How does hypokalemia affect the cell's resting potential? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, 252, Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Nervous System, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-5

The resting potential is hyperpolarized due to low K+ blood concentration

Why does the breakdown of the myelin sheath cause the transmission of electrical signals to slow down? (Teleological) pg 264 Fig 8.16

When the myelin sheath breaks down, the ions can leak out of the channel. As a result, there is less depolarization to activate the nearby sodium channels.

Why is the role of the sympathetic nervous system important? Teleological approach, Chapter 11, The autonomic Division, page 379, left column, first paragraph, lines 1-5.

The role of the sympathetic nervous system in mundane daily activities is as important as a flight-or-fight response. For example, one key function of the sympathetic branch is control of blood flow to the tissues. Most of the time, autonomic control of body function "seesaws" back and forth between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches as they cooperate to fine-tune various processes

Why is the sliding filament theory of contraction supported over other previous models? Chapter 12, skeletal muscle, page 385, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

The sarcomere does shorten, Z disks move closer together, I band and H zone almost entirely disappear, but the A bond remains constant indicated that shortening of myosin cannot be the mechanism but which contraction occurs and that instead the filaments engage in a sliding motion

What is a sarcoplasm of a skeletal muscle cell made of, and what is the most important part? Why? (teleological) (Ch 12, pg 402, figure 12.3)

The sarcoplasm is made of sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibrils, mitochondria, and glycogen molecules, and the myofibrils are important because they are then broken up into thick and thin filaments that are organized into the sarcomere.

Why is the sarcoplasmic reticulum important? (Teleological approach) Page 382, paragraph 2

The sarcoplasmic reticulum concentrates and sequesters CA2+ with the help of CA2+ -ATPase in the SR membrane. Calcium release from the SR creates calcium signals that play a key role in the contraction in all types of muscle.

Describe the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

The sarcoplasmic reticulum concentrates and sequesters Ca2+ with the help of a Ca2+ -ATPase in the SR membrane. Pg. 382, Section: Muscle Fiber Anatomy, Column 1, lines: 16-18.

How does the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a form of modified endoplasmic reticulum, function? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Muscle fiber anatomy, page 382, left column, second paragraph, 6-10th line

The sarcoplasmic reticulum concentrates and sequesters Ca2+ with the help of a Ca2+ -ATPase in the SR membrane. Calcium release from the SR creates calcium signals that play a key role in contraction in all types of muscle

How does contraction end? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscles, page 389, left column, 7th paragraph, line 1-5

The sarcoplasmic reticulum pumps Ca 2+ back into its lumen, the free cytosolic Ca 2+ concentration decreases and the equilibrium between bound and unbound Ca 2+ is disturbed causing calcium release from troponin.

What are convergent neuron patterns? Ch 8 mg 260 right column

When the number of pre-synaptic neurons delivering the message is greater than the number of post-synaptic neurons receiving them.

Why is the nucleus the ultimate destination of steroid receptor-hormone complexes? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 7, Steroid Hormones Are Derived from Cholesterol, page 204, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-6

The steroid receptor-hormone complex is primarily transported to the nucleus to act as a transcription factor where it binds to DNA to either activate or repress one or more genes.

How do the nervous system and endocrine system overlap in structure and function? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 207, Many Endocrine Reflexes Involve the Nervous System, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

The stimuli are integrated by the central nervous system, and this influences the release of hormones through efferent neurons through efferent neurons. Some specialized neurons can secrete neurohormones. Two of the endocrine structures are in the anatomy of the brain, the pineal gland and pituitary gland.

What are the stimuli that initiate the movement of reflex? (Teleological, Ch. 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, pg. 427, bottom chart)

The stimulus is the primary external via sensory receptors with minimally voluntary

How are synapses classified? Mechanistic, Chapter 8 Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties: Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Nervous System

electrical or chemical, depending on the type of signal that passes from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell

How is a physical or chemical stimulus converted into a change in membrane potential? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 10, Sensory transduction converts stimuli into graded Potentials, page 331, Right column, second paragraph, lines 2-7

The stimulus opens or closes ion channels in the receptor membrane, either directly or indirectly (through a second messenger). In most cases, channel opening results in net in flux of Na+ or other cations into the receptor, depolarizing the membrane. In a few cases, the response to the stimulus is hyperpolarization when K+ leaves the cell. In the case of vision, the stimulus (light) closes cation channels to hyperpolarize the receptor.

How is physical or chemical stimulus converted into a change in membrane potential? Chapter 10, Sensory Transduction Converts Stimuli into Graded Potentials, 4th paragraph, lines 2-8

The stimulus opens or closes ion channels in the receptor membrane, either directly or indirectly (through a second messenger). In most cases, channel opening results in net influx of Na+ or other cations into the receptor, depolarizing the membrane.

How is a physical or chemical stimulus converted into a change in membrane potential? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, Sensory transduction converts stimuli into graded potentials, page 312, right column, second paragraph, 2-6th line

The stimulus opens or closes ion channels in the receptor membrane, either directly or indirectly. In most cases, channel opening results in net influx of Na+ or other cations into the receptor, depolarizing the membrane. In a few cases, the response to the stimulus is hyperpolarization when K+ leaves the cell

How do smell stimuli get transferred to the brain? (Mechanistic) pg 343, figure 10.13

The stimulus travels to the olfactory neurons, which travel via the cranial nerve to the olfactory bulb, then to the olfactory tract, then olfactory cortex, then to the cerebral or limbic cortex.

How is a physical or chemical stimulus converted into a change in membrane potential? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 312, Sensory Transduction Converts Stimuli into Graded Potentials, right column, paragraph 4, lines 2-6

The stimulus upon or closes ion channels in the receptor membrane (directly or indirectly), usually resulting in a net influx of Na+ or other cations into the receptors, which depolarizes the membrane

What is the meaning of the suffix -tropin? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 7, The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones, page 233, right column, 7th paragraph, lines 103.

The suffix -tropin means "pertaining to food or nourishment" and hormones that end with it nourishes its target cell.

What determines whether glutamate is excitatory or inhibitory as a neurotransmitter? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 10, Signal Processing Begins in the Retina, page 352, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-2.

The type of glutamate receptor (metabotropic receptor vs ionotropic receptor) on the bipolar neuron determines whether or not glutamate is excitatory or inhibitory.

Why is the vagus nerve important to the somatic nervous system? (Teleological) pg 381, paragraph 5, lines 1-6

The vagus nerve is important in the parasympathetic division. The vagus nerve contains many parasympathetic nerve fibers, and can carry parasympathetic signals throughout the body.

What is the vestibular apparatus and what does it consist of? (Teleological/Mechanism, Ch. 10, The Ear: Equilibrium, pg. 337, column 2, paragraph 1, lines 2/5-7)

The vestibular apparatus is an intricate series of interconnected fluid-filled chambers. It consists of three saclike otolith organs, the saccule, the utricle, and three semicircular canals.

How do the visual pigments in the photoreceptors of the cones in the eye allow us to see color? (Ch 10, pg 365, last paragraph on right, pg 366, paragraph 1 on left

The visual pigments are excited by different wavelengths of light, which carry different energies. Each cones are most sensitive to a particular wavelength, and these get converted to membrane potential in the back of the eye, which travels on the optic nerve to the visual cortex.

What type of temperature receptor is more common and why? (teleological approach) ch 10, pg. 340, Temperature Receptors are Free Nerve Endings, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-10

There are more cold receptors than warm receptors in a significant amount. This is because it is significantly more like for a hostile environment to be fatal due to cold than due to heat.

Why are goiters, enlarged thyroid glands, common in the Andes? teleological-Chapter 7 Introduction to the Endocrine System: Hormones, page 197, right column, second paragraph, lines 6-8

There is a deficiency of iodine needed to make thyroid hormones.

Why is there a latent period between the muscle action potential and the beginning of muscle tension development? (Teleological, Ch 12, Pg 389, right column, paragraph 1, lines 7-11)

There is a short latent period exists because the calcium needs to be released and bind to the troponin as the action potential is not the final signal, the calcium is.

Why can't neurons be activated immediately after depolarization? Chapter 8, Electrical signals in neurons, page 246, , right column, paragraphs 1 and 2

There is an absolute refractory period in which the neuron cannot be depolarized again because the sodium channels are being repositioned to their resting position and cannot be activated no matter how strong the stimulus. There is a relative refractory period, where it can be activated, but this is a few milliseconds after and requires a stronger than usual signal because of hyper-polarization.

What is the difference between the negative feedback loops of an exogenous and endogenous hormone?

There is not difference they have the same negative feedback loop.(Negative Feedback From Exogenous Hormone, Figure 7.13, pg.241)

How do organophosphate insecticides work? Page 368, right column, para 1. Lines 1-3 Mech

They act as cholinesterase inhibitors, also called anticholinesterases, are indirect agonists that block ACh degradation and extend the active life of each ACh molecule. Sustained contraction of breathing muscles causes respiration failure in insects.

How are hormones antagonistic if they do not compete for the same receptor? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Hormones, page 227, left column, paragraph 2, lines 6-12

They act through different metabolic pathways, or one hormone may decrease the number of receptors for the opposing hormone (i.e. growth hormone decreases number of insulin receptors).

Just before a spinal nerve joins the spinal chord, the nerve breaks off into two roots. What are they called, and why does it do this? (teleological) (Ch 9, pg 298, paragraph 2 under The Spinal Chord, and pg 299, paragraph 1 on left)

They are called the dorsal and ventral roots. They break off because they specialize into carrying sensory information from the muscles to the CNS (dorsal) or delivering information from the CNS out to the muscles (ventral).

Why are action potentials sometimes called "all-or-none"? (Ch. 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, pg. 242, column 2, paragraph 4, lines 2-4).

They are called this because they either occur as a maximal depolarization (if stimulus reaches threshold) or it doesn't occur at all (stimulus is below the threshold).

How do nicotinic cholinergic receptors function? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 373, The Somatic Motor Division, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6

They are chemically gated ion channels with two binding sites for acetylcholine. When acetylcholine binds, the channel opens. In skeletal muscle, this lets Na+ into the cells, depolarizing them and triggering an action potential that causes a contraction

How are hormones classified? Chapter 7, The Classification of Hormones, 1-2 paragraph, page 225

They are classified according to schemes, and there are multiple schemes. One scheme is arranged by which hormones are released by the brain and which one aren't. Another one is classified by which receptors they bind to. A final scheme divides it into three main classes: peptide hormones, steroid hormones, and amine hormones

What are satellite cells and how do they function in the body? Mechanistic, Chapter 12 Muscles: Skeletal Muscles, page 379, right column, paragraph 2, lines 7-9

They are committed stem cells that lie just outside the muscle fiber membrane. When needed for muscle growth and repair, they are activated to differentiate into muscle.

How are myosin molecules composed? Chapter 12, page 406, Myofibrils Are Muscle Fiber Contractile Structures, 2nd paragraph

They are composed of protein chains that interwove to form a long tail and a pair of tadpole-like heads. The rod-like tail is stiff but the protruding myosin heads have an elastic hinge region where the heads join the rods.

Why is hormone function considered "evolutionary conserved?" (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Hormone Evolution, page 230, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-11

They are considered "evolutionary conserved" because they have changed extremely little from the most primitive vertebrates to mammals. Hormones that were once considered exclusive to vertebrates are now seen in invertebrates. Additionally, some hormones from other organisms have biological activity when administered to humans.

What are tonic receptors purpose?(Teleo) ch 10, somatic senses, pg 316, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

They are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present typically requiring the body to monitor the parameters.

How are joint receptors stimulated?

They are stimulated by mechanical distortion that accompanies changes in the relative positioning of bones linked by flexible joints. Pg. 421, Column 2, section: Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, lines : 12-14.

How do hormones get a signal through the cell? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Cellular Mechanism of Action of Peptide Hormones, page 202, right column, paragraph 1, line 1-3

They can't enter the cell because hormones are lipophobic! Hormones bid to the surface membrane receptors and the hormone-receptor complex initiates the cellular response by signal transduction.

How do skeletal muscles communicate with one another? Chapter 13, page 451, last paragraph, line 1-5

They cannot communicate directly so they send messages to the CNS, allowing the integrating centers to take charge and direct movement.

What are some properties of drives?

They create an increased state of CS arousal or alertness, they create goal-oriented behavior, and they are capable of coordinating disparate behaviors to achieve that goal. P.299 Top left column.

How do hormones bind to target cell receptors and initiate biochemical responses? (Mechanism, Ch. 7, Hormones, pg. 209, column 2, paragraph 3, lines 2-3).

They do this through a response called cellular mechanisms of action.

Why are action potentials considered "all-or none"?

They either occur as a maximal depolarization if the stimulus reaches threshold, or do not occur at all if the stimulus is below threshold. The strength of the graded potential that initiates an action potential has no influence on the amplitude of the action potential. P.242 Right column middle page.

Why are action potentials called all-or-none phenomena? CHapter 8, page 256, Action Potentials Travel Long Distances, second paragraph, lines 1-7

They either occur as a maximal depolarization or do not occur at all.

Why are flexor extensor muscle pairs classified as antagonistic muscle groups? (pg 433, fig 12.2)

They exert opposite effects; flexion moves bones closer together and extension moves bones away from each other.

Why are amputees sometimes able to fell a phantom limb pain (they feel pain in the limb that they no longer have)? (Teleological, Ch. 10, Pg. 315, Left Column, Paragraph 3, lines 4-7)

They feel pain because secondary sensory neurons in the spinal cord become hyperactive which makes it feel like they are receiving information from that limb even though it is no longer there.

How are tonic receptors considered slowly adapting? mechanistic, Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology, Somatic Senses, left column, second paragraph, lines 1-3

They fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present.

How do astrocytes form a functional network to carry out various functions such as taking up and releasing chemicals, providing neurons with substrates for ATP production, and helping to maintain homeostasis? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 233, Establishing Synapses Depends, right column, paragraph 7, lines 1-9

They form a functional network by communicating with each other through gap junctions.

Why do pseudohypoparathyroidism patients show signs of low parathyroid hormones despite normal or elevated blood levels of the hormone? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 218, Receptor and Signal Transduction Abnormalities, left column, 1st full paragraph, lines 7-11

They have inherited a genetic defect in the G protein that links the hormone receptor to adenylyl cyclase, so the signal transduction pathway does not function and signs of hormone deficiency appear because target cells cannot respond to parathyroid hormone

How do postural reflexes function? Chapter 13, page 451, Movement Can be Classfieid As Reflex, Voluntary, or Rhythmic, 4th paragraph, lines 1-5

They help maintain body position. They require continuous sensory input from visual and vestibular (inner ear) sensory systems and from the muscles themselves. This provides information about proprioception

How do the hypothalamus, pons and medula work together? (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 360, Figure 11.2, under Integration of autonomic function

They initiate autonomic, endocrine and behavioral responses. They take in a sensory input which is recieved by hypothalamic sensors or somatic and visceral sensory neurons which alert the pons, medulla and hypothalamus which then leads to autonomic, endocrine and behavioral responses.

What do the parathyroid endocrine cells monitor?

They monitor plasma Ca2+ concentration with the aid of G protein-coupled Ca2+ receptors on their cell membranes. Pg. 206, Section: The Endocrine Cell is the Sensor in Simple Endocrine Reflexes, column 2, lines: 11-13.

What do proprioceptors do?

They monitor the position of our limbs in space, our movements, and the effort we exert in lifting objects. Pg. 420, Section: Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, column 2, lines: 19-21.

How does primary autonomic failure occur? Chapter 11, Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Are Relatively Uncommon, last paragraph, lines 3-9

They occur when sympathetic neurons degenerate.With continuing diminished sympathetic input, target tissues upregulate, in whcih the abundance of receptor leads to denervation hypersensitivity. This is state in which the administration of exogenous adrenergic agonists causes a greater-than-expected response.

Why are glial cells so important for neurons? (Teleological approach) Page 233, Paragraph 4

They outnumber neurons 10-50 to 1. Although glial cells do not participate directly in the transmission of electrical signals over long distances, they do communicate with neurons and provide important biochemical support. The PNS has two types: Schwann cells and satellite cells and the CNS has four types: oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, and ependymal cells.

How do myelinated axons help to boost conduction? CH 8 pg 273 Left column

They prevent the signal from fading and seeping out of the axon so that by the time it reaches the terminal, the signal is still there.

How do the diffuse modulatory systems regulate brain function? (page 294, right column, 2nd paragraph under The Behavioral State System Modulates Motor Output)

They regulate brain function by influencing attention, motivation, wakefulness, memory, motor control, mood, and metabolic homeostasis.

Why are voluntary movements considered the most complex type of movement? Chapter 13, page 451, Movement Can be Classfieid As Reflex, Voluntary, or Rhythmic, 4th paragraph, lines 4-9

They require integration at the cerebral cortex, and they can be initiated at will without external stimuli. They become better over time with practice.

What do vanilloid receptors (TRPV1) respond to? (Mechanistic, Chapter 10, pg. 322, Somatic Senses, left column, lines 11-13)

They respond to damaging heat and capsaicin- chemical that makes hot chili peppers burn your mouth.

How do a few sympathetic postganglionic neurons (such as those that terminate on sweat glands) differ from the usual? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 383, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-5

They secrete ACh rather than norepinephrine and are therefore called sympathetic cholinergic neurons.

How do axons of embryonic nerve cells find their target cell? (Pg. 244, paragraph 1, sentence 1)

They send out growth cones that extend through the extracellular compartment until they find their target cell.

What components do all reflex pathways have in common? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Control of Hormone Release, pg. 216, paragraph 3, lines 3-5)

They share a stimulus, a sensor, an input signal, integration of the signal, an output signal, one or more targets, and a response.

How do thermoreceptors respond? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 320, Somatic Senses, right column, paragraph 3, lines 3-10

They slowly adapt between 20-40 degrees celsisus and their initial response tells us temperature is changing. Sustained response tells us about ambient temperature. they use cation channels called transient receptor potential to initiate an action potential

How is the choroid plexus functional to the human body? Chapter 9, The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid, 5th paragraph

They're a network of cells that is selective about which substances it transports into the ventricles. As a result, the composition of the cerebrospinal fluid is different from that of the plasma.

Why are autonomic reflexes known as visceral reflexes? (Teleological approach) Chapter 13, Autonomic Reflexes, page 420, left column, second paragraph, 1-4th line

They're known as visceral reflexes because they often involve the internal organs of the body.

How are microglia helpful to the human body? Chapter 8, page259, Microglia, paragraph 1-10

They're specialized immune cells that reside permanently in the CNS. When activated, they remove damaged cells and foreign invaders. However, sometimes they form free radicals which can cause neuro degenerative disease

Why is it important that the portal system allows a small amount of hormone to remain concentrated in a small volume of blood while it goes directly to its target? (teleological) Chapter 7, page 211, A Portal System Connects the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary, right column, paragraph 2, lines 11-15

This is important because it allows a small number of neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus to control the anterior pituitary.

Why does K+ rather than Na+ enter hair cells when cation channels open? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, page 332, left column, 2nd paragraph.

endolymph, secreted by epithelial cells in cochlear duct, has higher concentrations of K+ than Na+

Name the four lobes of the cerebral hemisphere. (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, The Cerebrum is the Site of Higher Brain Functions, page 304, left column, first paragraph, lines 8-9

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

What allows neurons to pass electrical signals directly between cells? Ch 8, p 238, left column, paragraph 3

gap junctions

Which section of the Diencephalon is responsible for maintaning homeostasis and contains centers for various behavioral drives, such as hunger and thirst? (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, The Diencephalon Contains the Centers for Homeostasis, page 303, right column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-4

hypothalamus

How does cocaine function in the nervous system? (Ch 11, p 387, Autonomic Agonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine, left column, paragraph 2)

it is an indirect agonist that blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine into adrinergic nerve terminals, which block's norepinephrine's excitatory effects

What are the functions of titin (Mechanistis approach) ch12 pg 404

it stabilizes the position of the contractile filaments and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length.

Why do graded potentials lose strength as they move through the cytoplasm? Ch 8, p 252, Graded Potentials Reflect Stimulus Strength

leak channels allow positive charge to leak out from the cell into the ECF and cytoplasm provides resistance to electricity

How are peptides synthesized and processed? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 203, Peptide Hormone Synthesis and Processing , figure 7.3

mRNA binds to amino acids into preprohormone. Chain goes to ER lumen by signal sequence. Enzymes chop signal sequence creating inactive pro hormone. Pro hormone passes form ER through Golgi complex. Secretory vesicles containing enzyme and pro hormone bud off Golgi, enzyme chop pro hormone into one or more active peptides and additional peptide fragments. Secretory vesicle erases its contents by exocytosis into extracellular space. Hormone moves into circulation for transport to target.

Inside the neuron, recycled norepinephrine is either repackaged into vesicles or broken down by ___________________ __________________. (Mechanistic) Ch 11, Autonomic Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in the Axon, page 385, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 7-9.

monoamine oxidase (MAO),

What is the synapse between a postganglionic autonomic neuron and its target cell called? (Ch 11, p 384, Autonomic Pathways Control Smooth and Cardiac Muscle and Glands, left column, paragraph 1)

neuroeffector junction

What are catecholamines? Ch 7, Some Hormones are Derived from Single Amino Acids, page 21, right column, paragraph 2, lines 2-5

neurohormones that bind to cell membrane receptors the way peptide hormones do.

How do nicotinic cholinergic receptors work? Page 373, left column, para 3. Lines 1-4 Mech

nicotinic cholinergic receptors are chemically gated ion channels with two binding sites for ACh. When ACh binds to the receptor, the channel opens and allows monovalent cations to flow through. In skeletal muscle, net Na+ entry into the muscle fiber depolarizes it, triggering an action potential that causes contraction of the skeletal muscle cell.

What is the simplest way a membrane can change permeability to ions? Ch 8, p 250, Gated Channels Control the Ion Permeability of the Neuron

opening and closing gated channels right column, paragraph 1

How does convergence create large receptive fields? mechanistic approach Pg 337, Figure 10.2.a, Left image.

primary sensory neurons with overlapping secondary receptive fields then converge upon another neuron, thus creating a larger receptive field in which stimuli will be perceived as a single point.

Why do physicians measure levels of c-peptide in the blood of diabetics to determine insulin production? page 202, right column, 1st para lines 1-4 tele

pro-hormone pro-insulin is cleaved into active insulin and an inactive component called c-peptide. this is an example of pro-hormone post-processing

What are the three types of muscle? Ch 12, p 399, left column paragraph 3 - right column paragraph 1

skeletal, smooth, striated

How are slow and fast axonal transport different from each other? (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 231, right column, paragraph 3 and 4, lines 1-2 and lines 1-3

slow axonal transport moves material by axoplasmic or cytoplasmic flow from the cell body to the axon terminal while fast axonal transport moves organelles at rates faster and goes in two directions- forward (anterograde) and backward (retrograde).

Why do some hormones seem to be evolutionarily 'on their way out' in humans? Telelogical Approach, Pg 267, Hormone Evolution, Right column, Lines1-4

some hormones are known to be important in other species, but seem to have little to no significant influence in humans.

What is the first step in sound transduction? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, page 332, Figure 10.17.

sound waves trike the tympanic membrane and become vibrations

What is the basic pattern of a reflex? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, page 227, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 6-7.

stimulus --> sensor --> input signal --> integrating center --> output signal --> target --> response

What information flows the the nervous system? (Mechanistic approach) Ch8 Pg227

stimulus -> sensor -> input signal -> integrating center -> output signal -> target -> response

How does lateral inhibition occur? (mechanistic approach) Ch 10, p 332, Coding and Processing Distinguish Stimulus Properties, left column, paragraph 2

the secondary neuron closest to the stimulus suppresses the responses of neurons lateral to it

How do the main subtypes of beta receptors differ? (Ch 11, p 385, Autonomic Receptors Have Many Subtypes, right column, paragraph 4)

they differ in their affinity for catecholamines

Where do most sympathetic pathways originate? (Ch 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, right column, paragraph 2)

thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord

Describe the pathway for norepinephrine release and removal at the sympathetic neuroeffector junction. Figure 11.7 on page 365

1. The action potential arrives at the varicosity. 2. Calcium channels open from depolarization. 3. Calcium entry triggers the release of synaptic vesicles. 4. Norepinephrine binds to the adrenergic receptor on target. 5. the receptor is no longer active when norepinephrine diffuses away from the synapse. 6. Norepinephrine can enter the neuron it was released from. 7. Norepinephrine can be packaged inside a vesicle for re-release. 8. Monoamine oxidase can metabolize norepinephrine.

Hormones act on their target cells in three basic ways. What are they? What system and type of cell secretes them? (Ch 7 pg 207 paragraph 1 on right, pg 208, paragraph 3 on right)

1. controlling the rates of the enzymatic reactions 2. controlling the transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes 3. controlling gene expression and synthesis of proteins Hormones are secreted by endocrine system, by endocrine cells, neurons, and cytokines in the immune system.

Describe the portal system that connects the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, A portal system connects the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, page 211, right column, first paragraph, 5-11th line

A portal system consisting of two sets of capillaries connected in series by a set of small veins. Hypothalamic neurohormones enter the blood at the first set of capillaries and go directly through the portal veins to the second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary, where they diffuse out to reach their target cells

Explain what a Portal System is. Ch 7, A Portal System Delivers Hormones from Hypothalamus to Anterior Pituitary, page 223, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-3

A portal system is a specialized region of the circulation consisting of two sets of capillaries connected in series (one after the other) by a set of larger blood vessels. There are three portal systems in the body: one in the kidneys, one in the digestive system, and this one in the brain.

How do A(beta) fibers help block pain transmission? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, Somatic Senses, page 339, right column, paragraph 1, lines 2-8

A(beta) fibers synapse on the inhibitory interneurons and enhance the interneuron's inhibitory activity. If simultaneous stimuli reach the inhibitory neuron from the A(beta) and C fibers, the integrated response is partial inhibition of the ascending pain pathway so that the pain perceived by the brain is lessened.

Why does each side of the brain control the opposite side of the body? (teleological) Chapter 9, page 287, The Brain Stem is the Oldest Part of the Brain, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4

About 90% of the corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite side of the body in a region of the medulla called the pyramids. The corticospinal tracts are responsible for conveying information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord.

Why is the term "rigor mortis" known as muscles freezing? Teleological approach, chapter 12, Myosin Head step along actin filaments, page 408, right column, fifth paragraph, liens 1-6

After death, however, when metabolism stops and ATP supplies are exhausted, muscles are unable to bind more ATP, so they remain in the tightly bound rigor state. In the condition known as rigor mortis, the muscles "freeze" owing to immovable crossbridges.

How can damaged neurons be replaced? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 8, Can Stem Cells Repair Damaged Neurons?, page 260, left column, 6th paragraph, lines 3-8.

After development, some neural stem cells remain undifferentiated. When neurons are damaged, a signal is sent to these undifferentiated stem cells to replace whatever neurons are damaged.

What are the different types of sensory receptors and what do they respond to? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, Receptors are sensitive to particular forms of energy, page 312, left column, first paragraph, 1-6th line

Chemoreceptors respond to chemical ligands that bind to the receptor. Mechanoreceptors respond to various forms for mechanical energy, including pressure, vibration, gravity, acceleration, and sound. Thermoreceptors respond to temperature, and protoreceptors for vision respond to light

How are receptors organized into groups? Chapter 10, Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy, 4th paragraph, lines 3-8

Chemoreceptors respond to chemical ligands; mechanoreceptors respond to various forms of mechanical energy, thermoreceptors respond to temperature, and photoreceptors for vision respond to lights.

How does cocaine interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters? mechanistic approach (chapter 11, autonomic agonists and antagonists are important tools in research and medicine, page 367-368, right and left column, paragraph 2, line 1-4)

Cocaine serves as an indirect agonist that blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine into adrenergic nerve terminals, thereby extending norepinephrine's excitatory effect on the target.

Why is the cochlea important for hearing? teleological approach (chapter 10, the cochlea is filled with fluid, page 331, right column, paragraph 1, line 1-2)

Cochlea is important for hearing because it is the inner ear that contains sensory receptors for hearing. In another word, it serves as the place where the transduction of wave energy into action potentials take place.

Why are some people born color-blind? Chapter 10, The eye and vision, page 349, right column, paragraph 2, lines 5-9

Color-blindness is a condition in which a person inherits a defect in at lease one of the three types of cones and as a result has a difficult time distinguishing some colors. The most common is red-green color blindness where individuals have trouble discerning between the two

What are the three types of cone pigment and what color do rods perceive?

Cone have red, blue and green pigment and rods perceive black and white. (Figure 10.31, pg. 373)

How (mechanistic) are peptide hormones able to elicit response from the target cell despite their lipophobicity (Chapter 7, p. 222, Subsection Cellular Mechanism of Action of Peptide Hormones, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-8)

Because peptide hormones are lipophobic, they are usually unable to enter the target cell. Instead, they bind to surface membrane receptors. The hormone-receptor complex initiates the cellular response by means of a signal transduction system. Many peptide hormones work through cAMP second messenger systems, while others have tyrosine kinase activity or work through other signal transduction pathways.

Why do skeletal muscles send messages to the CNS? Telelogical approach, Page 451, Left column, The integrated Control of body movement, Lines 1-3

Because skeletal muscles cannot communicate with each other directly.

Why does action potential either happen full out or not at all? pg 242 right column

Because there is a minimum threshold required that if not reached, will not start action potential.

How is growth hormone similar to prolactin? (Mechanistic Approach, Ch. 7, Pg. 213, Left Column, 2nd paragraph, lines 5-7)

Both are the only two anterior pituitary hormones with hypothalamic release-inhibiting hormones.

How are sympathetic and parasympathetic branches different chemically? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches of the Nervous System, page 420, right column, paragraph 4, lines 3-10

Both branches release acetylcholine onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors on the postganglionic cells. Sympathetic neurons also secrete norepinephrine onto target cells, while parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto muscarine cholinergic receptors.

How do lenses correct near-sightedness (myopia) and far-sightedness (hyperopia)? Mechanistic approach. page 369, Right column, The lens focuses light on the retina, Paragraph 2, Lines 7-9.

By changing the refraction of light entering the eye.

How do hormones act on their target cells? mechanistic-Chapter 7 Introduction to the Endocrine System: Hormones, page 197, left column, bottom paragraph, lines 7-10)

By controlling the rates of enzymatic reactions, by controlling the transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes, or by controlling gene expression and the synthesis of proteins

How is movement around the most flexible joints in the body controlled? Mechanistic approach, Page 448, left column, Stretch Reflexes and Reciprocal Inhibition Control Movement around a joint, Paragraph 1, Lines 1-3

By synergistic and antagonistic muscles that act in a coordinated fashion

How are hormones classified? Pg 249, Right column, All of paragraph 1, Lines 1-3 of paragraph 2.

By their source, whether they are controlled by brain or not, the type of receptor that they bind to, by their chemical classes.

How can you chemically distinguish between sympathetic and parasympathetic branches? (Mechanistic approach)

Can be distinguished by their neurotransmitters and receptors. 1) Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglion neurons release ACh onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors on postgangloionic cells. 2) Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell. 3) Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors on the target cell.

What is Cardiac tissue? pg 378

Cardiac tissue is muscle tissue found only in the heart that has a sole purpose of moving blood through the body.

Why is Ca2+ not part of the GHK equation? (Pg. 249, paragraph 4, sentence 2)

Cells at rest normally are not permeable to Ca2+. Since the GHK equation takes into account an ion's concentration gradient as well as its membrane permeability

How is the neural tube formed? (mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 277, The CNS Develops from a Hollow Tube, left column, paragraph 6, lines 1-9

Cells that will become the nervous system are in a flattened region of the early embryo, which is called the neural plate. At about day 20 of development, these cells along the edge migrate toward the midline. By age 23, the neural plate cells fuse together to create the neural tube. The neural crest cells (from the lateral edges of the neural plate) will lie dorsal to the neural tube, and the lumen of the neural tube will remain hollow and become the central cavity of the CNS.

Why is the cerebrospinal fluid important? Telelogical approach, page 304, Right column, The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid, Paragraph 3, Line 1-2

Cerebrospinal fluid is important for physical protection and chemical protection

Why is the cerebrospinal fluid necessary in the CNS? (tele) 280, right, paragraph three, lines 1-4

Cerebrospinal fluid serves as physical and chemical protection for the brain and spinal cord. The buoyancy of the fluid reduces the weight of the brain by nearly 30 times, which puts less pressure on the blood vessels and nerves that are attached.

What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, The brain floats in cerebrospinal fluid, page 280, right column, third paragraph, 1-6th line

Cerebrospinal fluid serves two purposes: physical protection and chemical protection. The brain and spinal cord float in the thin layer of fluid between the membranes. The buoyancy of the cerebrospinal fluid reduces the weight of the brain nearly 30-fold. Lighter weight translates into less pressure on blood vessels and nerves attached to the CNS

Why is cystic fibrosis considered channelopathies? (Teleological Approach), pg. 239, Under Clinical Focus, lines 3-9

Channelopathies are inherited diseases caused by mutations in ion channel proteins. Cystic fibrosis is a common channelopathy because it results from defects in chloride channel function. Because ion channels are so closely linked to the electrical activity of cells, many channelopathies are disorders of nerve and muscle tissues.

How do chemical factors alter electrical activity? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, Chemical Factors Alter Electrical Activity, page 251, left column, first paragraph, lines 1-10

Chemicals alter the conduction of action potentials by binding to Na+, K+, or Ca2+ channels in the neuron membrane. For example, some neurotoxins bind to and block Na+ channels. If Na+ channels are not functional, Na+ cannot enter the axon. A depolarization that begins at the trigger zone then cannot be replenished as it travels; it loses strength as it moves down the axon, much like a normal graded potential. If the wave of depolarization manages to reach the axon terminal, it may be too weak to release neurotransmitter.

What are the different types of receptors and what do they do?

Chemoreceptor respond the chemical ligands that bind to the receptor, such as oxygen, pH, various organic molecules such as glucose. Mechanoreceptors respond to various forms of mechanical energy, including pressure, vibration, gravity, acceleration, and sound. Thermoreceptors respond to temperature, and photoreceptors for vision respond to light. P.312 Ch. 10 Left top column

How (mechanistic) are the different types of receptors (chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors) distinct from each other? (Chapter 10, Subsection Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy, p. 336, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-9)

Chemoreceptors respond to chemical ligands that bind to the receptor (taste and smell, for example). Mechanoreceptors respond to various forms of mechanical energy, including pressure, vibration, gravity, acceleration, and sound (hearing, for example). Thermoreceptors respond to temperature, and photoreceptors for vision respond to light.

How are hormones in the bloodstream degraded? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Hormone action must be terminated, page 199, right column, second paragraph, 1-7th line

In general, hormones in the bloodstream are degraded into inactive metabolites by enzymes found primarily in the liver and kidneys. The metabolites are then excreted in either the bile or the urine. The rate of hormone breakdown is indicated by a hormone's half-life in the circulation, the amount of time required to reduce the concentration of hormone by one-half

What is the difference between long-loop negative feedback and short-loop negative feedback? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Feedback loops are different in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathway, page 213, left column, second/third paragraphs, 1-5th/2-5th lines

In hypothalamic-pituitary pathways, the dominant form of feedback is long-loop feedback, where the hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland "feeds back" to suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary and hypothalamic hormones. In short-loop negative feedback, a pituitary hormone feeds back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus

Describe the two types of tetanus?

In incomplete, or unfused tetanus, the stimulation rate of the muscle fiber is not at a maximum value, and thus the fiber relaxes slightly between stimuli. In complete, or fused, tetanus, the stimulation rate is fast enough that the muscle fiber does not have time to relax. Instead, it reaches maximum tension and remains there. P.396 Left column bottom.

What does convergence allow for?

Convergence allows for multiple simultaneous subthreshold stimuli to sum at the postsynaptic (secondary) neuron. Pg. 312, Section: A Sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field, Column 2, lines: 34-36.

How do graded potentials lose strength as they move through the cytoplasm? mechanistic, Chapter 8 Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties: Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 242, paragraph 2, lines 3-12

Current leak-open leak channels allow positive charge to leak into ECF Cytoplasmic resistance-cytoplasm provides resistance to the flow of electricity

What causes graded potentials to lose strength as they move through the cytoplasm? (Pg. 252, paragraph 4 number 1 and 2)

Current leak: open leak channels allow positive charge to leak into the extracellular fluid Cytoplasmic resistance to the flow of electricity

Why do parkinson's patients take L-Dopa instead of just dopamine? (Telelogical, CH 13, PG 431, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-7)

Dopamine by itself is not able to cross the blood-brain barrier. L-Dopa, however, is a precursor to dopamine which is able to cross the blood-brain barrier. L-Dopa is metabolized to dopamine after it has crossed the blood brain barrier.

Why do patients with Parkinsinon's Disease get treated with L-dopa instead of Dopamine? (Teleological) pg 457, paragraph 5, lines 3-5.

Dopamine cannot cross the blood brain barrier, so treating a Parkinson's patient with dopamine will yield no treatment. However, L-dopa can cross the blood brain barrier, and can then be converted into dopamine, once past the blood brain barrier.

Why do Parkinson's patients take L-dopa, a precursor of dopamine, instead of dopamine itself? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 13, Symptom's of Parkinson's Disease Reflect Basal Ganglia Function, page 431, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, so patients take L-dopa, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and is then metabolized to dopamine.

What hypothalamic hormone targets the breast?

Dopamine(Figure 7.9, pg.236)

How is degree of folding related to levels of processing? (Mechanistic Approach) pg. 289, right column, under The Cerebrum Is the Site of Higher Brain Function, paragraph 2, lines 3-8

During development, the cerebrum grows faster than the surrounding cranium causing the tissue to fold back on itself to fit into a smaller volume. The degree of folding is directly related to the level of processing of which the brain is capable. Less advanced mammals have a smooth surface. The human brain on the other hand is very convoluted.

Why does the surface of the cerebrum in humans and other primates have a furrowed, walnut-like appearance? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, The Brain, page 304, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-9

During development, the cerebrum grows faster than the surrounding cranium, which causes the tissue to fold back on itself to fit into a smaller volume. The degree of folding is also directly related to the level of processing of which the brain is capable (less-advanced mammals have brains with relatively smooth surfaces).

Why are modest exercise programs of brisk walking an effect way to reduce body fat? (teleological) Chapter 12, page 392, Skeletal Muscle Contraction Requires a Steady Supply of ATP, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

During rest and light exercise, the skeletal muscles burn fatty acids along with glucose. This process requires oxygen.

What occurs at the end of a power stroke? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12, page 385, Myosin Crossbridges Move Actin Filaments, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 4-6

Each myosin head releases actin, then swivels back and binds to a new actin molecule, ready to start another contractile cycle.

How (mechanistic) does the structure of the myosin protein assist in achieving its function? (Chapter 12, Subsection Myofibrils Are the Contractile Structures of a Muscle Fiber, p. 409, right column, paragraph 7, lines 1-8)

Each myosin molecule is composed of protein chains that intertwine to form a long tail and a pair of tadpole-like heads. The rodlike tail is stiff, but the protruding myosin heads have an elastic hinge region where the heads join the rods. This hinge region allows the heads to swivel around their point of attachment.

The tympanic membrane separates the external ear from the middle ear, an air-filled cavity that connects with the pharynx through a structure called the __________ ____________. (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, The Ear, Hearing, page 346, right column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-3

Eustachian tube

Why are flexion reflexes slower than stretch reflexes? (Teleological, CH 13, Pg 425, Left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 6-12)

Flexion reflexes are slower because it is polysynaptic instead of monosynaptic.

Why must hormones be the feedback signal in endocrine reflexes? Page 214, right column, 1st para, lines 1-3

For most anterior pituitary hormone pathways, there is no single response that the body can easily monitor. The hormones act on multiple tissues and have different, often subtle effects in different tissues. There is no single parameter such as blood glucose concentration that can serve as a signal for negative feedback.

Why are hormones the feedback signals for complex endocrine reflexes? (Teleological Approach), Chapter 7, Feedback Loops Are Different in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Pathway, page 214, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-7

For most anterior pituitary hormone pathways, there is no single response that the body can easily monitor; the hormones act on multiple tissues and have different, subtle, effects in different tissues.

How has studying humans living with Parkinson's helped researchers? Chapter 13, page 454, Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-5

From studying patients, scientists have learned that the basal ganglia play a role in cognitive function and memory as well as in the coordination of movement.

Which lobe of the brain is closest to the gustatory cortex?

Frontal Lobe (Figure 9.13, pg. 316)

How do G protein-coupled receptors create slow synaptic potentials and modify the cell metabolism? (mechanistic) (ch 8 pg 276, figure 8.23)

G protein-coupled receptors mediate slow responses from neuromodulators and create long-term effects. It requires more steps that an ion channel because they require activated second messenger pathway and a coordinated intracellular response.

What is the role of growth hormones? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, page 213, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 2-7.

GH affects metabolism of many tissues and stimulates hormone production by the liver.

How do the skeletal muscle proprioceptors: Golgi tendon Organ and Muscle spindles differ in function? (Mechanistic approach) Page 421, Paragraph 6-9

GTO is responsible for muscle tension and is only active when the muscle is under contraction. Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that send information to the spinal cord and brain about muscle length and changes in muscle length.

How is spatial rotation sensed in relation to the structure of the ear? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 10, The Semicircular Canals Sense Rotational Acceleration, page 337, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-7

Head turning causes the bony skull and the membraneous walls of the labyrinth to move. During this process, however, the fluid within the labyrinth cannot keep up because of inertia; in the ampullae, the drag of the endolymph bends the cupola and its hair cells in the direction opposite to the direction in which the head is turning.

How are hormones bound to target membrane receptors terminated? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Hormone action must be terminated, page 201, right column, third paragraph, 1-7th line

Hormones bound to target membrane receptors have their activity terminated in several ways. Enzymes that are always present in the plasma can degrade peptide hormones bound to cell membrane receptors. In some cases, the receptor-hormone complex is brought into the cell by endocytosis, and the hormone is then digested in lysosomes. Intracellular enzymes metabolize hormones that enter cells

How do hormones act on their target cells? Chapter 7, Hormones, Page 197, left column, fourth paragraph, lines 7 - 11

Hormones can act by either controlling the rates of enzymatic reactions, controlling the transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes, or by controlling gene expression and protein synthesis.

How (mechanistic) can we explain contraction of muscles involving actin and myosin filaments (Chapter 12, Subsection Actin and Myosin Slide Past Each Other During Contraction, p. 412, left column, paragraph 4, all lines)

Huxley and Niedergerke were two scientists who realized that shortening of the myosin molecule could not be responsible for contraction. Subsequently, they proposed an alternative model, the sliding lament theory of contraction. In this model, overlapping actin and myosin laments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction.

What is hypersecretion and how does it occur? (mech) 216, right, paragraph three, lines 2-5

Hypersecretion is when a hormone is present in excessive amonts and the normal effects of the hormone are exaggerated. Causes include benign tumors and cancerous tumors of the endocrine glands.

What causes hypokalemia and what occurs during this condition? (mechanistic approach, chapter 8, chemical factors alter electrical activity, page 252, right column, paragraph 5, line 1-7)

Hypokalemia occurs when blood K+ concentration falls too low, causing the resting membrane potential of the cells to hyperpolarize, moving farther from threshold. This condition show up as muscle weakness because the neurons that control skeletal muscles are not firing normally.

Goiter, which results from an iodine deficiency, is an example of what? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, page 217, right column, 1st paragraph.

Hyposecretion

How does hyposecretion affect a hormone's effects? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Hyposecretion Diminishes or Eliminates a Hormone's Effects, page 217, right column, paragraph 1, lines

Hyposecretion - when too little hormone secreted Hyposecretion affects negative feedback loops. The absence of negative feedback causes trophic hormone levels to rise.

What is the effect of hormone deficiency when too little hormone is secreted? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Endocrine Pathologies, pg. 228, column 1, paragraph 2, lines 2-4)

Hyposecretion; this may occur anywhere along the endocrine control pathway (i.e.: in the hypothalamus, pituitary, or other endocrine glands)

Name the 12 Cranial Nerves in order. (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, The Cranial Nerves, page 309, table 9.1

I Olfactory II Optic III Oculomotor IV Trochlear V Trigeminal VI Abducens VII Facial VIII Vestibulocochlear IX Glossopharyngeal X Vagus XI Spinal Accessory XII Hypoglossal

What is the difference between primary and secondary pathology? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Diagnosis of endocrine pathologies depends on the complexity of the reflex, page 218 left column, second paragraph, 1-7th line

If a pathology arises in the last endocrine gland in a complex reflex pathway, the problem is considered to be a primary pathology. If dysfunction occurs in the anterior pituitary, the problem is a secondary pathology

How does muscle contraction and relaxation occur? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 444, right column, paragraph 5, lines 2-10

If muscle contraction is the appropriate response, the CNS activates somatic motor neurons to the muscle fibers. If a muscle needs to be relaxed, sensory input activates inhibitor interneurons in the CNS. The interneurons then inhibit activity in somatic motor neurons controlling the muscle.

What effect can mutations have on pathologies? (Ch 7, pg 241, Receptor or Second Messenger Problems Cause Abnormal Tissue Responsiveness, paragraph 4, sentence 2)

If mutations alter the protein sequence of the receptor, the cellular response may be altered, absent, or nonfunctional.

Why is tension important to the cillary muscle? pg. 343, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-8

If no tension is placed on the lens by the ligaments, the lens assumes its natural rounded shape because of elasticity of its capsule. If the ligaments pull on the lens, it flattens out and assumes the shape required for distance vision.

What happens to a neuron if it is damaged? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 8, pg 235

If the cell body dies, the entire neuron dies. If the cell body is intact and only the axon is severed, the cell body and attached segment of axon survive. While the section of axon separated from the cell body usually degenerates slowly and dies.

What happens to a neuron if it is damaged? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 235, Can Stem Cells Repair Damaged Neurons, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-6

If the cell body dies, the entire neuron dies. If the cell body is intact and only the axon is severed, the cell body and attached segment of axon survive while the section of axon separated from the cell body usually degenerates slowly and dies because axons lack the cellular organelles to make essential proteins

What is acetylcholinesterase?

It is the enzyme that rapidly deactivates ACh in the matrix by degrading it into acetyl and choline. P.371 Right column.

What does phosphocreatine do? pg 391 right column

It acts as muscles back up energy source in order to account for ADP and ATP failure

Why is it important to limit the duration of ACTH therapy? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, page 305, figure.

Long-term suppression of endogenous hormone secretion by ACTH can cause CRH- and ACTH-secreting neurons to atrophy, resulting in lifelong cortisol deficiency.

How do M cells differ from P cells? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, The Eye and Vision, page 370, left column, paragraph 5, lines 2-7

M cells and P cells are the two predominant types of retinal ganglion cells. M cells are large and are more sensitive to information about movement. P cells are smaller and are more sensitive to signals that pertain to form and fine detail such as the texture of objects in the visual field.

How do mitochondria get to the axon terminals? (mechanistic) (CH 8 pg , 271, 287, paragraph 8)

Mitochondria reach the axon terminal by fast axonal transport along microtubules.

Define and locate antagonistic control.

Most internal organs are under antagonistic control, in which one autonomic branch is excitatory and the other branch is inhibitory. Pg. 380, Section: Antagonistic Control Is a Hallmark ofthe Autonomic Division, coulumn 2, lines: 4-6

What are muscle spindles? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 13, Muscle spindles respond to Muscles stretch, page 446, left column, third paragraph, lines 1-5.

Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that send information to the spinal cord and brain about muscle length and changes in muscle length. They are small, elongated structures scattered among and arranged parallel to the contractile extrafusal muscle fibers.

Why are dendrites an important part of the peripheral and nervous systems? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 231, left column, fourth paragraph, 1-7th line

In the peripheral nervous system, the primary function of dendrites is to receive incoming information and transfer it to an integrating region within the neuron. In the central nervous system, dendritic spines can function as independent compartments, sending signals back and forth with other neurons in the brain. They can also contain polyribosomes that make their own proteins.

How does a synergistic interaction work? (mechanistic)

In this type of interaction, two or more hormones interact at their targets so that the combination yields a result that is greater than additive. In other words, the combined effect of the two hormones is greater than the sum of the effects of the two hormones individually. p.215 right column

Why does your body have the fight-or-flight response? (Teleological approach) Page 359, paragraph 6

It is prepares our body for what unknown event is about to occur. The body does this by speeding up the heart rate and pumping more blood to the skeletal muscles in preparation.

Why (teological) is the refractory period for communication (Chapter 8, p. 264, Subsection Action Potentials Will Not Fire During the Absolute Refractory Period, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-5)

Refractory periods limit the rate at which signals can be transmitted down a neuron. The absolute refractory period also ensures one-way travel of an action potential from cell body to axon terminal by preventing the action potential from traveling backward.

How do skeletal muscles relax? (Mechanistic, Ch 13, Pg 420, Right Column, 2nd Paragraph, 1-7)

Relation happens where there is no excitatory impulse transmitted by somatic motor neurons.

Why do researchers use leeches and mollusks to study neural networks? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, Evolution of Nervous Systems, page 276, right column, third paragraph, 2-9th line

Researchers study leeches and mollusks because the neurons in these species are ten times larger than human brain neurons. Their neural networks are also the same from animal to animal, and this provides us with a simple model we can apply to more complex networks.

What role do Schwann cells play in the body? (Teleological Approach), pg. 371, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-8

Schwanna cells secrete a variety of chemical signal molecules that play a critical role in formation and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions.

Why must hormone activity be terminated? (Ch 7, pg 223, Hormone Action Must Be Terminated, paragraph 1, sentence 1)

Signal activity by hormones and other chemical signals must be of limited duration if the body is to respond to changes in its internal state.

How do motor neurons and muscles work together? (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 373, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-10

Somatic motor neurons are necessary for muscle health. Without communication between motor neurons and the muscle, the skeletal muscles for movement and posture weaken and so do the skeletal muscles for breathing.

How do somatic motor neurons differ from autonomic neurons? (Mechanistic approach) Page 359, paragraph 3

Somatic motor neurons control skeletal muscles and autonomic neurons control smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, many glands, and some adipose tissue.

How are somatic motor pathways different from autonomic pathways? (Mechanistic, Ch. 11, Pg. 371, Left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-7)

Somatic motor pathways are composed of one neuron which originates in the CNS and projects it axon onto the target tissue. Furthermore that target tissue is always a skeletal tissue. Somatic pathways are also always excitatory whereas autonomic pathways can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

What is the difference between somatic reflexes and autonomic reflexes? (Teleological). Chapter 13: Neural Reflexes, page 418, left column, 6th paragraph, lines 1-5

Somatic reflexes involve somatic motor neurons and skeletal muscles. Autonomic reflexes are those whose responses are controlled by autonomic neurons

What is the meaning of a vestigial hormone? Page 220, left hormone, 1st para, lines 1-4

Some endocrine structures that are important in lower vertebrates are vestigial in humans, meaning that in humans these structures are minimally functional glands.

Why do humans need sleep? Teleological approach, Chapter 9, Why do we sleep, Page 309, last paragraph, lines 1-8

Some explanations that have been proposed include to conserve energy, to avoid predators, to allow the body to repair itself, and to process memories. A number of recent studies have shown that sleep deprivation impairs our performance on tasks and tests, but also that 20-30 minute "power naps" can help make up a sleep deficit.

How do the beta receptors work?

The 3 main subtypes of sympathetic beta receptors differ in their affinity for catecholamines. B1-receptors respond equally strongly to norepinephrine and epinephrine. B2-receptors are more sensitive to epinephrine than to norepinephrine. B3-receptors, which are found primarily on adipose tissue, are innervated and more sensitive to norepinephrine than to epinephrine. P.366 Right column top.

Why is the opening of Potassium channels important in the action potential? (Teleological) pg 256, Figure 8.9

The Potassium channels opening allows for the voltage across the membrane to reset. When the Potassium ions go through the channels, the voltage will hyperpolarize again, since thePotassium ions will travel to the outside of the membrane.

Why is the epinephrine/glucagon interaction considered to be synergism? (Teleological) Pg 226, paragraph 2, lines 3-4

Normally, when you have two hormones (such as epinephrine and glucagon), you would expect the resulting response to be equal to the sum of their individual responses. However, when both are present, the response is greater than the sum.

What is the nature of pain?

Pain is a subjective perception, the brain's interpretation of sensory information transmitted along pathways that begin at nociceptors, which are neruons with free nerve endings that respond to a variety of strong noxious stimuli that cause or have the potential to cause tissue damage. Pain is highly individual and multidimensional, and may vary with a person's emotional state. P. 320 right column bottom.

How do people with Parkinson's disease differ from healthy people? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, The Integrated Control of Body Movement, page 431, left column, first paragraph, 5-10th line

Parkinson patients have tremors in the hands, arms, legs, and particularly at rest. They also have difficulty initiating movement and walk slowly with stooped posture and shuffling gait. They lose facial expression, fail to blink, and may develop depression, sleep disturbances, and personality changes.

What is a hormones half life? Ch 7 pg 201

The amount of time required to reduce the concentration of the hormone in half. This shows how long it will be active.

Why does the blind spot exist? (teleological approach) ch 10, pg 362, Phototransduction Occurs at the Retina, right column, paragraphs 4, lines 10-15

The blind spot exists where the optic disk exists. Because there are so many neurons/axons/blood vessels connected and exiting the eye at this point, there is simply no room for any photoreceptors, causing an area where no light can be picked up.

Name and define the two components of the nervous system.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons and efferent neurons. Pg. 227, Section: Organization of the Nervous System, Column: 2, lines 20-23.

How does the cerebrospinal fluid protect the brain physically? (Mechanistic, Ch. 9, Pg. 280, Right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4)

The cerebrospinal fluid acts as a padding for the brain in the case of blows to the head. If the head is hit, the cerebrospinal fluid must compress before the brain can hit the inside of the cranium. Water is minimally compressible which helps the CSF protect the brain.

Explain how cerebrospinal fluid physically protects the brain? (Teleological, Chapter 9, The Central Nervous System, pg. 280, right column, lines 20-30)

The cerebrospinal fluid acts as protective padding around the brain. Because the CSF is minimally compressible, when the head is hit the CSF cushions the blow to the brain.

Why is the cerebrospinal fluid important? (teleological) Chapter 9, page 280, The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid, right column, paragraph 3-6

The cerebrospinal fluid provides physical and chemical protection, physical padding, creates a closely regulated extracellular environment of regulated extracellular environment for neurons, exchanges solutes with the interstitial fluid of the CNS and provides a route by which wastes can be removed

What is the function of the Choroid Plexus?

The choroid plexus cells selectively pump sodium and other solutes from plasma into the ventricles, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water along with the solutes. (Pg. 280, Section: The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid, Column 2, lines: 5-8.)

How is information transferred in a chemical synapsis? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 8, Cell-to-Cell Communication in Nervous System, page 254, left column, 2nd paragraph, line 4-7

The electrical signal of the presynaptic cell is converted into a neurocrine signal that crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to a receptor on the target cell.

How does the embryo develop the neural tube? (Mechanistic) pg 290, figure 9.2

The embryo develops a neural plate by day 20, which then folds itself into the neural tube by having its cells migrate to their corresponding locations.

Why are the endocrine and nervous systems linked? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 7, Many Endocrine Reflexes Involve the Nervous System, page 231, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-11.

The endocrine system is alerted to a body's stress level or emotional state by the nervous system, which prompts the production and/or release of neurohormones to affect the body's physiology.

Why is the introduction of exogenous hormone, such as cortisol, problematic? Chapter 7, Endocrine Pathologies, page 217, left column, third paragraph,

The exogenous hormone, like cortisol, can act as a negative feedback signal and shut off production of trophic hormones, in the case of cortisol CRH and ACTH. The glands that are constantly shut off and inhibited may then begin to atrophy and may be unable to regain normal function after consistent use of the exogenous hormone.

Why (teological) does the skull encase the eye? (Chapter 10, Subsection The Skull Protects the Eye, p. 366, left column, first paragraph, all lines)

The eyes are protected by a bony cavity, the orbit, which is formed by facial bones of the skull. Accessory structures associated with the eye include six extrinsic eye muscles, skeletal muscles that attach to the outer surface of the eyeball and control eye movements. Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI innervate these muscles.

What is one advantage to cephalic brains? (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 276, Evolution of Nervous Systems, right column, 2nd full paragraph, lines 3-7

The head is the part of the body that first contacts the environment as the animal moves, so as brains evolved, they became associated with specialized cephalic receptors such as the eyes for vision and chemoreceptors for smell and taste.

What is an example of rhythmic movement in visceral muscles?

The heart and digestive tract have spontaneously depolarizing muscle fibers often called pacemakers that give rise to regular, rhythmic contractions (Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles, pg.458)

Why are some types of smooth and cardiac muscle able to generate their own action potentials? (teleological) Chapter 13, page 431, Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles, right column, paragraph 5, lines 6

The heart and digestive tract, for example, have spontaneously depolarizing muscle fibers called pacemakers. They allow for regular, rhythmic contractions so that the muscles can generate their own action potentials without dependence on an external signal.

How do the blood capillaries in the blood brain barrier protect the brain? (Mechanistic Approach) Page 282, Paragraph 2-3

The highly selective permeability of brain capillaries shelters the brain from toxins and from fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances such as neurotransmitters in the blood. In the brain capillaries' endothelial cells form tight junctions that prevent solute movement between the cells as opposed to in most leaky cell-cell junctions and pores that allow free exchange.

Why must hormone activity be limited in duration? (Teleological approach) Ch 7, Hormones, page 199, right column, 4th paragraph, line 1-3

The hormone activity has to be limited, because if the activity is allowed to continue on, the body would not be able to respond to internal changes.

How does long-loop negative feedback work in hypothalmic-pituitary pathways? (Mechanistic Approach, Ch. 7, Pg. 213, Left Column, 5th paragraph, lines 1-5)

The hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland feed back to suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary and hypothalmic hormones.

Why is the hypothalamus important in bodily function? (Teleological approach) Ch 11, The Hypothalamus, page 413, right column, paragraph 4, lines 2-8

The hypothalamus is involved in homeostasis. Disruption of the hypothalamus may affect the body's ability to regulate water balance or temperature

Why is the hypothalamus an important part of the brain? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, The Brain, page 289, left column, second paragraph, 1-7th line

The hypothalamus is the center for homeostasis and contains centers for various behavioral drives like hunger and thirst. Output from the hypothalamus also affects functions of the autonomic division of the nervous system.

Which parts of the brain initiate autonomic endocrine, and behavioral response? How do these parts of the brain do this? (mechanistic) (Ch 11, pg 379, figure 11.2)

The hypothalamus, pons and medulla initiate these responses, and they do so by channeling sensory input from either the hypothalamic sensors or somatic and visceral sensory neurons in exchange with the limbic system and the cerebral cortex. These parts of the brain relay information to form an autonomic response, which leads to an endocrine response.

What is important about the somatic neuron motor neurons? pg 361 right column

The importance of these neurons is the fact that they communicate and relay signals from our brain to our muscles. Without them we would have a bunch of useless muscles.

Why is the plasticity of the brain important to its functioning? (p 289, Emergent Properties of Neural Networks, paragraph 3, lines 3-5)

The network of the brain can easily restructure itself based on sensory input, learning, and emotional processes. This quality is what separates the brain from computer.

How are muscle spindles consistently active? (pg 423, Muscle Spindles Respond to Muscle Stretch, paragraph 2)

The presence of gamma motor neurons in a normal muscle keeps the muscle spindles active, no matter the length.

How does your body carry out a fight-or-flight response? mechanistic Chapter 11 Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control: The Autonomic Division, page 359, right column, paragraph 4, lines 3-10

The sympathetic response is mediated through the hypothalamus. The brain triggers substantial simultaneous sympathetic discharge throughout the body. As the body prepares to fight/flee, the heart speeds up, blood vessels to muscles of the arms, legs, and heart dilate, and the liver starts to make glucose for muscle contraction energy. Blood is diverted from the GI tract to skeletal muscles.

How (mechanistic) are the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches different in terms of the location of peripheral ganglia? (Chapter 11, Table Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches, p. 398)

The sympathetic system has peripheral ganglia primarily in paravertebral sympathetic chain as well as 3 outlying ganglia located alongside descending aorta. In contrast, the parasympathetic system has peripheral ganglia located primarily on or near target organs.

What is the difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways to the target cell? (Ch 11, pg 383 figure 11.6)

The sympathetic uses acetylcholine between neurons and norepinephrine to the adrenergic receptor of the target cell, while the parasympathetic uses only acetylcholine, and attaches to the muscarinic receptor.

Why are tight junctions important to the nervous system? (Teleological) pg 296, figure 9.5

The tight junctions are important in the blood brain barrier, since they can prevent solute movement between endothelial cells, which is paramount to the blood brain barrier.

How do isometric contractions work? (Mechanistic), pg. 399, left column, paragraph 2, lines 3-6

They are contractions that create force without moving a load. They are also called static contractions. The muscle is stimulated and there is tension but the force created is not enough to move the load. Muscles create force without shortening significantly.

Why are Golgi tendon organs important for movement? teleological approach (chapter 13, golgi tendon organs respond to muscle tension, page 421, left column, paragraph 3, line 3-7)

They are important because Golgi tendon organs provide sensory information to Central Nervous System integrating centers. The sensory information from the golgi tendon organs combines with feedback from muscle spindles and joint receptors to allow optimal motor control of posture and movement.

What is the function of Nociceptors?(Teleo) ch 10, Somatic Senses, pg 320, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4

They are neurons with free nerve endings that respond to a variety of strong noxious stimuli that cause or have the potential to cause tissue damage.

Why are neurotrophic factors needed? (Teleological, Ch. 8, Pg. 232, right column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-5)

They are secreted by neurons and glial cells and are necessary to maintain the survival of neural pathways.

How are neurotransmitters synthesized? Chapter 11, Autonomic Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in the Axon, 1st paragraph, lines 1-5

They are synthesized in the axon varicosities. Then they are packaged into synaptic vesicles for storage. Primary autonomic neurotransmitters like ACh and norepinephrine are synthesized by cytoplasmic enzymes.

Why (Teleological Approach) are microglia potentially bad for the cell? How (Mechanistic Approach) could they cause neurodegenerative diseases? pg. 235, Under Microglia, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

They can remove damaged cells and foriegn invaders. But sometimes they are not helpful. Activated microglia sometimes release damaging reactive oxygen species that form free radicals. The oxidative stress caused by ROS can contribute to neurodegenerative diseases like ALS.

How do anticholinesterases like parathion and malathion kill insects? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 368, Autonomic Agonists and Antagonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine, right column, 1st paragraph, lines 2-4

They kill insects by causing sustained contraction of their breathing muscles so that they are unable to breathe.

Why are astrocytes important to the nervous system? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 245, left column, paragraph 4, lines 5-14

They take up and release chemicals at some terminals, provide neurons with substrates for ATP production and help maintain homeostasis in the CNS extracellular fluid by taking up K+ and water. Additionally, some terminals surround blood vessels and are part of the blood-brain barrier that regulates the movement of materials between blood and extracellular fluid.

How can single-cell organisms carry out basic tasks of life: finding food, finding a mate, etc. despite not having a brain or any integrating center? (mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 275, Evolution of Nervous Systems, right column, paragraph 4, lines 2-8

They use the rising membrane potential that exists in living cells and many of the same ion channels as more complex animals to coordinate their daily activities necessary for live.

Why are muscles in a tightly bound rigor state after death?(Teleological approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, page 388, left column, fifth paragraph, 1-7th line

This condition is known as rigor mortis, and this happens because when we die, metabolism stops and ATP supplies are exhausted. This means that muscles are unable to bind more ATP so they remain tightly bound. The muscles freeze because the cross-bridges are immovable.

How is neurotransmitter activation of its receptor terminated? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 366, Autonomic Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in the Axon, left column, paragraph 3, lines 5-8

This happens when the neurotransmitter: 1. Diffuses away 2. Is metabolized by enzymes in the extracellular fluid 3. Is actively transported into cells around the synapse

How does the body supply the brain with its high oxygen demands? (Mechanistic approach) Page 283, paragraph 6

Through the blood pumped to the brain. The brain receives about 15% of the blood pumped by the heart. If blood flow to the bran is interrupted, brain damage occurs after only a few minutes without oxygen.

What is the function of the tight junctions between cells in the blood brain barrier?

Tight junctions prevent solute movement between endithelial cells( The Blood Brain Barrier Protects the Brain, figure 9.5, pg. 306)

What are examples of exceptions to dual antagonistic innervation? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 361, left column, Antagonistic Control is a Hallmark of the Autonomic Division, paragraph 3

Tissues like sweat glands and the smooth muscle in most blood vessels, which are innervated only by the sympathetic branch and rely strictly on tonic control

Name the two functions of Titin. (Mechanistic) Chapter 12, Myofibrils are Muscle Fiber Contractile Structures, Page 404, right column, 3rd paragraph, 1st 4 lines

Titin (1) Stabilizes the position of contractile filaments and (2) its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length.

Why is the sarcomere-associated protein titin elastic by necessity? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 12, Myofibrils Are Muscle Fiber Contractile Structures, page 383, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-5

Titin has a major elastic role in the sarcomere contraction unit: it helps stabilize the position of contractile filaments and returns muscles to their resting length after contraction (during relaxation).

How do tonic receptors respond to stimuli? (mech) 316, left, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated. As time goes on, they slow down and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present.

How are tonic receptors different from phasic receptors? (Mechanistic, Ch. 10, Pg. 316, Left Column, Paragraphs 2 and 3, entirety of the two paragraphs)

Tonic receptors will continue firing the signal for as long as the stimulus is present. Initially, they fire rapidly but then they slow down (but still continue to fire the signal). Phasic receptors on the other hand are the receptors that will stop firing if that stimulus persists at the same strength. These phasic receptors are more sensitive to the variations in the strength of the signal rather than the exact strength of the signal.

How do troponin and tropomyosin's functions related? (Mechanistic), pg. 386, paragraph 2, lines 1-9, left column

Troponin is a calcium-binding complex of 3 proteins and controls the positioning of an elongated protein polymer (tropomyosin). Tropomyosin wraps around actin filaments and partially covers actin's myosin-binding sites which is the "off" position. Before contraction can occur, tropomyosin has to be shifted to the "on" position. This off-on position of tropomyosin is regulated by troponin.

How does a calcium signal turn muscle contraction on and off? (Mechanistic approach) Page 386, paragraph 3

Troponin, a calcium-binding complex of three proteins. Troponin controls the positioning of an elongated protein polymer, tropomyosin. In resting phase tropomyosin partially covers actin's myosin-binding sites. For contraction to occur, tropomyosin must be shifted to an "on" position that uncovers the remainder of the actin's myosin binding site.

How is troponin related to troponomyosin? Mechanistic, Chapter 12 Muscles: Skeletal Muscles, page 386, left column, paragraph 2, lines 2-4

Troponin, a calcium-binding three-protein complex, controls the positioning of tropomyosin, an elongated protein polymer.

How does trypomyosin inhibit a real full forced power stroke from occuring? (mech) 386, left, paragraph 3, lines 2-7

Trypomyosin wraps around the active filaments and partially covers the actin's myosin-binding sites. When trypomyosin is blocking the binding site, it is called "off". In this state, small, weak movements can occur but a real power stroke cannot occur until trypomyosin is "on" and the myosin binding site is open.

What are the two neurons in all autonomic pathways, where do they synapse? (Chapter 11, Mechanistic, The Autonomic Division, p. 361, right column, lines 4-9)

Two neurons in a series that consist in all autonomic pathways are the preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neurons. They synapse in an autonomic ganglion.

How do type 2A and type 1 muscle fibers differ? Chapter 12, page 17, Skeletal muscle, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-8

Type 2 develop tension two to three times faster than slow twitch fibers; fast twitch fibers split ATP more rapidly and can, therefore, complete multiple contractile cycles more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers.

What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 muscle fibers? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, page 400, Skeletal Muscle, paragraph 2, lines 1-10

Type 2 fibers contract and develop tension 2-3x faster than slow twitch fibers, or type 1 fibers. To do this, Type 2 fibers use ATP more quickly and go through more contractile cycles than type 1.

How can the control of voluntary movement be divided? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 13, The CNS Integrates Movement, page 428, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

Voluntary movement can be divided into decision making and planning, initiating movement, and executing movement. These movements usually require coordination between the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia.

Why are voluntary movements the most complex type? Teleological approach, chapter 13,Movement Can Be Classified as Reflex Voluntary or Rhythmic, page 453 left column, second to last paragraph, lines 1-4.

Voluntary movements are the most complex type of movement. They require integration at the cerebral cortex, and they can be initiated at will without external stimuli. Learned voluntary movements improve with practice, and some even become involuntary, like reflexes.

What is the difference between a voluntary and rhythmic movement?

Voluntary movements require integration at the cerebral cortex, and they can be initiated at will without external stimuli. However, rhythmic movements are a combination of reflex movements and voluntary movements. Rhythmic movements are initiated and terminated by input from the cerebral cortex, but once activated, networks of CNS interneurons called central pattern generators. (The Integrated Control of Body Movement, pg.453)

What happens when ACh binds to a nicotinic receptor?

When ACh binds to the receptor, the channel gate opens and allows monovalent cations to flow through. Pg. 391, Section: The Neuromuscular Junction Contains Nicotinic Receptors, Column 2, lines: 32-34.

How does the binding of ACh (acetylcholine) to nicotinic cholinergic receptors cause the contraction of skeletal muscle cells? (Mechanistic, Ch. 11, Left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6)

When ACh binds to the two ACh binding sites on nicotinic cholinegic receptors, monocovalent cations are allowed to flow through the newly opened channel gate. In this case, Na+ flows though and causes depolarization of the muscle fibers which triggers an action potential which ultimately leads to the contraction of the skeletal muscle tissue.

Why is the regulation of PTH secretion a negative feedback system? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, page 206, right column, 4th paragraph.

When a certain number of Ca2+ receptors are bound, PTH secretion is inhibited until the Ca2+ concentration falls below a certain level and thus fewer Ca2+ receptors are bound, inhibition stops and PTH secretion resumes.

Why are flexion reflexes in the legs accompanied by crossed extensor reflex? (Teleological approach) Ch 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 425, left column, 2nd paragraph, line 2-4

When a foot is lifted from the ground, the crossed extensor reflex helps maintain balance from the shift in balance.

Explain how muscle spindles function. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Muscle spindles respond to muscle stretch, page 421, right column, third paragraph, 1-7th line

When a muscle is at its resting length, the central region of each muscle spindle is stretched enough to activate the sensory fibers. As a result, sensory neurons from the spindles are tonically active, sending a steady stream of action potentials to the spinal cord. The sensory neurons synapse directly on alpha motor neurons innervating the muscle in which the spindles lie, creating a monosynaptic reflex

What happens when a neuron is damaged?

When a neuron is damaged, if the cell body dies, the entire neuron dies. If the cell body is intact and only the axon is severed, the cell body and attached segment of axon survive. Pg. 235, Section: Can Stem Cells Repair Damaged Neurons?, column 2, 41-45.

How does the concept of divergence for autonomic pathways make it so that a single signal is able to affect a massive amount of cells simultaneously? (Mechanistic, Ch. 11, Pg. 361, Right Column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7)

When a presynaptic neuron enters a ganglion synapse, that synapse could contain as many as 8 or 9 postsynaptic neurons. Each one of those postganglionic neurons can affect a different target. Divergence is what happens when that initial signal coming from the CNS down the presynaptic neuron ends up being transmitted down all of those various postganglionic neurons simultaneously.

How is the hair cell an example of a non-neural receptor? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 311, Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy, right column, paragraph 1, lines 4-7

When activated, the hair cell releases a chemical signal that initiates an action potential in the associated sensory neuron

How does rigor mortis occur? (Mechanistic approach) Ch12, pg 388

When people die, ATP is no longer produced, so muscles can't bind ATP, and actin and myosin are therefore tightly bound

How does gray matter and white matter differ?

While both found in the CNS, gray matter consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and axons. The cell bodies are assembled in an organized fashion in both the brain and the spinal cord. White matter is mostly myelinated axons and contains very few cell bodies. Its color comes from the myelin sheaths that surrounds the axons. Bundles of axons that connect different regions of the CNS are known as tracts. p.277 Right column bottom.

Describe the white matter of the spinal cord. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, The spinal cord, page 284, left column, sixth paragraph, 3-11th line

White matter can be divided into a number of columns composed of tracts of axons that transfer information up and down the cord. Ascending tracts take sensory information to the brain. Descending tracts carry mostly efferent signals from the brain to the cord. They occupy the ventral and interior lateral portions of the white matter. Propriospinal tracts are those that remain within the cord

Why are working memory and long-term memory linked together? (Mechanism, Ch. 9, Brain Function, pg. 301, column 1, paragraph 2, lines 6-7)

Working memory and long-term memory are linked together so that newly acquired information can be integrated with stored information and acted on.

Why are a and B isoforms of nAHCR different from other isoforms? Telelogical approach, Page 397, Left column, The neuromuscular junction contains nicotinic receptors, Paragraph 2, Last 3 lines.

a and B isoforms of nAHCR can become desensitized and their channels closed with extended exposure to ACh and other agonists.

What is the function of dendrites both within the peripheral nervous system and within the central nervous system? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Dendrites receive incoming signals, page 231, left column, second paragraph, 1-7th line

The primary function of dendrites in the peripheral nervous system is to receive incoming information and transfer it to an integrating region within the neuron. Within the CNS, dendrite function is more complex. Dendritic spines can function as independent compartments, sending signals back and forth with other neurons in the brain. Many dendritic spines contain polyribosomes and can make their own proteins

Which precursor for dopamine is used in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease and why is it necessary to use the precursor rather than dopamine itself for treatment? Ch. 13, pg. 430, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-5

The primary treatment for the disease involve drugs designed to enhance dopamine activity. Dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, so a precursor that will cross is necessary.

What is the main treatment for Parkinson's Disease and how does it work? (Teleological and Mechanistic) Chapter 13: The integrated control of body movement, page 431, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-6

The primary treatment is giving drugs that enhance dopamine activity in the brain. Patients take L-dopa, a precursor that can cross the blood brain barrier and be turned into dopamine.

What is excitation- contraction coupling?

The process in which muscle action potentials create calcium dignals that start the contraction relaxation cycle (Figure 12.7, pg 406)

How do prohormones undergo post-translational modification to create active hormones? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 202, Most Hormones Are Peptides or Proteins, left column, full paragraph 1, lines 4-7

The prohormone becomes packaged into secretory vesicles in the Golgi complex. The vesicles also contain proteolytic enzymes that cut the prohormone into active hormone fragments.

Why is the prohormone packaged with proteolytic enzymes? (Teleological, Ch. 7, Pg. 202, Left Column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-7)

The proteolytic enzymes chop the the prohormone into active hormone and other fragments.

Why is there a theory that sleep is necessary because it enhances our immune systems? (Teleological, Ch. 9, Pg. 297, Left column, paragraph 5, lines 5-11)

The reason this theory exists is because a number of the sleep-inducing factors that were found in cerebrospinal fluid were linked to immune response enhancement (interleukin-1, interferon, serotonin, and tumor necrosis factor).

How do postural reflexes help maintain body position? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13, The Integrated Control of Body Movement, right column, page 427, 2nd paragraph, line 3-6

The reflexes take in continuous sensory input from visual and vestibular sensory systems and from the muscles.

How do somatic and autonomic pathways differ anatomically and functionally? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, Somatic and Autonomic Pathways, page 425, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-15

The somatic system has a single neuron that starts in the spinal cord and has an axon to the target skeletal muscle. They are always excitatory, while autonomic pathways can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

How does a spinal reflex work? (mechanistic approach) Page 285, Paragraph 1

The spinal cord can function as a self-contained integrating center for simple spinal reflexes, with signals passing from a sensory neuron through the gray mater to an efferent neuron. (Stimulus, Sensory Information, Integrating Center, Commands to muscle/glands, Response) All of this occurs without input from the brain.

Where do the ascending pathways for nociception cross the midline? Ch 10, p 339, Pain and Itching Are Mediated by Nociceptors, left column, paragraph 5

in the spinal cord

What are the two parts of a synapse? (Mechanical approach) Chapter 8, page 253, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-2.

(1) axon terminal of presynaptic cell (2) membrane of postsynaptic cell

How do hormones act on their target cells? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Hormones, page 197, left-right column, paragraph 1, line 4

(1) by controlling the rates of enzymatic reactions (2) controlling transport of ions or molecules across cell membrane (3) by controlling gene expression and synthesis of proteins

Name the three components of the neuromuscular junction. (Mechanistic), Ch 11, A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron, page 391, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

(1) the motor neuron's pre-synaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria, (2) the synaptic cleft, and (3) the post-synaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber.

Why do patients taking steroid hormones like cortisol have to be tapered off of them over a period of time? Telelogical approach, pg 265, Left column, all of 3rd and 4th paragraph

steroid hormones act as a negative feedback signal just as cortisol produced in the body would, which shuts off CRH and ACTH production. Without the trophic stimulation of ACTH, the body's own cortisol production shuts down. Therefore, patients have to be tapered off of the steroid hormone drug so that the body's pituitary and adrenal glands can work back up to normal hormone production

Where to most cranial nerves originate? Ch 9, p 301, The Brain Stem is the Oldest Part of the Brain, right column, paragraph 5

the brain stem

Which enzyme rapidly deactivates ACh by degrading it into acetyl and choline? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, Somatic Motor Division, Page 391, right column, 2nd paragraph, last line.

acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

What are Pheromones? Ch 7, What Makes a Chemical Hormone? Chapter 7, Hormones are Transported to a Distant Target, Page 209, left column, second paragraph, first four lines.

are specialized ectohormones that act on other organisms of the same species to elicit a physiological or behavioral response.

How do the axons of embryonic neurons reach their target cells? (mechanistic approach) Ch 8, - 244, Establishing synapses depends on chemical signals, left column, paragraph 2

growth cones on the ends of axons extend through the extracellular compartment until it reaches the target cell

If cortisol levels are high but levels of both trophic hormones are low, what are two possible explanations for the elevated cortisol? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 218, Diagnosis of Endocrine Pathologies Depends on the Complexity of the Reflex, left column, 5th full paragraph, lines 3-5

1. Endogenous cortisol hypersecretion 2. Exogenous administration of cortisol for therapeutic reasons

How does plasticity work in the neural connections of the cerebrum when you lose a finger? Mechanisitic appraoch, Page 315, right column, the cerebral cortex is organized into funcitonal areas, Pargraph 3, Lines 1- 8

By extending the functional fields of adjacent regions of the cortex and taking over part of the cortex that are no longer used by the absent finger, the body can compensate for the lost finger.

How does the autonomic nervous system use only a few neurotransmitters but still have diverse effects? Mechanistic appraoch, Page 390, Left column, Autonomic receptors have multiple subtypes, Pargraph 1, Lines 1-3

By having multiple different receptor subtypes with different second messenger pathways.

How is the strength of the initial depolarization in a graded potential determined? mechanistic, Chapter 8 Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties: Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 240, paragraph 2, lines 1-2

By how much charge enters that cell

How are the gates in the cilia membrane opened? Mechanistic approach. Page 356, The Cochlea is filled with fluid, Right column, Paragraph 1, Lines 2-8.

By mechanistic means - the tip links that connect the stereocilia to each other act like springs and are connected to gates that open and close ion channels in the cilia membrane. when hair cells are in neutral position, about 10% of ion channels are open.

How can a state of hormone excess be created? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 198, Hormones Have Been Known Since Ancient Times, left column, 6th full paragraph, lines 1-3

By taking a normal animal and implanting an extra gland or administering extract from the gland to see if symptoms characteristic of hormone excess appear

How do smooth muscles initiate contraction? Chapter 12, Smooth muscle, page 406, right column, paragraph 1, lines 5-15

Cacium in cytosol increases, it binds to calmodulin, begins a cascade that ends in phosphorylation of myosin light chains, which then increases myosin ATPase activity and results in contraction.

How does calcium release in muscle fibers actually cause contraction? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Calcium Signals Initiate Contraction, page 386, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4

Calcium binds to troponin C to displace tropmyosin, which uncovers actin-myosin binding sites on the G-actin subunits. This allows myosin and actin to form a cross bridge connection, and the myosin power stroke causes actin filaments to be pulled toward the M line.

What element must be removed from the cytosol to end a contraction? Ch. 12, pg. 389, left column, Relaxation, lines 1-2

Calcium, Ca2+

How does calmodulin play a role in muscle contraction? (Mechanistic) pg 429, paragraph 7, lines 8-11

Calmodulin is a calcium-binding protein in the cytosol. Calcium binds to calmodulin, which results in a cascade of signals, ending with the phosphorylation of the light chains of myosin.

What is the process of olfactory signal transduction? (Mech) ch 10, Chemoreception: Smell and taste, pg 325, right column, paragraph 1, lines 4-9

Cilia are embedded in a layer of mucus that is produced by olfactory glands in the epithelium and basal lamina and odorant molecules must first dissolve in and penetrate the mucus before they can bind to an olfactory receptor protein on the olfactory cilia.

Why does convergence, in which multiple presynaptic neurons provide input to a smaller number of postsynaptic neurons, occur? (teleological) Chapter 10, page 312, A Sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-9

Convergence allows multiple simultaneous sub threshold stimuli to sum at the postsynaptic (secondary) neuron. When multiple primary sensory neurons converge on a single secondary sensory neuron, their individual receptive fields merge into a single, large secondary receptive field.

Why may neighboring receptive fields exhibit convergence? Chapter 10, A Sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field, 2nd paragraph, lines 3-7

Convergence is when multiple presynaptic neurons provide input to a smaller number of post synaptic neurons. This allows multiple simultaneous subthreshold stimuli to sum at the post synaptic neuron.

What is the name of the enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from phosphocreatine to ADP?

Creatine Kinase(skeletal muscle contraction requires a steady supply of ATP, pg. 413)

Flexion reflexes are usually accompanied by what other reflex and what is the function of this reflex? (Teleological, Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, pg. 425, fig. left column)

Crossed extensor reflex. The crossed extensor reflex is a postural reflex that helps maintain balance when one foot is lifted off the ground.

Why does denervation hypersensitivity occur? (Teleological, Ch. 11, Pg, 369, Left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-8)

Denervation hypersensitivity can occur in people who have primary autonomic failure. In this case, the sympathetic neurons degenerate which leads to a diminished sympathetic input. As a result, the tissues experiencing this start adding more receptors which causes denervation hypersensitivity.

Why is it important to incorporate physical activity into our daily routine? (Teleological) Chapter 12, Muscle Disorders Have Multiple Causes, Page 425, left column, entire 3rd paragraph

Disuse of muscles can be as traumatic as overuse. With prolonged inactivity, the skeletal muscles atrophy. Blood supply to the muscle diminishes, and the muscle fibers get smaller. If activity is resumed in less than a year, the fibers usually regenerate. So it is important to incorporate physical activity into one's daily routine to retain muscle mass.

How do divergence and convergence patterns of neurons differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Integration of Neural Information Transfer, page 260, right column, paragraph 1, lines 2-4

Divergence - axon of presynaptic neuron branches and its collaterals (branches) synapse on target neurons; one presynaptic neuron branches to affect larger number of postsynaptic neurons Convergent - group of presynaptic neurons provide input to smaller number of postsynaptic neurons; many presynaptic neurons provide input to influence a small number of postsynaptic neurons

Why is divergence an important feature of autonomic pathways? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 361, right column, seven paragraph, 1-7th line

Divergence allows one preganglionic neuron to synapse with multiple postganglionic neuron. These postganglionic neurons can then innervate a different target, allowing a single signal from the CNS to affect a large number of target cells simultaneously.

How is divergence an important part of autonomic pathways? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, The Autonomic Division, page 361, right column, 2nd paragraph, line 4-7

Divergence can allow a single signal from the CNS to affect a large number of target cells simultaneously.

Why is divergence important? pg 361 right

Divergence is the process that allows one CNS signal to affect many target cells. This is important to get rapid widespread communication.

What is the difference between divergent and convergent pathways? page 420, first paragraph, left column.

Divergence of pathways allows a single stimulus to affect multiple targets Convergence integrates the input from multiple sources to modify the response.

How can a single signal from the CNS affect a large number of target cells simultaneously? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, page 361, right column, 2nd paragraph.

Divergence--each preganglionic neuron can synpase with 8-9 postganglionic neurons, and each postganglionic neuron can innervate a different target.

How are autonomic neurons divided? (mechanistic approach) Page 229, Paragraph 2

Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, which can be distinguished by their anatomical organization and by the chemicals they use to communicate with their target cells.

How does the smooth muscle contract? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Myosin Phosphorylation Controls Contraction, page 406, right column, paragraph 2, lines 3-8

1. Increase in cytosolic Ca+2 intiaties contraction released from sacroplasmic reticulum (SR). 2. Ca+2 binds to calmodulin (in cytosol) 3. Ca+2 binding to calmodulin is the first step in cascade that ends phosphorylation of myosin light chains 4. Phosphorylation of myosin light chains enhances myosin ATPase activity and results in contraction. Smooth muscle contraction is controlled through myosin-linked regulatory processes.

What are the 3 steps of vision?

1. Light enters the eye, and the lens focuses the light on the retina. 2. Photoreceptors of the retina transduce light energy into an electrical signal. 3. Neural pathways from retina to brain process electrical signals into visual images. P. 340 Left column middle.

What are the 3 main classes of hormones? (The Classification of Hormones, page 201, right column, paragraph 1)

1. Peptide/Protein 2. Steroid 3. Amine

What are the four properties of homeostasis proposed by Walter Cannon? (pg 414, Antagonistic Control Is a Hallmark of the Autonomic Division, paragraph 1)

1. Preservation of the fitness of the internal environment 2. Up-down regulation by tonic control 3. Antagonistic control 4. Chemical signals with different effects in different tissues

What are the 6 hormones that the anterior pituitary secretes? (page 209, The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones, right column, second paragraph)

1. Prolactin (PRL) 2. Thyrotropin (TSH) 3. Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) 4. Growth Hormone (GH) 5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 6. Luetinizing hormone (LH)

What are the classic steps of identifying an endocrine gland? (Ch 7, pg 222, Hormones Have Been Known Since Ancient Times, paragraph 3, steps 1 - 3)

1. Remove suspect gland, 2. Replace the hormone, 3. Create a state of hormone excess.

What are the three types of muscle tissue and what are their functions? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12: Skeletal Muscle, page 378, left column, 3rd and 4th paragraphs, lines 1-8 and 1-4

1. Skeletal muscles: they enable the muscles to control body movement 2. Cardiac muscles: moves blood through the circulatory system 3. Smooth muscles: influences the movement of material into, out of, and within the body

What are some ways that neurotransmitter activity is terminated? (page 258, 2nd column, paragraphs 2 and 3).

1. Some neurotransmitters diffuse away from the synapse, separating themselves from their receptors. 2. Some are inactivated in the synaptic cleft by enzymes 3. Some are removed from the ECF by transport back into the presynaptic cell or into adjacent neurons or glia.

What are the 3 components of a neuromuscular junction?

1. The motor neuron's presynaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria 2. Synaptic cleft 3. Postsynaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber. p.371 left column

Why does each side of the brain control the opposite side of the body? (Teleological approach) Ch 9, The Brain, page 287, right column, 4th paragraph, line 1-3

90% of the corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite of the body in the region of the medulla called the pyramids.

How do neurons release neurotransmitters from the axon terminal across a synaptic cleft? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 8, Neurotransmitters are released from vesicles, page 258, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

A Ca2+ flux causes the release of neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles near the axonal membrane via exocytosis.

What is the difference between a monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex? (Teleological, Chapter 13, Integrative Physiology I: Control of Body Movement, pg. 419, fig. 13.1)

A monosynaptic reflex has a single synapse between the afferent and efferent neurons. A polysynaptic reflex have two or more synapses.

How does a somatic motor neuron control the actions of muscle fibers? (mechanistic) Chapter 12, page 396, A Motor Unit Is One Motor Neuron and Its Muscle Fibers, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-7

A motor unit is the basic unit of contraction in a skeletal muscle. It is composed of muscle fibers that work together and the somatic motor neuron that controls them. The somatic motor neuron controls the muscle fibers by firing an action potential, which causes all the muscle fibers in the motor unit to contract.

Why do humans and other animals experience cravings for certain foods? Chapter 10, Chemoreception: Smell and Taste, page 329, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-9

A psychological aspect of taste is called specific hunger, humans and animals lacking a particular nutrient tend to develop a craving for certain substances, like salt, and the craving cannot be remedied by other substances

Why does rigor mortis occur? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 12, The Rigor State, page 412, left column, 5th paragraph, lines 3-7.

After the body dies, it no longer produces ATP. After ATP stores are exhausted, muscles can no longer use ATP to release muscle contraction, leading to rigor mortis.

What do the following occurrences have in common: blushing, fainting at the sight of a hypodermic needle, and "butterflies" in the stomach? Ch. 11, pg. 369, left column, para. 3, lines 3-5

All are examples of emotional influences on autonomic functions.

What part of the brain is associated with anterograde amnesia and what is anterograde amnesia?

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to remember newly acquainted information and it is associated with a damaged piece of the hippocampus. ( Memory is the Ability to Retain and Recall Information, pg. 324)

How does arm hair contribute to the operation of sensory systems? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 10, Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy, page 311, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Arm hair acts as a non-neural accessory structure; arm hair specifically helps somatosensory receptors sense movement in the air millimeters above the skin surface.

How does the semicircular canals sense rotational acceleration? Page 337, Right column , para 3, lines Mech

As the head turns, the bony skull and the membranous walls of the labyrinth move, but the fluid within the labyrinth cannot keep up due to inertia. In the ampullae, the drag of the endolymph bends the cupula and its hair cells in the direction opposite to the direction in which the head is turning.

What is one hypothesis for the cause of autisim? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 7, The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones, page 233, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 5-9.

Autisim is a developmental disorder that affects the social ability of patients. One study suggests that this disorder may be linked to problems with the oxytocin-modulated pathways in the brain.

What type of reflexes are all polysynaptic? (Pg 444, paragraph 6, sentence 1)

Autonomic Reflexes

What is the significance of the term "autonomic" in reference to the autonomic division of the efferent nervous system? Ch. 11, pg. 359, right column, lines 5-8

Autonomic comes from the same roots as autonomous, meaning self-governing. The autonomic division, to this extent, has control over internal organs.

Why are automatic reflexes known as visceral reflexes? Teleological approach, chapter 13, Autonomic reflexes, page 444, left column, second to last paragraph, lines 1-4.

Autonomic reflexes are also known as visceral reflexes because they often involve the internal organs of the body. Some visceral reflexes, such as urination and defecation, are spinal reflexes that can take place without input from the brain.

Why are autonomic reflexes also known as visceral reflexes? (Teleological) pg 444, paragraph, 2, lines 1-2.

Autonomic reflexes usually involve the internal organs of the body, and the internal organs are visceral.

Name the endings that store and release neurotransmitters.

Axon terminals and varicosities. Pg. 231, Section: Neuron Anatomy, Column 1, lines: 3-6.

Why do polypeptides have to be made in the cell body of nerve cells? (Teleological) Chapter 8, page 257, Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Nervous System, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 3-4

Axon terminals don't have the organelles for protein synthesis, so the proteins must be made in the cell body

Why are parasympathetic pathways and ganglia located close to their target organs? (tele) 363, right, paragraph 2, lines 1-8

Because the parasympathetic pathways control the "rest and digest" and the autonomic activities. It makes sense for these to be close so that the signals are quickly transmitted. Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons have long axons while the postganglionic neurons have short axons.

How does lateral inhibition enhance contrast and make a stimulus easier to perceive? (Ch 10 pg 332, figure 10.5)

Because the response is divided into primary and secondary neurons, the primary neurons are the neuron closest to the stimulus and those directly adjacent. The lateral inhibition dulls the adjacent neurons, thus intensifying the neuron of the stimulus compared to its neighbors.

Why are skeletal muscles different from Cardiac and smooth muscle with respect to contraction and hormones? Telelogical Approach. Page 403, Left column, Introduction section, Paragraph 2, all of it

Because they cannot initiate their own contraction without stimulation from a somatic motor neuron, and their contraction is not influenced directly by hormones.

Why are beta(2) receptors and beta(3) receptors different? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 385, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-9

Beta(2) receptors are more sensitive to epinephrine than to norepinephrine because they are not innervated (no sympathetic neurons terminate near them). Beta(3) receptors are more sensitive to norepinephrine than to epinephrine because they are innervated.

How is smooth muscle considered to be similar to skeletal muscle? (Mechanistic) pg 427, last paragraph, lines 2-6

Both muscles create force through the actin-myosin interaction, and both muscles' contractions are stimulated by an increase in cytosolic Calcium levels.

Why are glial cells important for neurons? teleological, Chapter 8 Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties: Cells of the Nervous System, page 233, paragraph 3, lines 1-3

Glial cells provide neurons with structural stability. This is particularly important because the neural tissue does not make very much extracellular matrix.

How do glial cells produce the myelin sheath? (Mechanistic Approach) Ch 8, page 262, Glial Cells Provide Support for Neurons, left column, paragraph 3-4,lines 1-18

Glial cells wrap around an axon multiple times, forming a double membrane each time it wraps around an axon. The glial cell then stays, or that portion of the cell stays, and functions as the sheath itself.

During Long-Term Potentiation, what does Glutamate bind to?

Glutamate binds to AMPA and NMDA channels. Pg. 267, Section: Long-Term Potentiation Alters Synapses, Chart. Fig. 8.25

How do glycolytic fibers fatigue more easily than oxidative fibers? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle Is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, page 394, right column paragraph 1, 1-6

Glycolytic fibers rely primarily on anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP, which produces an excess of H+; this results in a condition called acidosis which is generally implicated in the development of fatigue.

Why do glycolytic fibers fatigue more easily than oxidative fibers? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, Skeletal Muscle, page 415, right column, last paragraph, lines 1-8

Glycolytic fibers rely primarily on anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP. However, the accumulation of H+ from ATP hydrolysis contributes to acidosis, a condition implicated in the development of fatigue. Glycolytic fibers thus fatigue more easily than oxidative fibers because oxidative fibers do not depend on anaerobic metabolism.

What is the difference between Gray Matter and White Matter?

Gray matter consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites and axons. White matter is mostly myelinated axons and contains very few cell bodies. (Pg. 277, Section: The CNS Is Divided into Gray and White Matter, column 2, lines: 38 & 47.)

How does signal transduction occur in hair cells that are in the Cochlea? Chapter 10, The Ear: Hearing, page 332, right column, paragraphs 1-3.

Hair cells are non-neural receptors with stereocilia that respond to movement. When the stereocilia move towards the taller members, it causes the voltage gated calcium channels to open and increase neurotransmitter release. If the stereocilia move towards the shorter members, they close the channels and slow calcium input.

What is half-life and why is it relevant to the study of hormone activity? (Teleological approach, chapter 7, Hormone action must be terminated, page 201, paragraph 2, line 4-8, right column)

Half-life is the amount of time required to reduce the concentration of hormone by one-half. This is relevant to the study of hormone activity because this gives the rate of hormone break-down and serves as one indicator of how long a hormone is active in the body.

Why is histamine not considered a hormone? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Hormones, page 209, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-9

Hormones have the ability to act as concentrations in the nanomolar to picomolar range. Even though histamine may act on cells throughout the body, the concentration exceeds the accepted range of a hormone. Because they must be present in relatively high concentrations before an effect is noticed, they are not considered hormones.

What makes up a sarcomere? pg 437 left column

I band M line Z Disk H Zone A Band

Why is the corresponding region of the cortex for a stimulus in sense not fixed? (Teleological approach) Ch 10, Somatic Senses, page 318, right column, 2nd paragraph, line 4-7

If a body part is used more, then the region in the cortex that corresponds with it will expand more.

How are physicians able to differentiate cardiac tissue damage from skeletal tissue damage after a heart attack? (Mechanistic, Ch 12, Pg 392, Left column, Paragraph 1, lines 1-4)

If a cell has elevated levels of creatine kinase, it probably has muscle damage. Also, those two types of muscle tissue contain different isozymes of creatine kinease so if a physician looks at the isozyme of the damaged tissue, it can tell which type of tissue was damaged.

Why is excitation-contraction coupling important for the contraction-relaxing cycle? Teleological, Chapter 12 Muscles: Skeletal Muscles, page 383, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-3

In excitation-contraction coupling, muscle action potentials initiate calcium signals to active the contraction-relaxation cycle.

Distinguish the difference between alpha 1 and alpha 2 receptors. (Mechanistic Ch 11, Autonomic Receptors Have Multiple Subtypes, page 385, left column, whole third paragraph.

In general, activation of A1-receptors causes muscle contraction or secretion by exocytosis. A2-receptors decrease intracellular cyclic AMP and cause smooth muscle relaxation (gastrointestinal tract) or decreased secretion (pancreas).

How does reciprocal inhibition work? (Mechanistic) pg 450, paragraph 3, lines 1-4.

In order for some muscles to contract, the antagonistic flexor muscles also need to relax before this contraction can occur.

How does permissiveness in hormones work? Page 216, left column, 1st para, lines 1-3

In permissiveness, one hormone cannot fully exert its effects unless a second hormone is present, even though the second hormone has no apparent action.

How (mechanistic) does short-loop negative feedback work? (Chapter 7, p. 231, Subsection Feedback Loops Are Different in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Pathway, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-10)

In short-loop negative feedback, pituitary hormones feed back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus. We see this type of feedback in cortisol secretion, where ACTH exerts short-loop negative feedback on the secretion of CRH. With this system of negative feedback, the hormones normally stay within the range needed for an appropriate response.

Explain the process of post-translational modification. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, page 202, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 5-7.

In the Golgi complex, prohormone is packaged into secretory vesicles along with proteolytic enzymes that chop prohormone into active hormone and other fragments

In which cell organelle are peptide hormones "packaged"?

In the Golgi complex, the prohormone is packaged into secretory vesicles. Pg. 202, Section: Most Hormones are Peptides or Hormones, column 2, lines: 10-11.

What parts of the CNS and brain are involved in controlling voluntary movement, and what are their roles? (ch 13, pg 455 Figure 13.10)

In the brain the prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, sensory cortex (sensory input), basal ganglia, thalamus (planning and decision making), cerebellum (from motor cortex: coordination) and brain stem (execution to skeletal muscles) all help.

Why must hormones be the feedback signal in complex endocrine reflexes such as the HPA pathway and how to they act as the negative feedback? (Teleological+Mechanistic, Chapter 7, Hormone Interactions, pg. 214, right column, lines1-7)

In the complex endocrine reflexes most anterior pituitary hormone pathways do not have a single response that the body can easily monitor. The hormones act on multiple tissues and have different, often subtle effects in different tissues so there is no single parameter that can serve as the signal for negative feedback. Thus the hormones in a pathway normally stay within range needed for an appropriate response.

How does the long-loop negative feedback function in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathways? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, feedback loops are different in the hypothalamic-pituitary pathway, left column, page 213, paragraph 2, line 1-5)

In the hypothalamic-pituitary pathways, the hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland feed back to suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary and hypothalamic hormones.

How is a neural tube created? Mechanistic approach, chapter 9, The CNS develops from a hollow tube, page 291, right column, third-fourth paragraph, lines 1-7.

In the very early embryo, cells that will become the nervous system lie in an attend region called the neural plate. As development proceeds (at about day 20 of human development), neural plate cells along the edge migrate toward the midline. By about day 23 of human development, the neural plate cells have fused with each other, creating a neural tube.

Explain the sliding filament theory of contraction. (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12 pg 385

In this model, overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction

Explain the sliding filament theory of contraction. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Muscle contraction creates force, page 385, right column, first paragraph, 7-9th line

In this model, overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction

How does the body accomplish a decreased perception to a stimulus? (mechanistic approach) Page 313, paragraph 5

Is accomplished by inhibitory modulation. Inhibitory modulation diminishes a supra threshold stimulus until it is below the perceptual threshold. Often occurs in the secondary and higher neurons of the sensory pathway.

How do isometric contractions occur in muscles? (mechanistic) ( Ch 12 , pg 423, figure 12.19)

Isometric contractions occur by a series of elastic elements allow the fibers to maintain constant length even though the sarcomeres are shortening and creating tension.

What is the role of cholecystokinin (CCK)? (teleological) Chapter 7, page 199, Hormones Are Transported to a Distant Target, left column, paragraph 3, lines 4-10

It causes contraction of the gallbladder, acts as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator, and possibly controls hunger

How does the blood brain barrier protect the brain? (page 282, first paragraph under "The blood brain barrier protects the brain)

It consists of capillaries, which have a highly selective permeability. They shelter the brain from toxins, fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances

Why is the autonomic division of the PNS also called the visceral nervous system? (Teleological ) Chapter 8, page 229, Organization of the Nervous System, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-3

It controls contraction and secretion in various internal organs, and viscera is internal organs

What does the Nernst equation describe?

It describes the membrane potential that would result if the membrane were permeable to only one ion. Pg. 236, Section: The Nernst Equation Predicts Membrane Potential for a Single Ion, column 2, lines: 15-18.

How do somatic motor pathways differ from autonomic pathways? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Somatic Motor Division, page 371, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-3

It differs both atomically and functionally. Somatic motor pathways have a single neuron that originates in the CNS and projects its axon to to target tissue (skeletal muslce). Somatic pathways are always excitatory, unlike autonomic pathways, which may be either excitatory or inhibitory.

What type of pairing does doing a dumbbell curl showcase? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12, page 379, Skeletal Muscle, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 7-13

It displays a flexor-extensor pair because when you raise a dumbbell weight in your hand, the biceps muscle contracts and the hand and forearm move toward the shoulder. When you lower the weight, the triceps contracts, and the flexed forearm moves away from the shoulder. So in both cases one muscle contracts and shortens as the antagonistic muscle must relax and lengthen.

What type of learning does non associative include?

It includes, habituation and sensitization, two adaptive behaviors that allow us to filter out and ignore background stimuli while responding more sensitively to potentially disruptive stimuli. (Pg. 300, Section: Learning Is the Acquisition of Knowledge, column 1, lines: 29-32).

How does the enteric nervous system function? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 229, Organization of the Nervous System, left column, 3rd full paragraph, lines 3-7

It is frequently controlled by the autonomic division of the nervous system, but it is also able to function autonomously as its own integrating center

What is the most elaborate cognitive behavior? (pg 317, Language is the Most Elaborate Cognitive Behavior, paragraphs 2 - 3)

Language is the most elaborate cognitive behavior because it involves Wernicke's area and Broca's area.

Why is lateral inhibition important for detecting a stimulus? (Teleological) pg 332, figure 10.5

Lateral inhibition can enhance contrast in the stimulus, which makes the stimulus easier to perceive.

Why is lateral inhibition a way of isolating the location of a stimulus? (Teleological), pg. 315, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Lateral inhibition increases the contrast between activated receptive fields and their inactive neighbors.

How does lateral inhibition help isolate the location of a stimulus? Page 315, Right Column, Para 2, Lines 2-4 Mech

Lateral inhibition increases the contrast between activated receptive fields and their inactive neighbors. The inhibition of neurons farther from the stimulus enhances the contrast between the center and sides of the receptive field, making the sensation more easily localized.

How does light eventually reach the photoreceptors? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 346, The Eye and Vision, left column, paragraph 4, lines 10-12

Light entering the eye must pass through several relatively transparent layers of neurons before striking photoreceptors

How does cardiac muscle have features of both smooth and skeletal muscle? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Cardiac Muscle, page 435, right column, paragraphs 1 and 2

Like skeletal muscle fibers, cardiac muscle fibers are striated and have a sarcomere structure. Like single-unit smooth muscle, cardiac muscle fibers are electrically linked to one another.

Why is the parathyroid hormone important? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Hormones, page 210-211, Figure 7.2

Located in the bone and kidney, the parathyroid hormone regulates plasma Ca2+ and phosphate levels.

How is the release of parathyroid hormone triggered in parathyroid cells? (Mechanistic) pg 218, figure 7.7

Low plasma levels of Calcium ions are detected by the parathyroid cells, causing the parathyroid cells to release the hormone, in order to increase the calcium levels.

In which part of the brain is sensory information about equilibrium processed? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, page 353, box.

Major equilibrium pathways project to cerebellum; some information proceed in cerebrum.

How do mammals have a circadian rhythm? (Mechanistic) pg 312, paragraph 2, lines 1-6

Mammals have a network of neurons located in their suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, which can then function as part of a feedback loop.

Why do muscle cramps occur? (Teleological approach) Ch 12, pg 402

Many muscle cramps are caused by hyper excitability of somatic motor neurons. The neurons fire repeatedly causing motor units to go into sustained contraction.

Why do muscle cramps occur? (Teleological approach) Ch 12, Mechanic of Body Movement, page 402, right column 2nd paragraph, line 2-4

Many muscle cramps are caused by hyperexcitability of somatic motor neurons. The neurons fire repeatedly causing motor units to go into sustained contraction.

How does McArdle's disease impact those who have it? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Mechanics of Body Movement, page 425, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-5

McArdle's disease is a condition in which the enzyme that converts glycogen to glucose 6-phosphate is absent in muscles. Those who have this disease have muscles that lack a usable glycogen energy supply, which limits their exercise tolerance.

What is McArdle's diseases? pg 403 left column

McArdle's disease is when muscle lacks sufficient glycogen energy supply, which can lead to the decreased in exercise capability.

How does McArdle's disease work? Mechanistic approach, chapter 12, Muscle disorders have multiple causes, page 425, right column, paragraph two, lines 1-5

McArdle's disease, also known as myophosphorylase deficiency, is a condition in which the enzyme that converts glycogen to glucose 6-phosphate is absent in muscles. As a result, muscles lack a usable glycogen energy supply, and exercise tolerance is limited.

What is the cause of McArdle's disease? mechanistic approach (chapter 12,muscle disorders have multiple causes, page 403, paragraph 7, left column, line 1-4)

McArdle's disease, also known as myophosphorylase deficiency, occurs when the enzyme that converts glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate is absent in muscles. As a result, muscles lack a usable glycogen energy supply, and exercise tolerance is limited.

What processes fall mostly under hormonal control?

Metabolism, Regulation of the internal environment, reproduction, growth and development. Pg. 197, Section: Hormones, column 1, lines: 33-36.

Why is conduction faster in myelinated axons? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 8, Conduction Is Faster in Myelinated Axons, page 249 right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

Myelinated axons have nodes that harbor Na+ channels while the myelin sheath itself insulates the rest of the neuron. As these voltage-gated Na+ open, any potential current that could leak out from the membrane is minimized due to the insulating properties of the myelin sheath; myelination thus, increases the rate of conduction down a axonal membrane.

Why is conduction faster in myelinated axons? (page 249, column 1, paragraph 1-2)

Myelinated axons limit the amount of membrane in contact with the ECF. The myelin sheath creates a high resistance wall that prevents ion flow out of the cytoplasm.

Why is conduction faster in Myelinated axons? teleological approach, Chapter 8, Establishing Synapses depends on Chemical Signal, page 262, Left column, last paragraph, lines 3-7

Myelinated axons limit the amount of membrane in contact with the extracellular fluid. In these axons, small sections of bare membrane—the nodes of Ranvier— alternate with longer segments wrapped in multiple layers of membrane (the myelin sheath). The myelin sheath creates a high-resistance wall that prevents ion ow out of the cytoplasm. The myelin membranes are analogous to heavy coats of plastic surrounding electrical wires, as they increase the effective thickness of the axon membrane by as much as 100-fold.

What are schwann cells? pg 371 left

Myelinating schwann cells are important for keeping the signal going down the axon. Non-myelinating are important for the maintenance of the axon.

The main intracellular structures in striated muscles that are highly organized bundles of contractile and elastic proteins that carry out the work of contraction are called... (Teleological, Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 382, left column, lines 8-10)

Myofibrils.

Why does oxygen in the blood need myoglobin in order to diffuse into the interior of muscle fibers to get to the mitochondria? Teleological, Chapter 12 Muscles: Skeletal Muscles, right column, lines 1-10

Myoglobin has a high oxygen affinity so it acts as a transfer molecule by bringing oxygen more quickly to the fibers' interior.

Why is myoglobin important for muscle contraction? (Teleological) pg 416, paragraph 2, lines 1-9

Myoglobin helps pry oxygen off of the hemoglobin in the bloodstream, which allows the muscle cells to obtain oxygen. This oxygen can then go to the mitochondria, which can undergo aerobic respiration to produce ATP and allow muscle contraction to continue.

Why is the function of myoglobin important? teleological approach (chapter 12, skeletal muscle is classified by speed and fatigue resistance, page 394, right column, paragraph 8, line 1-8)

Myoglobin, a red oxygen-binding pigment with a high affinity for oxygen, helps muscle fibers obtain oxygen efficiently by acting as a transfer molecule and bringing oxygen more rapidly to the interior of the fibers.

Why do certain people have myopia or hyperopia? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, The Eye and Vision, page 345, right column, second paragraph, 2-7th line

Myopia is near-sightedness and hyperopia is far-sightedness. For myopia, the problem occurs because the focal point falls in front of the retina. For hyperopia, the problem occurs because the focal point falls behind the retina. These problems are caused by abnormally curved or flattened corneas or too long or too short eyeballs.

How does Myosin get the energy to perform a power stroke? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscles, page 386,left column, 2nd paragraph, line 1-4

Myosin is an ATPase which hydrolyzes ATP. The energy is stored in myosin as potential energy in the angle between the myosin head and the long axis of the myosin filament.

Which protein makes up a thick filament of a muscle fiber? Which protein makes up the thin filaments of the muscle fiber? (Teleological, Chapter 12, p. 382-382, right column lines 32- 34, left column lines 1-3)

Myosin protein molecules join together to create a thick filament. Actin protein molecules make up the thin filaments of the muscle fiber.

How does the NMDA channel open only when receptor is bound to glutamate AND the cell is depolarized? Mechanisitic appraoch, page 291, Long-term potentiation alters synapses, Right column, 2nd paragraph, Lines 4-end of paragraph

NMDA channel at resting membrane potential is blocked by a gate and an Mg2+ ion. Binding of glutamate opens the gate, but the Mg2+ ion blocks other ions from entering through the channel. When the membrane deplarizes, however, Mg2+ is expelled and ions can flow through the channel.

How does nitric oxide function differently as compared to other types of neurotransmitters? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 8, Neurotransmitters Are Highly Varied, page 280, right column, 8th paragraph, lines 3-8.

NO does not bind to a membrane receptor; rather, it fuses into a target cell, then binds to proteins inside the cell.

Why is down-regulation important in regards to hormone secretion? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, page 217, right column, 4th paragraph.

Necessary when hormone secretion is abnormally high for an extended period of time; down-regulation decreases the number of receptors in target cells in order to diminish the responsiveness to excess hormone.

Why are glial cells essential? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, page 233, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 2-3.

Neural tissue secretes very little extracellular matrix, so glial cells provide structural stability to neurons by wrapping around them.

How do neurons communicate with neighboring cells? (mechanistic approach) Page 227, paragraph 3

Neurons cary electrical signals rapidly and some case over long distances. In most pathways, neurons release chemical signals, called neurotransmitters, into the extracellular fluid to communicate with neighboring cells, In a few pathways, neurons are linked by gap junctions, allowing electrical signals to pass directly cell to cell.

What are the special metabolic requirements of neural tissue? (page 283, 2nd column, paragraph 1-2)

Neurons require a constant supply of oxygen and glucose in order to make ATP. Low levels of either can be detrimental to brain function. Brain damage can arise after only a few minutes without any oxygen.

Why does the central nervous system has its own specialized metabolism? Chapter 9, page 307, Neural Tissue Has Special Metabolic Requirements, 1st paragraph

Neurons require a constant supply of oxygen and glucose to make ATP for active transport of ions and neurotransmitters. Membrane transporters move glucose from the plasma to the brain's interstitial fluid

How do neurons and portal veins interact with trophic hormones differently?

Neurons synthesize trophic hormones and release them into capillaries. Portal veins carry trophic hormone to the anterior pituitary where they act on endocrine cells(The Pituitary Gland, Figure 7.8, pg 234)

How is neurotransmitter signaling terminated? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic Neurotransmitters are Synthesized in the Axon, page 366, left column, paragraph 2, lines 5-9

Neurotransmitter activation of its receptor terminates when the neurotransmitter diffuses away, is metabolized by enzymes in the extracellular fluid, or is recycled back into presynaptic axon terminals.

How does Ohm's Law relate current flow, electrical potential difference, and resistance? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Current flow obeys Ohm's Law, page 239, right column, second paragraph, 2-6th line

Ohm's Law says that current flow (I) is directly proportional to the electrical potential difference between two points and inversely proportional to the resistance of the system to current flow: I=Vx1/R or I=V/R. In other words, as resistance R increases, current flow I decreases

Why is olfaction an important sense? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, Chemoreception: Smell and Taste, page 324, right column, third paragraph, 3-9th line

Olfaction allows us to discriminate among billions of different odors. It allows us to chemically monitor our environment.

Which cranial nerves are strictly sensory?

Olfactory Optic Vestibulocochlear (Table 9.1, pg. 312)

Name the extension of the forebrain that receives input from the primary olfactory neurons. (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, Olfaction is One of the Oldest Senses, page 342, left column, third paragraph, lines 5-6.

Olfactory Bulb

What are two common vision problems and what are their causes? teleological approach (chapter 10, the lens focus light on the retina, paragraph 13, right column, page 345, line 1-6)

One vision problem is myopia, near-sightedness, which occurs when the focal point falls in front of the retina. Another vision problem is hyperopia, farsightedness, which occurs when the focal point falls behind the retina. These vision problems are caused by abnormally curved or flattened corneas or by eyeballs that are too long or too short.

Why is visual acuity greatest in the fovea? (Pg. 370, paragraph 1, sentence 2)

Only a few photoreceptors are associated with each ganglion cell

How does Ca2+ act as a negative feedback signal for the parathyroid hormone? Mechanistic Approach, pg 254, right Column, The Endocrine Cell is the Sensor in simple endocrine reflexes, paragraph 2, last 3 lines.

PTH works to increase the plasma of Ca2+ and this increase in plasma Ca2+ will turn off the reflex and end the release of PTH

What is the process of the somatosensory pathways? (Mech) ch 10, somatic senses, pg 319, figure 10.8, steps 1-4

Pain, temperature, and coarse touch cross the midline in the spinal cord. Fine touch, vibration, and proprioception pathways cross the midline in the medulla. Sensory pathways synapse in the thalamus. Sensations are perceived in the primary somatic sensory cortex.

How do parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways generally differ in their points of origin? (Mechanistic, Ch. 11, Pg. 363, Right Column, Paragraphs 1 and 2, entirety of both paragraphs)

Parasympathetic pathways tend to originate in the CNS in the brain whereas sympathetic pathways tend to originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine. However, some parasympathetic pathways that control pelvic organs originate in the sacral region of the spine.

Why is Parkinson's disease so deadly? Teleological approach, chapter 13, Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease Reflect Basal Ganglia Function, page 457, left column, third to last paragraph, lines 1-9

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by abnormal movements, speech difficulties, and cognitive changes. Disease signs and symptoms are associated with loss of neurons in the basal ganglia that release the neurotransmitter dopamine. One abnormal sign that most Parkinson patients have is tremors in the hands, arms, and legs, particularly at rest. In addition, they have difficulty initiating movement and walk slowly with stooped posture and shuffling gait.

What is Parkinson's disease and what causes it? mechanistic approach (chapter 13, symptoms of Parkinson's Disease reflect basal ganglia function, page 430-431, right-left column, paragraph 2, line 1-5)

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by abnormal movements, speech difficulties, and cognitive changes. It is caused by loss of neurons in the basal ganglia that release the neurotransmitter dopamine.

What is Parkinson's disease?

Parkinson's is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by abnormal movements, speech difficulties, and cognitive changes. These sign and symptoms are associated with loss of neurons in the basal ganglia that release the neurotransmitter dopamine. P.430 Right column.

How do pseudounipolar, bipolar and anaxonic neurons differ? (Mechanistic Approach) pg. 229, right column, paragraph 2, lines 7-13

Pseudounipolar neurons have the cell body loacted off one side of a single long process (axon). Bipolar neurons have a single axon and a single dendrite coming off the cell body. Anaxonic neurons lack an identifiable axon but have numerous branched dendrites.

How are pseudounipolar neurons different from bipolar neurons physically? (Mechanistic, Ch. 8, pg. 229, Right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 7-13)

Pseudounipolar neurons have the cell body located off one side of a single long process called the axon. Bipolar neurons have a single axon and a single dendrite coming off of the cell body.

What is a combination of reflex movement and voluntary movement? ( Pg. 453, paragraph 3, sentence 1)

Rythmic movment

Explain the two-point discrimination test and why it is important. (pg 312, A sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field, paragraph 3, sentence 2)

Sensitivity to touch is demonstrated by a two point discrimination test. In some regions of skin, two pins placed within 20 mm of each other are interpreted by the brain as a single pinprick.

How can you determine the sensitivity to touch of a secondary receptive field? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 312, right column, ninth paragraph, 2-6th line

Sensitivity to touch is shown by the two-point discrimination test. In the two-point discrimination test, two pins are placed on a location until the two pins are interpreted by the brain as a single pinprick. For example, on the arms and legs, when two pins are placed within 20 mm of each other, the brain interprets them as a single pinprick.

How is sensorineural hearing loss typically caused? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 10, Hearing Loss May Result from Mechanical or Neural Damage, page 336, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Sensorineural hearing loss typically arises from damage to structures of the inner ear, including death of hair cells as a result of loud noises.

List the order of the control voluntary movements.

Sensory input, planning and decision making, coordination and timing, execution of corticospinal, execution of extrapyramidal influence on posture, and continuous feedback. Pg. 430, Section: The CNS Integrates Movements, Figure 13.9, lines: none.

What occurs when a muscle is at resting length?

Sensory neurons form the spindles are tonically active, sending a steady stream of actio potentials to the spinal cord. Pg. 421, Section: Glogi Tendon Organs Respond to Muscle Tension, column 2, lines: 14-16

Why does even a muscle at rest maintain a certain level of tension? (teleological) Chapter 13, page 421, Muscle Spindles Respond to Muscle Stretch, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-10

Sensory neurons from muscle spindles are tonically active and function as stretch receptors. Their activity causes tonically active alpha motor neurons to trigger a muscle contraction (of extrafusal muscle fibers). Thus, the muscle even at rest maintains a certain level of tension called muscle tone.

Describe the general pathway for emotion. Page 298, first full paragraph in the right column.

Sensory stimuli are fed into the cerebral cortex to create a representation of the world. The information is then integrated by the association areas, and then is passed to the limbic system. Feedback from the limbic system to the cerebral cortex creates awareness of the emotion, while descending pathways to the hypothalamus and brain stem initiate voluntary behaviors and unconscious responses mediated by autonomic, endocrine, immune, and somatic motor systems.

What three systems influence motor output? (p 305, pg 306, The Cerebral Cortex is Organized into Functional Areas, paragraph 1)

Sensory system, Cognitive system, and Behavioral State System

Where are taste receptors located and what are they composed of? mechanistic approach (chapter 10, page 327, left column, taste pathways, paragraph 1, line 1-6)

Receptors for taste are located primarily on taste buds clustered together on the surface of the tongue. One taste bud is composed of 50-150 taste receptor cells (TRCs), along with support cells and regenerative basal cells. Taste receptors are also scattered through the oral cavity, such as the palate.

Where do reflex movements and postural reflexes originate in the body? (pg 427, table 13.3)

Reflex movements -> spinal cord Postural reflexes -> brain stem

How are rhythmic movements initiated and terminated? Mechanistic approach, chapter 13,Movement Can Be Classified as Reflex Voluntary or Rhythmic, page 453, left column, last paragraph, lines 1-4.

Rhythmic movements are initiated and terminated by input from the cerebral cortex, but once activated, networks of CNS interneurons called central pattern generators (CPGs)maintain the spontaneous repetitive activity. Changes in rhythmic activity, such as changing from walking to skipping, are also initiated by input from the cerebral cortex.

What is the role, location of where it receives input, and where it sends integrative output to of the basal ganglia? (Teleological, Ch. 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflex, pg. 428, bottom chart)

Role- motor planning Receives input from- cerebral cortex Sends integrative output to- cerebral cortex and the brain stem

How are the neurotransmitters and receptors similar and different between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the nervous system? (Mechanistic) pg 389, table 11.4

Similar: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system uses Acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter in ganglionic synapses, and the receptor is nicotinic. Differ: in sympathetic, the neuron-target synapse uses Norepinephrine as the neurotransmitter, and the receptor is an alpha or beta adrenergic receptor. In the parasympathetic nervous system, the neuron-target synapses use Acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter, and muscarinic receptors.

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue found in the human body and where are they found? (pg 432, paragraph 3, sentence 1)

Skeletal, Cardiac and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle found in bones of skeleton, cardiac found in the heart, and smooth found in internal organs and tubes.

What is the comparison between the three muscle types in neural control of contraction? (Teleological, Ch. 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 411, top chart)

Skeletal: somatic motor neuron Smooth: Autonomic neurons Cardiac: autonomic neurons

How is the efferent division of the peripheral nervous system subdivided? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Efferent Division: Automatic and Somatic Motor Control, page 359, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-4

Somatic motor neurons - control skeletal muscles; typically called voluntary, require conscious thought Autonomic neurons - control smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, many glands, and some adipose tissue; typically involuntary

Why are somatic motor neurons necessary for muscle health? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, The Somatic Motor Division, page 373, right column, fifth paragraph, 1-7th line

Somatic motor neurons are necessary for movement and posture of skeletal muscles. Without the communication between motor neuron and muscle, the skeletal muscles for posture and movement will weaken, as will the skeletal muscles for breathing.

How are somatic and autonomic reflexes different? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Neural Reflexes, page 418, left column, sixth paragraph, 2-5th line

Somatic reflex are those that involve somatic motor neurons and skeletal muscles. Autonomic reflexes are those whose responses are controlled by autonomic neurons.

What are the symptoms of generalized sympathetic dysfunction? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 11, Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Are Relatively Uncommon, page 393, left column, 4th paragraph, lines 1-8.

Some symptoms include hypotension, incontinence, and impotence.

Why might microglia not always be helpful? (page 235, 2nd column, first full paragraph)

Sometimes activated microglia will release a damaging reactive oxygen species, that can form free radicals. The oxidative stress caused the the reactive oxygen species is believed to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases such as Lou Gehrig's disease.

How do spinal reflexes differ from the cranial reflexes? (Mechanistic) pg 442, paragraph 7, lines 1-5.

Spinal reflexes are integrated in the spinal cord, whereas cranial reflexes are integrated in the brain.

How do spinal reflexes occur without input from the brain? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic Reflexes Are Important for Homeostasis, page 384, right column, 1st paragraph, lines 1-5.

Spinal reflexes have pathways that bypass the brain and so do not require conscious thought.

What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the inactivation enzyme neurotransmitter? (Teleological, Ch. 11, The Autonomic Division, pg. 366, bottom chart)

Sympathetic division is the monoamine oxidase in mitochondria of varicosity. Parasympathetic division is the acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft.

What type of neurotransmitter do sympathetic and parasympathetic use?

Sympathetic pathways use acetylcholine and norepinephrine. Parasympathetic pathways use acetylcholine. Pg. 383, Section: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions. chart 11.6, no lines.

Why are thermoreceptors ore sensitive to temperature changes than to pressure? teleological, Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 312, left column, paragraph 3, lines 2-5

Temperature is their adequate stimulus, a particular form of energy to which it is most responsive.

How (mechanistic) do temperature receptors work? (Chapter 10, Subsection Temperature Receptors Are Free Nerve Endings, p. 346, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8)

Temperature receptors are free nerve endings that terminate in the subcutaneous layers of the skin. Cold receptors are sensitive primarily to temperatures lower than body temperature. Warm receptors are stimulated by temperatures in the range extending from normal body temperature (37° C) to about 45° C. Above that temperature, pain receptors are activated, creating a sensation of painful heat.

Describe the mechanism by which tetanospasmin travel up the axon to the nerve cell body. Ch. 13, pg. 421, right column, Running Problem Box, row 3, column 3

Tetanospasmin is taken up by endocytosis, so it will be contained in endocytotic vesicles. These vesicles "walk" along microtubules through retrograde axonal transport.

How do the two types of tetanus differ? (mech) 396, left, paragraph 3, lines 1-10

Tetanus is the state of maximal contraction when relaxation between contractions diminishes until the muscle fiber reaches that point. Incomplete (unfused) tetanus is when the stimulation rate of the muscle fiber is not at a maximum value and therefore, the fiber relaxes slightly between stimuli. In complete (fused) tetanus, the stimulation rate is fast enough that the muscle fiber does not have time to relax. So it reaches a maximum tension and remains there.

How are peptides synthesized and processed? (Mechanistic approach) ch 7, page 203, Peptide Hormone Synthesis and Processing, figure 7.3

mRNA binds to amino acids into preprohormone. This chain goes to the ER due to the signal chain, which is then removed due to enzymes. This pro-hormone then moves to the Golgi, where it is activated by additional enzymes. Exocytosis then removes the contents of the secretory vesicle, while the hormone moves into the bloodstream.

How are peptide hormones created? Chapter 7, Classification of hormones, page 202, left column, paragraphs 1 - 3

mRNA produces a peptide chain sequence called a preprohormone, which is directed to the ER, where it is processed into a prohormone and passes through the golgi complex where it is formed into an active horone and packaged into a secretory vesicle. The secretory vesicle then secretes the hormone where it goes into the blood stream.

What might happen if the hypothalamic control centers receive direct damage? (page 369, left column, first paragraph under Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous system are Relatively Uncommon)

The body may lose its ability to regulate water balance or temperature.

How are catecholamines broken down by the cells? (Mechanistic) pg 384, figure 11.7

The cells have an enzyme called monoamine oxidase, which breaks down the catecholamines.

What is the future of the cells lining the neural tube? (mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 277, The CNS Develops from a Hollow Tube, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-3

The cells will differentiate into the epithelial ependyma or remain as undifferentiated neural stem cells

Which stuctures are contained in the ampulla?

The crista and cupulla (The Semicircular Canals Sense Rotational Acceleration, pg. 361)

Why is hypothalamus important for homeostasis? teleological approach (chapter 9, column 1, page 289, the diencephalon contains the centers for homeostasis, paragraph 4, line 1-7)

The hypothalamus serves as the center for homeostasis and contains centers for various behavioral drives, such as hunger and thirst. Hypothalamus can also produce output that can influence many functions of the autonomic divisions of the nervous system, as well as a variety of endocrine functions.

Why do fast-twitch muscle fibers actually constrict quickly? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscle is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, page 380, right column, paragraphs 3-5, lines 2-18

The isoform of myosin ATPase used in fiber thick flaments determines the speed of contraction. Fast-twitch fibers consume ATP more quickly and can complete entire cycles more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers.

How did the nervous system evolve from the nerve net of the jellyfish to the human forebrain? (Mechanistic) pg 290, figure 9.1

The jellyfish has a nerve net, but no brain. This then evolved into nerve cords and primitive brain of the flatworm. This then evolved into the earthworm's system of a brain and ganglia, which then evolved into fish's compartmentalization of the brain, including a small forebrain. This then evolved into the goose's brain, which has a much larger forebrain, which then evolves into the human's nervous system, which has a much bigger forebrain.

How does the patellar tendon (knee jerk) reflex work?(mechanistic) (ch13 pg 450 figure 13.6)

The knee jerk reflex works by the receptor reacts to a stimulus and the muscle spindle stretches and fires, along the afferent path travels through sensory neurons to the integrating center in the spinal cord. Then the efferent somatic motor neurons for to the quad and the hamstring, resulting in a response of the quad contracting and swinging the leg forward.

How is neural signaling hindered to cause demyelinating diseases? mechanistic, Chapter 8 Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties: Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 249, paragraph 4, lines 1-7

The loss of myelin from vertebrate neurons slows the conduction of action potentials in the central and peripheral nervous system. Also, when current leaks out of these now-uninsulated membrane regions between nodes of Ranvier, the depolarization may no longer be above threshold and cause conduction to fail.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 363, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-3

The main anatomical differences are (1) the pathways' point of origin in the CNS and (2) the location of the autonomic ganglia

What is the simplex reflex in a myotatic unit? (Teleological). Chapter 13: Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 424, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-5

The monosynaptic stretch. It only involves 2 neurons: the sensory neuron from the muscle spindle and the somatic motor neuron to the muscle

Where are the origin and insertion of a muscle located on the body? (Mechanistic, Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 379, left column, 32-35)

The origin of a muscle is the end of the muscle closest to the trunk or to the more stationary bone. The insertion of the muscle is the more distal or more mobile attachment.

Why does Duchenne muscular dystropy cause progressive muscular weakness? (Teleological) Chapter 12, page 403, Muscle Disorders Have Multiple Causes, left column, 1st paragraph, lines 7-12

The structural dystrophin is absent and in muscle fibers that lack dystrophin, extracellular Ca2+ enters the fiber through small tears in the membrane or possibly through stretch-activated channels. Calcium entry activates intracellular which result in the breakdown of the fiber components.

What makes urination, defecation, and penile erection distinct from other body functions? Chapter 11 Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control: The Autonomic Division, page 360, right column, paragraph 1, lines 2-5

These are spinal reflexes. They can occur without input from the brain although they can be influenced by descending pathways from the brain.

How do voltage gated Na+ channels regulate movement? (Mechanistic, ch 8, pg. 245, left column, 7th paragraph, lines 1-9)

These gates are actually made up of two gates and not a single gate. They have an activation and inactivation gate which both flip-flop back and forth to open and close the Na+ channel.

Why are patients with the disease pseudohypoparathyroidism unable to respond to parathyroid hormone, and thus, show signs of hormone deficiency? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 7, Receptor or Second Messenger Problems Cause Abnormal Tissue Responsiveness, page 218, left column, paragraph 2, lines 2-11

These patients have inherited a defect in the G-protein that links the hormone receptor to an adenylyl cyclase; as a result of impeding the signal transduction pathway, target cells are unable to respond to parathyroid hormone.

Why are Meninges important? (Teleological approach) Page 280, Paragraph 3

They lie between the bones and tissues of the central nervous system. These membranes(3 layers) help stabilize the neural tissue and protect it from bruising against the bones of the skeleton. The 3 layers: starting from the bone and moving out are (1) Dura matter, (2) arachnoid membrane, (3) pia mater.

How do you tune out music or dampen your perceptual threshold?

This is called habituation by inhibitory modulation. Inhibitory modulation diminishes a suprathreshold stimulus until it is below the perceptual threshold using the secondary neurons of the sensory pathway. (The CNS Integrates Sensory Information, pg.337)

How does oxygen in the blood diffuse into the interior muscle fibers to reach the mitochondria? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, page 394, right column, paragraph 2, lines 2-4

This process is facilitated by myoglobin, a red oxygen-binding pigment with a high affinity for oxygen. This affinity lets myoglobin act as a transfer molecule, bringing oxygen more rapidly to the interior of the fiber.

Describe the process that is required for muscle contraction to extend the leg. (Mechanism, Ch. 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflex, pg. 424, column 1, paragraph 5, lines 2-3)

This process is known as the reciprocal inhibition. This process is of muscles of one side of a joint reflexing to accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint.

Why is the adrenal medulla important for the sympathetic nervous system? Chapter 11 Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control: The Autonomic Division, page 367, left column, lines 1-5

This specialized neuroendocrine tissue primarily secretes epinephrine, a catecholamine, an important signal molecule

Why are sweat glands and smooth muscles in blood vessels an exception to dual antagonistic innervation? (Teleological approach) Ch 11, The Autonomic Division, page 361, left column, 3rd paragraph, line 1-4

Those tissues are innervated only by the sympathetic branch and rely strictly on tonic control.

What are the most sensitive receptors? (Pg. 333, paragraph 1, sentence 1)

Those with the lowest thresholds- they respond to the lowest intensity stimulus

What are the two primary functions of titin? Ch.12, pg. 383, right column, lines 10-12

Titin stabilizes the position of the contractile filaments and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length.

Name and Discuss the two proteins that ensure the proper alignment of filaments within a sarcomere. Ch.12, pg. 383, right column, lines 2-4, 13-15

Titin, Nebulin; Titin is a huge elastic molecule and the largest known protein. Nebulin is an inelastic giant protein that lies alongside thin filaments and attaches to the Z disk.

What are tonic receptors? mechanistic approach (chapter 10, duration of the stimulus, paragraph 2, page 316, line 1-3, left column)

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present.

What is the difference between tonic receptors and phasic receptors? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, page 316, left column, second/third paragraphs, 1-3rd lines

Tonic receptors are slowly adapting receptors that fire rapidly when first activated, then slow and maintain their firing as long as the stimulus is present. In contrast, phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant

Why do sports drinks have K+? (teleological approach) Ch 8, p 266, Chemical Signals Alter Electrical Activity, left column, paragraphs 2 and 3

because when K+ levels get too low, hypokalemia occurs so that larger stimuli are required to create an action potential, which can lead to muscle weakness because muscle cells aren't stimulated like they're supposed to be

What is the name of the inhibitor that acts as an antidepressant by slowing down the removal of serotonin? (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, Moods are Long-Lasting Emotional States, page 319, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 6-10

selective seratonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI's)

What is the predominant theory that describes how actin and myosin move in muscle contraction? Ch 12, p 406, Actin and Myosin Slide Past Each Other During Contraction, right column, paragraph 5

sliding filament theory

What division of the nervous system is responsible for the fight-or-flight response? (Ch 11, p 378, The Autonomic Division, right column, paragraph 4)

sympathetic nervous system

What structures are unique to muscle cells and allow an action potential to travel more quickly? Ch 12, p 401, Skeletal Muscles are Composed of Muscle Fibers, left column, paragraph 5

t-tubules

What is the name of the nerve that carries both sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to organs? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, page 381, right column, entire third paragraph.

vagus nerve (cranial nerve X),

What does it mean for internal organs to be under antaganostic control? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, page 361, left column, 2nd paragraph.

one autonomic branch is excitatory and the other branch is inhibitory

What are the the six physiological significant hormones? (Teleological), pg. 209, right column, under "The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones", paragraph 1, lines 9-11

prolactin, thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropin, growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone

What are the two types of smooth muscle coordination? (Pg. 437, Figure 12.23 a and b)

1) Single-unit smooth muscle cells are connected by gap junctions, and the cells contract as a single unit. 2) Multi-unit smooth muscle cells are not electrically linked, and each cell must be stimulated independently.

What are the functions of titin (Pg. 4o4, paragraph 10, sentence 1)

1) it stabilizes the position of the contractile filaments and (2) its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length.

What are the four ways by which neural reflexes can be classified? (Mechanistic, Chapter 13, Integrative Physiology I: Control of Body Movement, pg. 418, table 13.1)

1- efferent division that controls the effector 2- integrating region within the CNS 3- time at which the reflex develops 4- the number of neurons in the reflex pathway

What are the 4 major events of E-C Coupling? (pg 443, Acetylcholine Excitation-Contraction Coupling, paragraph 1)

1. ACh is released from the somatic motor neuron 2. ACh initiates an action potential in the muscle fiber 3. The muscle action potential triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. Calcium combines with troponin and initiates contraction.

How does the contraction cycle take place? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12: Skeletal Muscle, page 387, figure 12.9

1. ATP binds to myosin: myosin releases actin 2. Myosin hydrolyzes ATP: energy from ATP rotates the myosin head to the cocked position. Myosin bids weakly to actin 3. Power stroke begins when tropomyosin moves off the binding site 4. Myosin releases ADP at the end of the power stroke

What are the three levels of the nervous system that control movement? page 428, right column, first paragraph

1. The spinal cord, which integrates spinal reflexes and contains central pattern generators 2. the brain stem and cerebellum, which control postural reflexes and hand and eye movements 3. The cerebral cortex and basal ganglia, which are responsible for voluntary movements

How is the membrane potential influenced by cellular factors? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, The Nernst Equation Predicts Membrane Potential for a Single Ion, page 236, right column, paragraph 2, lines 2-4

1. The uneven distribution of ions across the cell membrane 2. Differing membrane permeability to those ions

What are 2 reasons why NMDA receptors are unusual? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 8, pg 256

1. They are nonselective cation channels that allow Na+, K+, and Ca2+ to pass through the channel 2. Channel opening requires both glutamate binding and a change in membrane potential

What are Golgi tendon organs?

A Golgi tendon organ is a type of receptor found at the junction of tendons and muscle fibers, placed in series with the muscle fibers. Golgi tendon organs are composed of free nerve ending that wind between collagen fibers inside a connective tissue capsule. They respond primarily to muscle tension created during the isometric phase of contraction and are relatively insensitive to muscle stretch. P.421 Left column middle.

Why is there a blind spot in the eye? (tele) 346, right, paragraph 3, lines 4-6

A blind spot occurs on an area of the optic disk because there are no photoreceptors present there. This means that an image projected to that region cannot be seen.

How is a substance tasted? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 327, Chemoreception: Smell and Taste, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-7

A tastant must be dissolved in the saliva and mucous of the mouth and then they act as ligands to apical membrane proteins on the taste receptor cell. Interaction between ligand and membrane receptor protein initiates a signal transduction cascade that ends with the release of chemical messenger molecules from the taste receptor cells.

Sleepwalking is most common in who? (Pg. 311, paragraph 6, sentence 1)

Children (frequency of episodes declines with age)

Why don't action potentials affect the electrochemical gradient? (Teleological Approach) Ch 8, page 277, Electrical Signals in Neurons, left column, paragraph 4, lines 2-13

A single/small amount of action potentials is actually a very small amount of ions, and you need a lot more ions to actually affect an electrochemical gradient change.

What function does acetylcholinesterase serve in the extracellular matrix of a neuromuscular junction? (Teleological Approach), Chapter 11, A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron, page 371, right column, paragraph 2, lines 9-11

Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme in the extracellular matrix of the NMJ that rapidly degrades ACh into its acetyl and choline constituents.

Why are action potentials sometimes referred to as "all-or-none" phenomena? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 8, Action Potentials Travel Long Distances, page 242, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6

Action potentials are often referred to as "all-or-none" because they either occur as a maximum depolarization (assuming threshold is reached) or do not occur at all.

Why are action potentials sometimes called all or none phenomena? teleological approach, Chapter 8, Establishing Synapses depends on Chemical Signal, page 256, Left column, third paragraph, lines 1-7.

Action potentials are sometimes called all-or-none phenomena because they either occur as a maximal depolarization (if the stimulus reaches threshold) or do not occur at all (if the stimulus is below threshold). The strength of the graded potential that initiates an action potential has no influence on the amplitude of the action potential.

Why are action potentials able to maintain constant voltage? Chapter 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 243, right column, third paragraph, lines 3-7

Actions potentials are not the result of one voltage gated ion channel, but instead several voltage gated sodium channels opening in sequential order along the axon and thus the depolarization is constantly reinforced

How do muscles stay in the tightly bound rigor state after death? (mechanistic) Chapter 12, page 388, Myosin Heads Step along Actin Filaments, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

After death, the metabolism stops and ATP supplies are exhausted. Thus, the muscles are not able to bind anymore ATP so they remain in this tightly bound rigor state. In the condition of rigor mortis, the muscles freeze due to immovable cross-bridges. Actin and myosin are bound very tightly, and this is the case for about a day or two after death. Then, enzymes are released within the decay fiber which begin to break down the muscle proteins.

How are neurohormones released and how do they reach their target? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 209, The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones , left column, paragraphs 4-5, lines 1-13

After the neurohormones are made, they are packaged into secretory vesicles. These vesicles are transported to the posterior pituitary through the neuron axons. When they reach the axon terminals, they wait there for the release of the electrical signal. When the stimulus reaches the hypothalamus, the electrical signal passes from the neuron cell body in the hypothalamus to the distal end of the cell in the posterior pituitary. The depolarization of the axon terminal opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and allows Ca2+ to enter the cell. This triggers exocytosis and the vesicle contents are released into the blood, where the neurohormone can travel to its target.

How is does the human body sense rotation? (Mechanistic), pg. 337, paragraph 3 under Semicircular Canals Sense Rotational Acceleration, right column, lines 1-6

As the head turns, the bony skull and the membranous walls of the labyrinth move, but the fluid within the labyrinth cannot keep up because of inertia. In the ampulae, the drag of endolymph bends the cupula and its hair cells in the direction opposite to the direction in which the head is turning.

How is rotation sensed? Chapter 10, The Semicircular Canals Sense Rotational Acceleration, 3rd paragraph, 2-5 lines

As the head turns, the bony skull and the membranous walls of the labyrinth move, but the fluid within the labyrinth cannot keep up because of the inertia. In the ampullae, the drag of endolymph bends the cupula and its hair cells in the direction opposite to the direction in which the head is turning.

How do the ascending and descending tracts of the white matter of the spinal cord differ?(Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, The Spinal Cord, page 284, left column, sixth paragraph, 5-10th line

Ascending tracts of the white matter take sensory information to the brain and occupy the dorsal and external lateral portions of the spinal cord. Descending tracts mostly carry motor (efferent) signals from the brain to the spinal cord. They take up the ventral and interior lateral portions of the white matter.

What is the difference between ascending and descending tracts? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, page 284, left column, 6th paragraph.

Ascending tracts take sensory (afferent) information to the brain. Descending tracts carry motor (efferent) information from brain to cord.

How do analgesic drugs (ranging from aspirin to potent opioids like morphine) help to alleviate pain? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 323, Nociceptors Initiate Protective Responses, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-11

Aspirin inhibits prostaglandins, decreases inflammation, and presumably slows the transmission of pain signals from the site of the energy. Some opioid drugs act directly on the central nervous system's opioid receptors, which are part of an analgesic system that responds to endogenous opioid molecules. The activation of these opioid receptors blocks pain perception by decreasing neurotransmitter release from primary sensory neurons and by postsynaptic inhibition of the secondary sensory neurons.

Damage to which area of the cerebral cortex causes expressive aphasia? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, page 303, right column, 3rd paragraph.

Broca's area (expressive aphasia: able to understand simple, unambiguous language but have difficulty interpreting complicated sentences with several elements linked together)

How are the main effects of the anterior pituitary gland and testes similar and different in males? (Mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 201, Fig. 7.2

Both function for the sex hormone production of sperm, but the anterior pituitary gland also has many more functions of milk production, growth and metabolism, cortisol release, and thyroid hormone synthesis while the other effects of the testes are limited to secondary sex characteristics and inhibiting FSH secretion

How can the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches be distinguished chemically? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The autonomic nervous system uses a variety of chemical signals, page 364, left column, first paragraph, 4-11th line

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors on the postganglionic cell. Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors on the target cell

How do you distinguish sympathetic and parasympathetic branches chemically? Page 364, Left column, para 2, Lines 1-6 Mech

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganlionic neurons release acetylcholine onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors on the postganglionic cell. Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetyl-choline into muscarine cholinergic receptor on the target cell.

How does temporal summation of action potentials work to initiate action potential? mechanistic appraoch, page 288, Top box, Temporal SUmmation

By arriving within a short period of time, two subthreshold action potentials can initiate an action potential in the neuron.

How do newer antihistamines have less of the tiring side effects? Mechanistic appraoch, Page 307, Left column, The Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the Brain, Pargraph 2, all of the paragraph

By being less lipid soluble than older antihistamines, the newer antihistamines do not cross the blood-brain barrier as easily and therefore do not have the same sedative effects

How are neural reflexes classified as learned or innate? Mechanistic approach, Page 442, left column, Neural Reflex Pathways can be classified in different ways, Number 3, all of it.

By definition of innate and learned. Innate reflexes are reflexes that we are born with. Learned reflexes are those that we acquire through experience.

How are joint receptors stimulated? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13 pg 421

By mechanical distortion alongside change in relative positioning of bones linked by flexible joints

How can neural reflexes be classified? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Neural reflex pathways can be classified in different ways, page 418, left column, first paragraph, 1-29th line

By the efferent division of the nervous system that controls the response, by the CNS location where the reflex is integrated, by whether the reflex is innate or learned, and by the number of neurons in the reflex pathway

How can neural reflexes be classified? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13 pg 418

By the efferent division of the nervous system that controls the response, by the CNS location where the reflex is integrated. No matter if the reflex is innate or learned, and by the number of neurons in the reflex pathway

Explain the theory that allows you to modulate your pain by rubbing your elbow after you bump. (Teleological, Chapter 10, pg. 323, Pain Modulation, left column, lines 1-4)

By the gate control theory, a-beta fibers carrying sensory information about mechanical stimuli help block pain transmission by synapsing onto inhibitory interneurons and enhancing the interneurons inhibitory activity. When simultaneous stimuli reach the inhibitory neuron from a-beta fibers and C fibers, the integrated response is partial inhibiton of the ascending pain pathway. In the example of bumping your elbow, if you rub it after bumping it, this rubbing activates the a-beta fibers and helps decrease sensation from pain.

How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches differentiated? Mechanistic approach, Page 383, Right Column, The autonomic division, Paragraph 3, Lines all of it. Paragraph 4, Lines 1-2

By the situations in which they are most active. Parasympathetic nervous system = most active when resting quietly. Sympathetic nervous system = most active during fight or flight and stressful times.

Why is the regeneration of axons in the CNS less likely to occur? (Teleological approach) Ch 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 236, right column, 5th column, line 1-4

CNS glial cells seal off and scar the damaged region. The damaged CNS cells secrete factors to inhibit axon regrowth.

Which ion is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular fluid and initiates smooth muscle contraction? (Mechanistic) Ch 12, Myosin Phosphorylation Controls Contraction, Page 429 right column, first paragraph, bullet points 1-4

Ca2+

How does the Ca2+ signal in muscle fibers actually cause contraction? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 12, Calcium Signals Initiate Contraction, page 386, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-5

Ca2+ binds to troponin C to form a complex that displaces tropomyosin; this displacement uncovers actin-myosin binding sites on the G-actin subunits, allowing for high-force cross bridge connection between myosin and the actin filament. The power stroke of the myosin motor proteins causes actin filaments to be pulled toward the M line (contraction).

How Does the Parathyroid Hormone maintain calcium homeostasis?(Mech), Ch7, Control of hormone release, pg 206, right column, paragraph 4, lines 4-7

Ca2+ concentration is monitored by parathyroid endocrine cells with the aid of G protein-couples Ca2+ receptors on their membranes and when these receptors are bound with enough Ca2+ PTH is inhibited

How can the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches be chemically distinguished by their neurotransmitters and receptors? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Nervous System Uses a Variety of Chemical Signals, page 364, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-4

Can be distinguished using these rules: 1. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (ACh) onto nicotine cholingeric receptors (nAChR) on postganglionic cell 2. Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinepherine (NE) onto adrenal receptors on target cell 3. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetyl-chollne onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors (mAChR) on the target cell

How are catecholamines and thryroid hormones different? (Mechanistic Approach, Pg. 206, Left Column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-8)

Catechoamines and thyroid hormone are both tyrosine-based hormones but are very different. Catecholamines are neurohormones that bind to cell membrane receptors similarly to peptide hormones whereas thyroid hormones act more like steroid hormones with intracellular receptors that activate genes.

How are catecholamines differ from thyroid hormones?(Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, The Classification of Hormones, page 206, left column, second paragraph, 2-7th line

Catecholamines are neurohormones that bind to cell membrane receptors the way peptide hormones do. Thyroid hormones instead behave more like steroid hormones and have intracellular receptors that activate genes.

What are examples of hormones derived from a single amino acid?

Catelchomines and Melatonin (Some Hormones are Dervived From Single Amino Acids, pg.230)

Name the two parts of the nervous system and what they consist of. (Mechanism, Ch. 8, Organization of the Nervous System, pg. 227, column 2, paragraph 3, lines 2-4)

Central Nervous System, which consist of the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System, which consist of sensory neurons (afferent) and efferent neurons.

How do central fatigue and peripheral fatigue differ from each other? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, page 392, right column, eighth paragraph, 2-8th line

Central fatigue arises in the central nervous system while peripheral fatigue can arise anywhere between the neuromuscular junction and the contractile elements of the muscle. Central fatigue includes subjective feelings of tiredness and a desire to cease activity while peripheral fatigue is fatigue within the muscle fiber.

Why can computers not yet accurately model the brain? (Teleological approach) Page 275, Paragraph 5

Computers cannot yet accurately model brain function due to the fact that computers lack plasticity, the ability to change circuit connections and function in response to sensory input and past experience. The human brain can also add new connections when neural stem cells differentiate, and computers cannot add new circuits to themselves.

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex? (teleological) Chapter 10, page 318, Somatic Senses, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-2

It is the part of the brain that recognizes where ascending sensory tracts originate

What is the function of the corticospinal tract? mechanistic approach (chapter 13, page 429, right column, the CNS integrates movement, paragraph 6, line 2-5)

Corticospinal tract is a group of interneurons that controls voluntary movement that run from the motor cortex to the spinal cord, where they synapse directly onto somatic motor neurons.

Explain how the hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal pathway (HPA) are a good example of feedback loops. (Mechanistic, Chapter 7, Hormone Interactions, pg. 214, left column, lines 2-7)

Cortisol is secreted from the adrenal cortex and feeds back to suppress secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. ACTH also exerts short-loop negative feedback on the secretion of CRH.

What is the vargus nerve and what is its function? (teleological) Chapter 11, page 363, The Autonomic Division, right column, paragraph 3, lines 2-6

It is the major parasympathetic tract and contains 75% of all parasympathetic fibers. It carries both sensory info from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to organs

Why can we discriminate between thousands of different odors? Teleological approach, chapter 10, Olfaction is one of the oldest senses, page 344, right column, last paragraph, lines 3-9

Current research suggests that each individual olfactory sensory neuron contains a single type of odorant receptor. The axons of cells with the same receptors converge on a few secondary neurons in the olfactory bulb, which then can modify the information before sending it on to the olfactory cortex. The brain uses information from hundreds of olfactory sensory neurons in different combinations to create the perception of many different smells, just as combinations of letters create different words.

Why are cytokines not considered hormones? (Teleological approach) Page 199, paragraph 6

Cytokines are synthesized and released on demand, in contrast to classic peptide hormones, which are made in advance and stored in the parent endocrine cell.

How does damage to Wernicke's area and Broca's area differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 9, Brain Function, page 303, right column, third and fourth paragraph, 1-9th line

Damage to Wernicke's area can cause a person to have difficulty understanding spoken or visual information. This condition is known as receptive aphasia because the person is unable to understand sensory input. Damage to Broca's area can cause expressive aphasia, or difficulty interpreting complicated sentences with many elements linked together. Their syntax when speaking or writing may also differ from normal syntax

How is declarative memory formed? (mech) 301, right, paragraph 4, lines 1-7

Declarative memory which is also called explicit memory requires conscious attention for recall. These memories are created by use of higher level cognition like interference, comparison, and evaluation. The temporal lobes are used for this. Declarative memories usually deal with knowledge about ourselves and the world we live in .

How does deep sleep differ from REM sleep? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 9, Brain Function, page 296, right column, 5th paragraph, line 5-7

Deep sleep has delta waves, high-amplitude, low frequency of long durations that sweep across the cerebral cortex. REM sleep has waves that are more similar to an awake person.

Why are fast twitch muscle fibers faster than slow-twitch muscle fibers? Chapter 12, skeletal muscle, page 393, right column, paragraph 5, lines 2-6

Fast twitch muscle fibers are able to develop tension more quickly because of the isoform of myosin ATPase they have in their thick filaments, they are able to split ATP more rapidly and can thus complete contraction cycles more quickly than slow twitch fibers

Why do dendritic spines change their size and shape? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 242, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

Dendritic spines change their size and shape in response to input from neighboring cells. This is also associated with learning, memory and various pathologies such as genetic disorders (mental retardation) and degenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease).

How does denervation hypersensitivity occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 369, Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Are Relatively Uncommon, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-8

Denervation hypersensitivity is a state in which the administration of exogenous adrenergic agonists causes a greater-than-expected response. When patients suffer from primary autonomic failure, when sympathetic neurons degenerate, they experience continued diminished sympathetic input so the target issues up-regulate. This puts more receptors into the cell membrane to maximize the r=cell's response to available norepinephrine.

How are neurotransmitters released by exocytosis? Page 258, left column, Para 1 Mech

Depolarisation of action potential reaches axon terminal. change in membrane potential causes voltage gated Ca2+ channels to open, Calcium moves into the cell and binds to regulatory proteins, initiating exocytosis. The membrane of the synaptic vesicle fuses with cell membrane. The fused area opens and neurotransmitter inside the synaptic vesicle moves into the synaptic cleft.

Why are depolarizing graded potentials considered to be excitatory? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 8, Graded Potentials Reflect Stimulus Strength, page 266, left column, 5th paragraph, lines 1-3.

Depolarization makes a neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Why do stronger stimuli release more neurotransmitter? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 8, Stronger Stimuli Release More Neurotransmitter, page 284, left column, 1st paragraph, lines 6-8.

Each action potential releases a constant amount of neurotransmitter. A stronger stimulus causes more action potentials per second, which cause more total neurotransmitter to be released.

Why must dosage of exogenous hormones be tapered off gradually rather than stopped suddenly after treatment is complete? Chapter 7, Hypersecretion Exaggerates a Hormone's Effects, page 241, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 7-13.

Exogenous hormone acts as a negative feedback signal, so cells associated with production of the hormone would stop producing the hormone and eventually atrophy. When the exogenous hormone is stopped, then the cells would be slow to restart production of the hormone. Therefore, the dosage must be lowered gradually to allow the cells to regain their normal function.

Why do fast-twitch muscle fibers develop tension two to three times faster than slow-twitch fibers? (Teleological) Chapter 12, page 393, Skeletal Muscle is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, right, 3rd paragraph, lines 4-8

Fast twitch fibers split ATP more rapidly and can therefore complete multiple contractile cycles more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers. This speed translates into faster tension development in the fast-twitch fibers.

What is Hyperopia, and how does it occur? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, Light Enters the Eye through the Pupil, Page 361, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 2-4

Farsightedness, or hyperopia, occurs when the focal point falls behind the retina. These vision problems are caused by abnormally curved or flattened corneas or by eyeballs that are too long or too short..

What is fast axonal transport? (Chapter 8, Teleological/Mechanistic, Cells of the Nervous System, right column, pg. 231, lines 31-33, pg. 232, lines 1-3)

Fast axonal transport is a method that the axons of neurons carry organelles with outgoing signals at a very fast rate- up to 400 mm per day.

What is the difference between fast pain and slow pain? mechanistic, Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology, Somatic Senses, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-6

Fast pain is sharp and localized. It is rapidly transmitted to the CNS by the small, myelinated fibers. Slow pain is duller and more diffuse. It is carried on small, unmyelinated C fibers.

Why are fast pain and slow pain different? Teleological approach, chapter 10, Pain and Itching Are Mediated by Nociceptors, page 339, left column, third paragraph, lines 1-7

Fast pain, described as sharp and localized, is rapidly transmitted to the CNS by small, myelinated Ad fibers. Slow pain, described as duller and more diffuse, is carried on small, unmyelinated C fibers. The timing distinction between the two is most obvious when the stimulus originates far from the CNS, such as when you stub your toe. You first experience a quick stabbing sensation (fast pain), followed shortly by a dull throbbing (slow pain).

What factors affect fatigue in the muscle?

Fatigue is associated with the depletion of muscle glycogen stores. Low pH from acid production during ATP hydrolysis is often mentioned as a possible cause of fatigue. Pg. 393, section: Fatigue Has Multiple Causes, Column 1, lines: 10-11.

Why is fatigue highly variable? (tele) 392, right, paragraph 3 (lines 1-8) & paragraph 4 (lines 1-6)

Fatigue is defined as a reversible condition in which an exercising muscle is no longer able to generate or sustain the expected power output. It is influenced by the intensity and duration of the contractile activity, whether the muscle is using aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, muscle composition, and fitness level of the individual. Central fatigue arises in the CNS while peripheral fatigue arises anywhere else between the neuromuscular junction and contractile elements of the muscle.

How is smooth, continuous motion maintained in the body? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13, The Integrated Control of Body Movement, page 428, left column, 5th paragraph, line 6-8

Feedforward reflexes allow the body to prepare for voluntary movement with feedback mechanisms which help in smooth and continuous motion.

What allows the body to prepare for voluntary movement? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 13, Movement Can Be Classified as Reflex, Voluntary, or Rhythmic, page 428, left column, paragraph 5, lines 2-6

Feedforward reflexes prepare the body for voluntary movement and feedback mechanism are used to create a smooth, continuous motion.

What is fight or flight? 359 right column

Fight or flight is the response to danger by our autonomic nervous system that prepares our body to either escape or battle for our safety.

What are the three major types of motor output and how are they governed? (page 294, column 1, first paragraph after The motor system governs output from the CNS)

First division is the skeletal muscle movement controlled by the somatic nervous system. Neuroendocrine signals are the next division, which are neurohormones secreted into the blood by neurons located primarily in the hypothalamus and adrenal medulla. Third type are the visceral responses which are the actions of smooth and cardiac muscle or endocrine and exocrine glands. They are governed by the autonomic division.

How does the crossed extensor reflex work/activate? (Mechanistic), pg. 426, Fig. 13.6, numbers 1-3c explanation

First, a painful stimulus activates the nociceptor. Then, primary sensory neurons enter the spinal cord and diverge. Next, one collateral activates ascending pathways for sensation (pain) and postural adjustment (shift in center of gravity). Withdrawal reflex pulls the muscle away from the painful stimulus. Lastly, a crossed extensor reflex supports the body as the weight shifts away from the painful stimulus.

How does the process of vision work? (Mechanistic), pg. 340, left column, paragraph 1, lines 8-13

First, light enters the eye and the lens focuses the light on the retina. Then photoreceptors of the retina transduce light energy into an electrical signal. Finally, neural pathways from retina to brain process electrical signal into visual images.

What are the classic steps for identifying an endocrine gland?

First, remove the suspected gland in a test animal, similar to inducing a state of hormone deficiency. The animal should start exhibiting symptoms if that is a gland. Second, the hormone can be replaced, by either placing the gland back or administering the gland extract. Replacement therapy should eliminate symptoms. Lastly, a state of hormone excess can be done to check if excess symptoms appear. p. 198 Left column, middle.

How is light modified before striking the retinas? (page 342, first paragraph on the left column)

First, the amount of light that reaches the photoreceptors is modulated by changes in the size of the pupil. Then, the light is focused by changes in the shape of the lens.

Briefly describe the signal transduction pathway of a taste cell. (the figure on page 328).

First, the ligand activates the taste cell. Various intracellular pathways are activated. Calcium channels then open up and come into to generate ATP. Then the neurotransmitters or ATP is released. Lastly, the primary sensory neuron fires and action potentials are sent to the brain.

What type of reflexes are responsible for quick reactions to pain? (pg 424, paragraph 5, lines 1-3)

Flexion reflexes are polysynaptic reflex pathways that cause an arm or leg to be pulled away from a noxious stimulus such as a pinprick or hot stove.

What is the role of flexion reflexes in the prevention of bodily harm? Ch. 13, pg. 424, right column, Flexion Reflexes

Flexion reflexes are polysynaptic reflex pathways that cause an arm or leg to be pulled away from a noxious stimulus, such as a pinprick or a hot stove.

Why do flexion reflexes take more time than stretch reflexes? (Teleological approach) Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 451, right column, last paragraph, lines 8-10

Flexion reflexes require more time than stretch reflexes (such as the knee jerk reflex) because it is polysynaptic rather than monosynaptic.

How do clinicians use reflexes to investigate the condition of the nervous system and muscles? Ch. 13, pg. 421, right column, Clinical Focus Box

For a reflex to be deemed normal, there must be normal synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction, normal conduction through all neurons in the pathway, and normal muscle contraction. A reflex that is absent, abnormally slow, or greatest than normal suggests the presence of pathology.

Why is the surgical procedure of Vagotomy abandoned? Teleological approach, chapter 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic branches originate in different regions, page 381, right column, last paragraph, lines 4-8.

For a time, vagotomy was the preferred treatment for stomach ulcers because removal of parasympathetic innervation to the stomach decreased the secretion of stomach acid. However, this procedure had many unwanted side effects and has been abandoned in favor of drug therapies that treat the problem more specifically.

How does diabetes relate to the way the brain works? (Mechanistic Approach) pg. 283, Chapter 9, Under Clinical Focus "Diabetes: Hypoglycemia and the Brain", lines 3-11

For diabetics who have too much glucose in their blood, they can experience hyperglycemia. When this happens, the cells of the blood-brain barrier down-regulate their glucose transporters. If the patient's blood glucose level falls below normal, the neurons of the brain may not be able to take up glucose fast enough to sustain their electrical activity. Then the individual may have confusion, irritability, and slurred speech and brain functions might fail.

How is our sense of smell an example of a sense that uses phasic receptors? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 10, Olfaction is one of the oldest senses, page 342, Right column, last paragraph, lines 2-7

For example, you can smell your cologne when you put it on in the morning, but as the day goes on your olfactory receptors adapt and are no longer stimulated by the cologne molecules. You no longer smell the fragrance, yet others may comment on it.

How do functional antagonists work to diminish the effectiveness of each other? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 7, page 216, Antagonistic Hormones Have Opposing Effects, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-12

Functional antagonists have opposite effects. For instance, glucagon is a hormone that raises blood glucose levels. This is antagonistic to insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels in the blood. One hormone may lower the number of receptors for the opposing hormone.

Compare gray and white matter in the nervous system. (p 293, The CNS is Divided into Gray and White Matter, paragraphs 2 & 3, lines 1-2 of each)

Gray matter: unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals. White matter: mostly myelinated axons with little to no cell bodies.

What are Growth Factors? Ch 7, Hormones are Transported to a Distant Target, Page 209, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-3

Growth factors are a large group of substances that influence cell growth and division.

What is the importance of growth factors (Teleo) Ch 7, Hormones, pg 199, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-3

Growth factors are a large group of substances that influence cell growth and division.

How (mechanistic) do growth factors act differently from hormones? (Chapter 7, p. 219, Subsection Hormones Are Transported to a Distant Target, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-6)

Growth factors are a large group of substances that influence cell growth and division. Although many growth factors have been shown to act locally as autocrines or paracrines, most do not seem to be distributed widely in the circulation.

What different types of signals do growth cones depend on to find their way? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 232, Establishing Synapses Depends on Chemical Signals, right column, 1st full paragraph, lines 6-9

Growth factors, molecules in the extracellular matrix, and membrane proteins on the growth cones and on cells along the path

Sense of taste is also called ___________. (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, Taste is a Combination of Five Basic Senses, page 344, left column, first paragraph, first line.

Gustation

How is a primary pathology and a secondary pathology different? Chapter 7, Diagnosis of Endocrine Pathologies Depends on the Complexity of the Reflex, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-10

If the issue arises from the last endocrine gland in a complex reflex pathway, the problem is considered to be a primary pathology. If the dysfunction occurs in the anterior pituitary, it's a secondary pathology.

Describe the function of proprioception.

It is the awareness of body movement and position in space, is mediated by muscle and joint sensory receptors called proprioceptors. Pg. 310, Section 1, column 1, lines: 28-30.

Why is the rigor state of the contractile cycle able to help determine 'time of death'? (Teleological approach) Chapter 12, The Rigor State, page 388, left column, paragraphs 1-2, lines 1.1-2.3

In living muscle, the rigor state in which no ATP/ADP is bound to myosin is very short. After death, however, when metabolism stops and ATP supplies are exhausted, muscles are unable to bind more ATP, so they remain in the tightly bound rigor state, known as rigor mortis, in which muscles 'freeze' because of the immovable cross-bridges. This state lasts a up to a day or so after death, until enzymes released within decaying fiber being to break down muscle fibers.

How does long-loop negative feedback differ from short-loop? (mechanistic)

In long-loop negative feedback, dominant in hypothalamic-pituitary pathways, the hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary and hypothalamic hormones when its concentration is high enough. In short-loop negative feedback, a pituitary hormone feeds back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus. p.213 bottom of page.

Why are brain capillaries so much less permeable than other capillaries? (teleological) Chapter 9, page 282, The Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the Brain, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-6

In other capillaries, leaky cell-cell junctions and pores allow for the free exchange of solutes from the plasma and interstitial fluid. In the brain capillaries, however, the endothelial cells form tight junctions together which prevent solute movement between cells. The fo

How do single-unit smooth muscle and multiunit smooth muscle differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Smooth Muscle, page 403, right column, eighth paragraph, 1-7th line

In single-unit smooth muscles, the muscle cells are electrically connected by gap junctions and they contract as a coordinated unit. In multiunit smooth muscles, the cells are not linked electrically and each muscle cell functions independently.

How is the adrenal medulla different from most sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways? Chapter 11 Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control: The Autonomic Division, page 369, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-5

In sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways, there are wo neurons (preganglionic and postganglionic). In the adrenal medulla, postganglionic sympathetic neurons are modified into a neuroendocrine organ.

What is the function of monoamine oxidase? (teleological) Chapter 11, page 366, The Autonomic Division, left column, paragraph 3, lines 5-8

It is the enzyme responsible for breaking down recycled norepinephrine in neurons

What is the function of Preprohormones? (Mech) Ch7, Classification of hormones, pg 202, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-6

It is the initial peptide that comes off the ribosome as an inactive protein containing one or more copies of a peptide hormone, as a signal sequence directs the protein into the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

What is the function of the Adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH)? (Teleo), Ch7, Control of Hormone release, pg 213, left column, paragraph 3, lines 8-10

It acts on certain cells of the adrenal cortex to control synthesis and release of the steroid hormone cortisol.

How does the hypothalamus function in the body? (Mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 360, The Autonomic Division, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

It contains neurons that act as sensors, such as for osmolarity and temperature. It also outputs autonomic responses, endocrine responses, and behavioral responses

Why is a monosynaptic reflex the simplest reflex? (Teleological approach) Page 418, Paragraph 10

It has a single synapse between two neurons in the pathway: a sensory afferent neuron and an efferent somatic motor neuron.

Describe the components of the cochlear nerve.

It is a branch of cranial nerve VIII, the vestibulocochlear nerve. Pg. 335, Section: Auditory Pathways Project to the Auditory Cortex, column 2, lines: 20-22.

What is myasthenia gravis and how is it related to muscle cells? (teleological) Chapter 11, page 373, The Somatic Motor Division, right column, paragraph 2, lines 10-12

It is a disease characterized by loss of acetylcholine receptors and is the most common disorder of the neuromuscular junction

What is the corpus callosum?

It is a distinct structure formed by axons passing from one side of the brain to another, which connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. P.289 Right top

How is the vagus nerve classified? (Mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 287, The Brain Stem Is the Oldest Part of the Brain, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-3

It is a mixed nerve because it carries both sensory and motor fibers for many internal organs.

How does the golgi tendon organ (GTO) function? (Mechanistic), pg. 421, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-5

It is a type of receptor found at the junction of tendons and muscle fibers. GTO's respond to muscle tension created during isometric phase of contraction and are relatively insensitive to muscle stretch. They provide sensory information to CNS integrating centers which combines with feedback from muscle spindles and joint receptors to allow optimal motor control of posture and movement.

How is decreased perception of a stimulus accomplished?

It is accomplished by inhibitory modulation. This diminishes a suprathreshold stimulus until it is below the perceptual threshold. Pg. 313, Section: The CNS Integrates Sensory Information, Column 2, lines: 16-19.

How is the resting membrane potential of living cells determined? (Mechanistic) Chapter 8, page 238, Electrical Signals in Neurons, left column, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-3

It is determined primarily through the K+ concentration gradient and the cell's resting permeability to K+, Na+, and Cl-

How is the brain studied by scientists? Mechanistic approach, chapter 9, The Brain, page 299, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-7

It is possible to study the brain at many levels of organization. The most reductionist view looks at the individual neurons and at what happens to them in response to chemical or electrical signals. A more integrative study might look at groups of neurons and how they interact with one another in circuits, pathways, or networks. The most complicated approach starts with a behavior or physiological response and works backward to dissect the neural circuits that create the behavior or response.

What are the 3 types of gated channels and how do they work(mechanistic)?

Mechanically gated ion channels are found in sensory neurons and open in response to physical forces such as pressure or stretch. Chemically gated ion channels in most neurons respond to a variety of ligands, such as extracellular neurotransmitters and neuromodulators or intracellular signal molecules. Voltage-gated ion channels respond to changes in the cell's membrane potential. Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels play an important role in the initiation and conduction of electric signals along the axon. p.239 Left top column

How do the three gated ion channels differ from each other? Chapter 8, page 263, Gated Channels Control the Ion Permeability of the Neuron, paragraph 3, bullets 1-3

Mechanically gated ion channels open in response to physical forces; chemically gated channels respond to a variety of ligands, and voltage-gated channels respond to changes in the cell's membrane potential.

In biological electricity, what are the two sources of resistance to current flow? (Pg. 251, paragraph 6, sentence 1)

Resistance to the cell membrane (Rm) and internal resistance of the cytoplasm (Ri)

How do metabotropic receptors regulate cell response without the utilization of ion channels directly? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 8, Neurons Secrete Chemical Signals, page 254, left column, paragraph 6, lines 1-5

Metabotropic receptors are usually stimulated by a neuromodulator ligand. These receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that create a second messenger cascade. This second messenger cascade will then stimulate the opening/closing of ion channels (indirect relationship).

How do microglia affect the body? (mechanistic) Chapter 8, Microglia, page 235, right column, first paragraph, lines 1-8

Microglia are specialized immune cells that reside in the CNS. Once they are activated, they remove damaged cells and foreign invaders. They can also be harmful. They sometimes release damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS) that form free radicals. The oxidative stress is believed to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS

Why is brisk walking an effective way to reduce body fat?(Teleological approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, page 392, left column, fourth paragraph, 1-9th line

Modest exercise programs are a good way of reducing body fat because muscle fibers obtain energy from fatty acids , and during rest and light exercise, skeletal muscles burn fatty acids along with glucose.However, this only works for light exercise because the metabolic process to convert fatty acids to acetyl CoA is slow and cannot produce ATP fast enough for strenuous exercise.

What is a motor end plate? (pg 392, figure 11.10)

Modified muscle cell membrane with a high concentration of nicotinic ACh receptors.

How does muscle contraction occur? (Mechanistic, CH 12, Pg 385, right column, 1st paragraph, lines 6-9)

Muscle contraction occurs by the sliding filament theory of contraction where the overlapping actin and myosin filaments of a fixed length slide past each other.

Why do muscle cramps occur? Chapter 12, Mechanisms of body movement, page 402, right column, paragraph 2, lines 2-5

Muscle cramps occur when a somatic motor neuron is overexcited and fires repeatedly forcing the muscle to go into sustained contraction which is incredibly painful and can sometimes be relieved by forcefully stretching that muscle

How does muscle fatigue arise? Mechanistic approach, Page 416, Right column, Fatigue has multiple causes, Paragraph 2, Last 4 lines.

Muscle fatigue arises from excitation-contraction failure in the muscle fiber rather than from failure of control neurons or neuromuscular transmission.

What is the difference between a reflex and muscle memory? (Ch 13, pg 453 table 13.2)

Muscle memory is when a voluntary movement becomes learned with practice and becomes a subconscious effort. Reflexes are faster, least complex and only go to the spinal cord usually.

Where are muscle spindles located and how are they related to the central nervous system? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 13 pg 422

Muscle spindles are buried among the muscle's extrafusal fibers. They transfer information to the CNS regarding muscle stretch.

What are the three types of proprioceptors found in the body? (Pg. 446, paragraph 1, sentence 1)

Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and joint receptors

How does the structure of myosin in smooth muscle affect its function? (Mechanistic) Why is this significant? (Teleological) , pg. 406, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-7

Myosin filaments are longer in smooth muscle than in skeletal muscle and the entire surface of the filament is covered by myosin heads. This structure allows the smooth muscle to stretch more while maintaining enough overlap to create optimum tension. This is significant because it is an important property for internal organs.

Expalain how myosin contracts actin. pg 387

Myosin heads bind to actin. Myosin then slides actin filaments past in a way that they go towards each other. This results in the contraction that we know.

Describe the structure and function of myosin. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Myofibrils are muscle fiber contractile structures, page 382, right column, second paragraph, 1-9th line

Myosin is a motor protein with the ability to create movement. Each myosin molecule is composed of protein chains that intertwine to form a long tail and a pair of tadpole-like heads. The rod-like tail is stiff, but the protruding myosin heads have an elastic hinge region where the heads join the rods. This hinge region allows the heads to swivel around their point of attachment

How does the addition of Na+ to the intercellular fluid effect the cell membrane? What happens as a net result of this? (mechanistic)(Ch 8 pg 250, paragraph 1 + graph)

Na+ depolarizes the cell membrane and creates an electrical signal.

What two chemical components do neurons require to constantly make ATP for active transport of ions and neurotransmitters and how do they reach the neurons? (Teleological, Chapter 9, The Central Nervous System, pg. 283, right column, lines 6-12)

Neurons must constantly have oxygen and glucose. Oxygen passes freely across the blood-brain barrier and membrane transporters move glucose from the plasma to the brain's interstitial fluid.

What purpose do neurons serve? (teleological approach) Ch 8, page 244, Cellular and Network Properties, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-15

Neurons provide a quick way for different parts of the body to communicate. Neuron communication is much faster and more specific than other options such as endocrine or paracrine.

How do motor neurons and muscles function together? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, Motor Neurons, page 433, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-8

Neurons release neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine that muscles can be picked up and activated. by. Without communication, skeletal muscle may weaken and atrophy.

Why is the communication between autonomic neurons and target cell "less-directed"? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, page 364, right column, 2nd paragraph.

Neurotransmitter is released from the branched ends of the axon into the interstitial fluid to diffuse to wherever the receptors are located (target cell membrane does not have clusters of NT receptors in specific sites).

Where do neurotransmitters synthesis? (Teleological, Ch. 8, Cell-To-Cell Communication in the Nervous System, pg. 257, column 1, paragraph 3, line 2)

Neurotransmitter synthesis takes place in both the axon terminal and the nerve cell body.

How can a neurotransmitter terminate its signaling processing? Also, give the primary autonomic neurotransmitters. (pg 388)

Neurotransmitters can diffuse, be broken down by enzymes, and be reused via active transport. Acetylcholine and norepinephrine.

What are the two main sections and two endocrine structures in the diencephalon? (Pg.303, Paragraph 2, Sentence 2)

Sections: the thalamus and the hypothalamus endocrine structures: pituitary gland and pineal gland

What must be followed when an axon reaches its target cell? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 8, Establishing Synapses depends on Chemical Signal, page 244, Left column, last paragraph, lines 1-5

Once an axon reaches its target cell, a synapse forms. However, synapse formation must be followed by electrical and chemical activity, or the synapse will disappear. e survival of neuronal pathways depends on neurotrophic factors secreted by neurons and glial cells.

How are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft? Cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system, page 258, paragraphs 3 and 4

Once the depolarization of the action potential reaches the terminal of the axon, the voltage opens the calcium channels which then rush into the cell, bind to regulatory proteins, and cause exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters where they move across the synaptic cleft and bind to the postsynaptic cell

What happens after neurohormones are packaged into secretory vesicles? (Teleological approach, chapter 7, The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones, right column, page 214, Last paragraph, Lines 1-6).

Once the neurohormones are packaged into secretory vesicles, the vesicles are transported to the posterior pituitary through long extensions of the neurons called axons. After vesicles reach the axon terminals, they are stored there, waiting for the release signal.

What is one possible cause of hyposecretion of thyroid hormone? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, page 217, hyposecretion diminishes or eliminates a hormone's effects, paragraph 1, line 5-6)

One cause of hyposecretion of thyroid hormone is an insufficiency of dietary iodine for the thyroid gland to manufacture the iodinated hormone.

How is oxygen brought into the mitochondria of muscles? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscles, page 394, right column, 3rd paragraph, line 4-8

Oxygen binds to myoglobin, and myoglobin acts as a transfer molecule that brings oxygen more rapidly to the interior of the muscle fibers.

Why does white matter have a pale color? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, page 277, right column, 7th paragraph.

Pale color comes from the myelin sheaths that surround the axons.

How do pancreatic beta cells respond to increase in blood glucose? (Mechanistic Approach), Chapter 7, The Endocrine Cell Is the Sensor in Simple Endocrine Reflexes, page 206, right column, paragraph 5, lines 3-10

Pancreatic beta cells respond by secreting insulin. Insulin travels through the blood to its target tissues, which increase their glucose uptake and metabolism. The diversion of glucose into target tissues decrease the blood concentration, which acts as a negative feedback signal and turns off the reflex, stopping insulin release.

How are parasympathetic target cells activated? (mech) 364, left, paragraph 2, lines 3-9

Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release ACh onto the nicotinic cholinergic receptors on the postganglionic cell. Then most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete NE onto the adrenergic receptors on the target cell.

What are the three phases of voluntary movements? (Mechanistic, Chapter 13, The Integrated Control of Body Movement, pg. 429, fig. 13.8)

Planning, initiation, and execution.

why does population coding occur? telelogical approach, pg 339, Right column, 4th paragraph lines 1-4 (Location of the stimulus), and 6th paragraph lines 1-2 (Intensity of the stimulus)

Population coding (multiple receptors f(x)ing together to send CNS more info than would be possible for a single neuron) occurs b/c threshold for the preferred stimulus is different for different receptors.

How does population coding occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 315, Intensity of the Stimulus, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

Population coding occurs because the threshold for preferred stimulus isn't the same for all receptors. The most sensitive receptors respond to a low-intensity stimulus. As a stimulus increases in intensity, additional receptors are activated. The CNS then translates the number of active receptors into a measure of stimulus intensity

How does the hypothalamus increase the amount of cortisol circulating throughout the body? (Mechanistic) pg 222, figure 7.9

The hypothalamus can produce CRH, which then goes to the anterior pituitary, which then releases ACTH. ACTH then goes to the adrenal cortex, causing that to release cortisol.

How does Postsynaptic inhibition happen? Mechanistic approach, chapter 8, Neural pathways may involve many neurons, page 266, left column, third to last paragraph, lines 1-6

Postsynaptic inhibition may occur when a presynaptic neuron releases an inhibitory neurotransmitter onto a post- synaptic cell and alters its response.

Why are the postural reflexes important? teleological approach (chapter 13, right column, page 427, movement can be classified as reflex, voluntary, or rhythmic, paragraph 2, line 1-2)

Postural reflexes, which are integrated in the brain stem, help us maintain body position as we stand or move through space.

How does power stroke occur? mechanistic approach (chapter 12, page 385, right column, myosin crossbridges move actin filaments, paragraph 2, line 2-4)

Power stroke, which is initiated by a calcium signal, occurs when myosin crossbridges swivel and push the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.

What are the autonomic pathways are composed of what? And what can autonomic do? (Ch 11, pg 380, figure 11.4)

Preganglionic neurons from the CNS, autonomic ganglia can modulate and integrate information passing though them.

How (mechanistic) is the adrenal medulla called into action? (Chapter 11, Subsection The Adrenal Medulla Secretes Catecholamines, p. 394, right column, paragraphs 2, all lines)

Preganglionic sympathetic neurons project from the spinal cord to the adrenal medulla, where they synapse. However, the postganglionic neurons lack the axons that would normally project to target cells. Instead, the axonless cell bodies, called chromaffin cells, secrete the neurohormone epinephrine directly into the blood. In response to alarm signals from the CNS, the adrenal medulla releases large amounts of epinephrine for general distribution throughout the body as part of a flight-or- fight response.

What are some common vision defects and why do they occur?

Presbyopia, the loss of accommodation, is the reason why most people begin to wear reading glasses in their 40s. Two other common vision problems are myopia and hyperopia. Myopia, or near-sightedness, occurs when the focal point falls in front of the retina. Far-sightedness, or hyperopia, occurs when the focal point falls behind the retina. These vision problems are caused by abnormally curved or flattened corneas or by eyeballs that are too long or too short. A third problem, astigmatism, is usually caused by a cornea that is not a perfectly shaped dome, resulting in distorted images. p.345 right column.

How do primary pathology and secondary pathology differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 7, Diagnosis of Endocrine Pathologies Depends on the COmplexity of the Reflex, page 218, left column, paragraph 2, line 1-4

Primary - pathology (deficiency or excess) arises in last endocrine gland in complex pathway Secondary - dysfunction occurs in the anterior pituitary

What is primary pathology? Give an example of this in the body. (Teleological, Chapter 7, Hormone Evolution, pg. 218, left column, lines 25-27)

Primary pathology is defined as a pathology (deficiency or excess) that arises in the last endocrine gland in complex reflex pathway. An example if is a tumor in the adrenal cortex begins to produce excessive amounts of cortisol, the resulting condition is called primary hypersecretion.

How is Parkinson's treated? (page 431, right column, second paragraph)

Primary treatment is administration of drugs designed to enhance dopamine activity in the brain. Dopamine cannot cross the blood brain barrier, so patients take L-dopa, which is a precursor to dopamine that crosses the barrier, then is metabolized to dopamine.

What is the process of changing preproxhormones into prohormones? (Ch 7 pg 212 213, paragraphs 1,2 on the right, and figure 7.3)

Prohormones are then created as an inactive preproxhormone moves through the ER and the Golgi, their signal sequence is removed, and prohormone is formed,a smaller inactive molecule.

Why are inactive fragments from a prohormone clinically useful for diabetes? (Teleological) Chapter 7, page 202, Post-Translational Modification of Prohormones, right column, 1st paragraph, lines 2-5

Proinsulin is cleaved into active insulin and an inactive fragment known as C-peptide, so the levels of C-peptide in the blood of diabetes patients can be used to monitor the insulin levels being produced by the patient's pancreas.

How do physicians measure how much insulin a patient produces? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 7, Most Hormones are Peptides or Proteins, page 202, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-5

Proinsulin is cleaved into active insulin and an inactive fragment known as C-peptide.Measuring the levels of C-peptide allows physicians to determine the amount of insulin as a proxy.

How can clinicians measure how much insulin a diabetic patient's pancreas is producing? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 7, Most Hormones are Peptides or Proteins, page 202, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-5

Proinsulin is cleaved into an active form of insulin and an inactive fragment known as C-peptide. Clinicians can measure the levels of C-peptide in the blood as a proxy for the amount of insulin production.

How is the proper alignment of filaments within a sarcomere ensured? (Mechanistic approach) Page 383, paragraph 1

Proper alignment of filaments within a sarcomere is ensured by two proteins: Titin and Nebulin. A single Titin molecule stretches from one z disk to the neighboring m line. Titin stabilizes the position of the contractile fibers and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length. Nebulin helps Titin by helping align the actin filaments of the sarcomere.

Why are proprioceptors important for skeletal muscle reflexes? (Teleological approach) Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 420, right column, eleventh paragraph, 1-5th line

Proprioceptors are known as sensory receptors and are located in skeletal muscles, joint capsules, and ligaments. They monitor the position of our limbs in space, our movements, and the effort we exert in lifting objets.

Where are proprioreceptors found and what is their function?

Proprioceptors, are located in skeletal muscles, joint capsules, and ligaments. They monitor the position of our limbs in space, our movements, and the effort we exert in lifting objects. (Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, pg.445)

What's an advantage of selective presynaptic alteration of neurotransmitter release? (Teleological approach) Chapter 8, 266, right column, 3rd paragraph.

Proves a more precise means of control than global modulation--only target cell fails to respond

How does a muscle relax? (Mechanistic approach) Page 420, Paragraph 9

Relaxation results from the absence of excitatory input by the somatic motor neuron.

How does the relaxation phase occur? (Mechanistic) Chapter 12: Skeletal Muscle, page 390, figure 12.10

Sarcoplasmic Ca2+-ATPase pumps Ca2+ back into SR. The decrease in free cytosolic [Ca2+] causes Ca2+ to unbind from troponin. Tropomyosin recovers binding site. When myosin heads release, elastic elements pull filaments back to their relaxed position

How do Schwann cells contribute to the somatic motor neuron? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 371, A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-8

Schwann cells are part of the neuromuscular junction, the synapse of a somatic motor neuron on a muscle fiber. They secrete a variety of chemical signal molecules which play a critical role in the formation and maintenance of neuromuscular junctions.

How do Schwann cells differ from Ependymal cells? (Mechanistic) pg 245, paragraph 2, paragraph 6.

Schwann cells are used to form the myelin sheath of the neurons, whereas the Ependymal cells are used to compartmentalize the parts of the nervous system, such as forming the blood-brain barrier.

What are the two myelin-forming glia and what are their function? (Chapter 8, Teleological, Cells of the Nervous system, right column, pg. 233, lines 12-14)

Schwann cells in the PNS and Oligodendrocytes in the CNS. They support and insulate axons by forming myelin. The myelin acts as insulation around the axons of neurons and speeds up their signal transmission.

How do Schwann cells provide support to neurons in the peripheral nervous system? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 8, Glial Cells Provide Support for Neurons, page 233, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-8

Schwann cells in the PNS support and insulate the axons by forming myelin, which is a substance composed of multiple concentric layers of phospholipid membrane; myelin also speeds up the transmission signal of neurons (helps propagate action potentials).

What are the 4 components of the skeletal muscle reflexes? (Teleological, Ch. 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, pg. 421, column 2, paragraph 3, top of each bullet)

Sensory receptors, the central nervous system, sematic motor neurons, and extrafusal muscle fibers

Compare simple, complex, and non neural sensory receptors. (pg 311, Fig 10.1 Simple, Complex, and non neural Receptors)

Simple: neurons have free nerve endings and myelinated or unmeyelinated axons surrounding the cell body. Complex: enclosed nerve endings in connective tissue and myelinated axon Nonneural: specialized receptor cells that release neurotransmitters onto a sensory neuron initiating an action potential

Why is single-unit smooth muscle also called visceral smooth muscle? Ch. 12, pg. 403, right column, (paragraph after #3), lines 1-4

Single unit smooth muscle forms the wall of internal organs (viscera).

How are smooth muscles able to move as a single unit? (mechanistic) (Ch 12, pg 427,figure 12.23)

Single-unit smooth muscle cells are connected by gap junctions, which enables quick communication.

What are the largest cells in the body and how are they created?

Skeletal fibers are the largest cells in the body, created by the fusion of many individual embryonic muscle cells. Pg. 379, Section: Skeletal Muscles Are Composed of Muscle Fibers, column 2, lines: 8-10.

How does skeletal muscle differ from cardiac/smooth muscle? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 12, Introduction, Page 403, left column, 3rd-4th paragraphs, lines 1-5.

Skeletal muscle contract only in response to a signal from a somatic motor neuron. They cannot initiate their own contraction, not is their contraction influenced by hormones. Cardiac and smooth muscles can contract in response to innervation, but can also contract spontaneously or in response to hormones.

How does control of skeletal muscle differ from that of visceral smooth muscle? (Mechanistic) Chapter 13: Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles, page 431, right column, 6th paragraph, lines 2-6

Skeletal muscle is controlled only by the nervous system, but in visceral muscle, hormones are important in regulating contraction. Additional, visceral muscles can pass electrical signals from cell to cell.

List and describe the three types of muscles (Teleological, Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle, p. 378, figure 12.1)

Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton, control body movement. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and moves blood through the circulatory system. Smooth muscle is the primary muscle of internal organs and tubes, influences the movement of material into, out of, and within the body.

How does reflex control of visceral smooth muscle differ from skeletal smooth muscle? page 431, right column, 3rd paragraph under control of movement in visceral muscles.

Skeletal muscles are controlled by the nervous system only. In many types of visceral muscle, hormones are important in regulating contraction. In addition, some visceral muscle cells are connected to one another by gap junctions that allow electrical signals to pass directly from cell to cell.

How do reflex control of visceral smooth muscle differ from that of skeletal muscle? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles, page 431, right column, seventh paragraph, 1-6th line

Skeletal muscles are controlled only by the nervous system, but in many types of visceral muscle, hormones are important in regulating contraction. Some visceral muscle cells are also connected to one another by gap junctions that allow electrical signals to pass directly from cell to cell.

How is reflex control of visceral smooth muscle varied from that of skeletal muscle? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles, page 458, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-6

Skeletal muscles are controlled only by the nervous system, but in many types of visceral muscle, hormones are important in regulating contraction. Some visceral muscle cells are also connected to one another by gap junctions that allow electrical signals to pass directly from cell to cell.

How is the contraction of a skeletal muscle unique? (Mechanistic approach) Page 379 , paragraph 2

Skeletal muscles are unique in that they contract only in response to a signal from a somatic motor neuron. They cannot initiate their own contraction, and their contraction is not influenced directly by hormones.

Why do skeletal muscles communicate to each other through the CNS? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 13, Flexion Reflexes Pull Limbs Away from Painful Stimuli, page 427, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-7

Skeletal muscles cannot communicate with one another directly, and so they send messages to the CNS, allowing the integrating centers to take charge and direct movement.

Why are skeletal muscles considered unique compared to cardiac and smooth muscles? (Teleological approach) Chapter 12, Muscles, page 379, left column, paragraph 2-3, lines 2.1-3.1

Skeletal muscles contract only in response to a singal from a somatic motor neuron. They cannot initiate their own contraction, and their contraction is not influenced directly by hormones. In contrast, cardiac and smooth muscle have multiple levels of control.

How do the three types of muscles differ in terms of their organization and nucleus location? (mechanistic) (Ch 12, pg 399, figure 12.1)

Skeletal muscles have multiple nuclei that are striped, cardiac muscle fibers are striated but smaller and branched-like and only have one nucleus, and smooth muscles don't have any striations, but have many nuclei.

What components protect the CNS?

Skull Vertebral column Meninges Extracellular Fluid (Bone and Connective Tissue Support the CNS, pg. 304)

Why are slow synaptic potentials slower? Telelogical approach, Page 285, Right Column, Postsynaptic responses may be slow or fast, all of paragraph 2

Slow synaptic potentials rely on neuromodulators interacting with GPCRs and intiating secondary messenger cascades that take longer than ion channels opening or closing to initiate a response.

What is the difference between slow-twitch and fast twitch fibers? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscle is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance, page 417, right column, 5th paragraph, lines 5-7.

Slow-twitch fibers are fatigue resistance and are activated during endurance type events whereas fast-twitch fibers are susceptible to fatigue, and are used for short-term strength events.

What are the differences between the two major sleep phases: slow-wave sleep and REM sleep? (Teleological, Chapter 9, Brain Function, pg. 296-297, bottom of right column- top of left column, lines 28-30, 1-8)

Slow-wave sleep is characterized by delta waves= high amplitude, low-frequency waves of long duration that sweep across the cerebral cortex. During slow-wave sleep an individual might adjust body position without conscious command from the brain. REM sleep is marked by low-amplitude, high-frequency waves. During REM sleep brain activity inhibits motor neurons to skeletal muscles, paralyzing them. REM sleep is also the period when we dream.

What are the two major sleep phases and explain each? (Teleological/Mechanism, Ch. 9, pg. 296/297, column 2/1, paragraph 5/2, lines 4-7/1-6)

Slow-wave sleep, which is when the sleeper adjusts their body position without conscious commands from the brain. The second is Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. REM is when the brain activity inhibits motor neurons to skeletal muscles.

How is movement created by contracting smooth and cardiac muscles different from that created by skeletal muscles? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 13, Control of movement in visceral muscles, page 431, right column, first paragraph, 3-8th line

Smooth and cardiac muscles are not attached to bone. In internal organs, muscle contraction usually changes the shape of an organ, narrowing the lumen of a hollow organ or shortening the length of a tube. In many hollow organs, muscle contraction pushes material through the lumen of the organ

How is stimulus intensity coded? (pg 315, Intensity of the Stimulus, paragraph 1, sentence 2)

Stimulus intensity is coded in 2 types of information: the number of receptors activated and the frequency of action potentials coming from those receptors.

How do striated muscles differ from smooth muscle?

Striated muscles, which includes skeletal and cardiac muscles, are named because of their alternating light and dark bands seen under the light microscope. Smooth muscle is the primary muscle of internal organs and tubes, and is so named as its lacks the cross-bands of striated muscles when viewed. The lack of banding results from the less organized arrangement of contractile fibers within the muscle cells. P.378 Left column

How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches chemically organized? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 364, The Autonomic Nervous System Uses a Variety of Chemical Signals, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-11

Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches can be distinguished by their neurotransmitters and receptors. 1. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (ACh) onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors on the postganglionic cell 2. Most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine (NE) onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell 3. Most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete ACh onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors on the target cells. Sympathetic cholinergic neurons and nonadrenergic, noncholinergic are exceptions to these rules

How is the release of autonomic neurotransmitters subject to modulation? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 385, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

Sympathetic varicosities contain receptors for hormones and for paracrines such as histamine. These modulators may either facilitate or inhibit neurotransmitter release. Additionally, some preganglionic neurons co-secrete neuropeptides, which can act as neuromodulators and produce slow synaptic potentials that modify the activity of postganglionic neurons.

How does the kiss-and-run pathway work? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Cell-to-Cell Communication in the Nervous System, page 271, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

Synaptic vesicles fuse to the presynaptic membrane at a complex called the fusion pore, which opens a small channel that is just large enough for the neurotransmitter to get through. Then, the vesicle pulls back from the fusion pore and returns to the pool of vesicles in the cytoplasm.

What is the Golgi tendon organ and what does it respond to? (Mechanistic, Chapter 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, pg. 421, left column)

The Golgi tendon organ is a type of receptor found at the junction of tendons and muscle fibers, placed in series with the muscle fibers. GTO's respond primarily to muscle tension created during the isometric phase of contraction and are relatively insensitive to muscle stretch.

How is synergism relevant to the human body? Chapter 7, In Synergism, the effect of Interacting Hormones is More Than Additive, page 239, paragraph 1-2

Synergism is when two or more chemicals/hormones in the body work with each other to make more than the additive. For example, combining epinephrine and glucagon together in the body will elevate the blood sugar more than the additive of each individual part.

What does cardiac muscle have that smooth muscle does not?

T tubules Sarcomeres (Table 12.3, pg. 434)

What is the function of T-tubules with relation to action potentials? Page 382, Left column Para 6, Lines 1-3. Mech

T-Tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae nearly simultaneously. Without T-tubules the action potential would reach the center of the fiber only by conduction of the action potential through the cytosol, a slower and less direct process that would delay the response time of the muscle fiber.

What is the purpose of T-tubules? (pg. 401, paragraph 6, sentence 1)

T-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae nearly simultaneously.

Why are t-tubules important to skeletal muscle? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, Skeletal Muscle, page 401, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-7

T-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae nearly simultaneously. Without them, the action potential would reach the center of the fiber through a slower, less direct process that would delay the response time of the muscle fiber.

Why are t-tubules important in muscle communication? (Teleological approach) Ch 12, Skeletal Muscles, page 382, left column, 5th paragraph, line 1-3

T-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae simultaneously.

How are t-tubules important for the response time of a muscle fiber? (Teleological, Chapter 12, Skeletal Muscles, p. 382, left column, lines 31-37)

T-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface to the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae simultaneously. Without t-tubules, the AP would reach the center of the fiber only by conduction of the AP through the cytosol which would create a slower and less direct process, delaying the response time of the muscle fiber.

Tamsulosin behaves as a neurotransmitter antagonist. What response does it initiate with regards to smooth muscle on the prostate gland? (Teleological Approach), Chapter 11, Autonomic Agonists and Antagonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine, page 369, left column, paragraph 2, lines 9-13

Tamsulosin blocks alpha-1A adrenergic receptors on smooth muscle of the prostate gland and bladder; it relaxes these muscles to receive urinary symptoms of prostatic enlargement.

How does the length of the A band change during the course of a contraction? Mechanistic approach, Page 409, Right column, Actin and Myosin slide past each other during contraction, Paragraph 4, Lines 1-2

The A band does not change over the course of a contraction.

How does the CNS tells various stimuli apart even though they are all converted into action potentials? (Mechanistic, Ch. 10, Pg. 314, Right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8)

The CNS has to be able to differentiate four properties of the initial stimulus: 1) its Nature/Modality 2) its Location 3) its Intensity 4) its Duration

What properties of a stimulus does the central nervous system (CNS) distinguish? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 10, Coding and Processing Distinguish Stimulus Properties, page 314, right column, paragraph 1, lines 6-8

The CNS must distinguish four properties of a stimulus: its nature (modality), its location, its intensity, and its duration.

What region of the brain contains the center for controlling homeostasis? And how do the different regions of this part regulate homeostasis? (mechanistic) (Ch 9, pg 303, paragraph 2 on left, and paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4 on right)

The Diacephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus helps homeostasis by being the relay and integrating station for sensory information taken elsewhere to the cerebrum, while the hypothalamus is the main center for homeostasis, like drives for hunger and thirst. It influences autonomic divisions of the nervous system, and endocrine functions. it receives input from all over the body and controls things such as body temperature by increasing shivering or sweating.

What is the backup energy source for muscle? (Teleological, Ch. 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 391, column 2, paragraph 2, lines 1-3)

The backup energy source is phosphocreatine. This is a molecule whose high-energy phosphate bonds are created from creatine and ATP when muscles are at rest.

The final layer of protection for the brain is a functional barrier between the interstitial fluid and the blood. How does this barrier work? (mechanistic) Chapter 9, page 282, The Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the Brain, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-10

The barrier isolates the body's main control center from potentially harmful substances in the blood and from blood-borne pathogens such as bacteria. The brain capillaries create a "barrier". The capillaries shelters the brain from toxins and fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neurotransmitters in the blood

Why is the blood-brain barrier so selective in permeability? (Teleological approach) Ch 9, Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, page 282, right column, first paragraph, line 2-5

The barrier selective permeability is to protect the brain from toxins and from fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances.

What is the basic unit of contraction in an intact skeletal muscle? (Teleological, Ch. 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 396, column 2, paragraph 2, lines 1-3)

The basic unit is motor unit and it's composed of a group of muscle fibers that function together and the somatic motor neuron that controls them.

Why is sensory input not the only factor determining motor output by the brain? (Teleological) Chapter 9, page 294, The Motor System Governs Output from the CNS, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4

The behavioral state system can modulate reflex pathways, and the cognitive system exerts both voluntary and involuntary control over motor functions.

How do Hormones alter gene activity? (Mechanistic approach, chapter 7, Steroid Hormones Are Derived from Cholesterol, page 216, paragraph 3, Lines 1-9)

The best- studied steroid hormone receptors are found within cells, either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. e ultimate destination of steroid receptor-hormone complexes is the nucleus, where the complex acts as a transcription factor, binding to DNA and either activating or repressing (turning off) one or more genes. Activated genes create new mRNA that directs the synthesis of new proteins. Any hormone that alters gene activity is said to have a genomic effect on the target cell.

Why do steroid hormones bind to carrier proteins (teleological) and how does this affect the hormones (mechanistic)? pg. 204, right column, under "transport in the blood and half-life of steroid hormones", paragraph 2 lines 1-2, paragraph 3 lines 1-2

The binding of a steroid hormone to a carrier protein protects the hormone from enzymatic degradation and results in an extended half-life. However, it also blocks their entry into target cells because the carrier proteins are lipophobic and cannot diffuse through the membrane.

There are many things protecting the brain. Name the one that protects the brain from harmful substances in the body and how it works? (mechanistic) (Ch 9, pg 296, Blood-brain barrier protects brain heading, figure 9.5, pg 297, top paragraph on left)

The blood-brain barrier is the protection the brain has against internal harmful things in the blood, such as bacteria. It acts as a highly selective permeable membrane in the capillaries of the brain, sheltering toxins and fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive transmitters in the blood.

How does the blood-brain barrier protects the brain? mechanistic approach (chapter 9, the blood-brain barrier protects the brain, paragraph 1, column 1-2, line 2-10, page 282)

The blood-brain barrier isolates the brain from harmful substances in the blood and from blood-borne pathogens such as bacteria. Additionally, this barrier acts as a highly selective permeability of brain capillaries that shelters the brain from toxins and fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances, such as neurotransmitters.

Why is signal activity by hormones must only be in a limit duration? Chapter 7, Hormones Action Must be Terminated, 1st paragraph, line 1-8

The body must respond to the changes, so if the signal activity is "on" for too long, it may have an undesired effect. It may go too far. For example, if there is too much insulin for too long, the blood sugar level may go down for below normal levels

How do steroid hormones unbind from the carrier-steroid complex? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 7, Steroid Hormones are Derived from Cholesterol, page 228, right column, 4th paragraph, lines 3-9

The carrier proteins can't diffuse through the cell membrane because they are lipophobic. Only unbound steroid hormones can diffuse through the membrane; the law of mass action makes the carrier-steroid complex release the hormone as unbound steroid leaves the plasma.

How is the nervous system divided? (Mechanistic approach) Page 227, paragraph 7

The central nervous system(CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system(PNS) consists of sensory(afferent) neurons and efferent neurons.

Why are sensory neurons from the spindles tonically active? (Teleological approach) Ch 13, Skeletal Muscle Reflexes, page 421, right column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-3

The central region of each muscle spindle is stretched out enough to activate the sensory fibers.

How does the brain put two sets of sensory data from the eyes together? (mech) 353, left, paragraph 3, lines 1-5

The brain overlaps each eye's visual field. The overlapping region is known as the binocular zone, where each eye gives a slightly different view of the same object. In this area, the brain processes and integrates these two views to create a three dimensional representation of the object/view. This allows for depth perception.

How does the fight-or-flight response come about physiologically? (Mechanistic Approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page, 359, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-8

The brain sends signals to different regions of the body to perform various functions: the heart speeds up, the blood vessels to muscles of the arms, legs, and heart dilate, and the liver starts to produce glucose to provide energy for muscle contraction.

How does the fight-or-flight response work?

The brain triggers massive simultaneous sympathetic discharge throughout the body. As the body prepares to fight or flee, the heart speeds up and blood vessels to muscles of the arms, legs, and heart dilate. The liver starts to produce glucose to provide energy for muscle contraction. Digestion becomes low priority, and blood is diverted from the GI tract to skeletal muscles. P.359 Right column third paragraph down.

Why do somatic motor neurons branch close to their target cells? (Teleological approach) Ch 11, The Somatic Motor Division, page 371, right column, 3rd paragraph, line 4-6

The branching structure allows a single motor neuron to control many muscle fibers at one time.

Why is the cerebrospinal fluid important? (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, page 296, left column, paragraphs 2-3

The buoyancy of the cerebrospinal fluid reduces the weight of the brain, which creates less pressure on blood vessels and nerves attached to the CNS. It also provides protective padding and creates a closely regulated extracellular environment for the neurons.

How are the cranial nerves described? Give an example. (Mechanistic Approach), pg. 285, right column, under The Brain Stem is the Oldest Part of the Brain, paragraph 3, lines 1-3

The cranial nerves are described according to whether they include sensory fibers, efferent fibers or both. Example: cranial nerve X, the vagus never is a mixed nerve that carries both sensory and motor fibers for many internal organs. Vagus means wandering.

Why do spinal cord injuries cause paralysis? (Teleological, CH 13, PG 428, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-4)

The damage in the spinal cord makes it so that the initiation signal for walking can't make it to the legs' motor neurons that are in the spine from the brain.

What happens in the region of the medulla known as the pyramidal tract? (Pg. 456, paragraph 2, sentence 2)

The descending pathway of neurons moves to the opposite side of the body

What is the structure and function of diencephalon? (Teleological Approach) pg. 288, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-4

The diencephalon is also known as the "between-brain". It is composed of two main sections- the thalamus and hypothalamus, and two endocrine structures, the pituitary and pineal glands. It is involved in homeostasis.

Why is the discovery of alpha and beta adrenergic receptors important to the development of new drugs? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic Agonists and Antagonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine, page 393, left column, 2nd paragraph, lines 1-4.

The discovery of drugs that target specific receptor subtypes allows us to target specific symptoms and avoid unwanted side effects.

How can a single stimulus affect multiple targets?( Mechanistic approach) Ch 13, Neural Reflexes, page 420, left column, 1st paragraph, line 5-6

The divergence of neural pathways allow multiple targets to be affected by a stimulus.

What is the significance of the different negative feedback loop lengths? (Ch 7, pg 237, Feedback Loops Are Different in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary Pathway, paragraphs 2 and 3)

The dominant form of feedback is long-loop negative feedback in hypothalamic-pituitary pathways, where the hormone secreted by the peripheral endocrine gland "feeds back" to suppress secretion of its anterior pituitary & hypothalamic pathways. In short-loop negative feedback, a pituitary hormone feeds back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus, and in ultra-short-loop feedback, a hormone acts as an autocrine signal to influence the cell that secreted it.

How are the dorsal and ventral horns of gray matter different? (mech) 284, left, paragraph 4 (lines 1-7) and 5 (lines 1-4)

The dorsal horn are where the sensory fibers from the dorsal root synapse with interneurons. The dorsal horn cell bodies are organized into two distinct nuclei specialized for somatic or visceral information. On the other hand, ventral horns carry efferent signals to muscles and glands. They are organized into somatic motor and automatic nuclei.

What is the difference between the dorsal root and the ventral root in terms of carrying information? (Pg. 299, paragraph 1, Sentences 1 and 3)

The dorsal root of each spinal nerve is specialized to carry incoming sensory information. The ventral root carries information from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Why do we have to gradually lower the dosage of steroids whenever treatment is complete? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Endocrine Pathologies, page 217, left column, third paragraph, 2-8th line

The dosage of steroid hormones has to be gradually tapered off after treatment in order to allow the pituitary and adrenal gland to get back up to normal hormone production. Treatments using steroid hormones usually have a negative feedback effect, repressing our own pituitary and adrenal glands.

How is an action potential triggered? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 242, right column, 1st paragraph, line 4-7

The graded potential has a strength that is above the threshold in the trigger zone.

Why does myosin possess a heavy protein chain? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 12, Myofibrils Are Muscle Fiber Contractile Structures, page 382, right column, paragraph 3, lines 1-6

The heavy chain in myosin serves as the motor domain; it binds ATP and uses the energy from ATP hydrolysis to create movement. It also contains a binding site for actin (necessary for the power stroke explanation of the sliding filament theory).

Each myosin head has a heavy and light chain, describe the heavy chain.

The heavy chain is the motor domain that binds ATP and uses the energy from ATP's high - energy phosphate bond to create movement. It also contains a binding a site for actin. Pg. 383, Section: Myofibrils Are Muscles Fiber Contractile Structures, Column 2, lines: 23-26.

What part of the Peripheral Nervous System carries information away from the CNS to the rest of the body? And what type of neurons control skeletal verses smooth and cardiac muscles? (telelogical) (Ch 8, pg 240, figure 8.1)

The efferent division of the PNS carries information away from the CNS to target cells. Somatic motor neurons control skeletal muscles, and autonomic neurons control smooth and cardiac muscles.

How does the brain tissue create the blood brain barrier? (Pg. 297, paragraph 1, sentence 3)

The endothelial cells of the brain capillaries form tight junctions with one another that prevent solute movement between the cells.

What are the ways the enteric nervous system can be processed? (Theological, Ch. 8, Organization of the Nervous System, pg. 229, column 1, paragraph 4, lines 3-5)

The enteric nervous system is a network of neurons in the wall of the digestive tract. It is often times controlled by the autonomic division of the nervous system, but it can also function autonomously as its own integrating system

Why has in recent years a third division of nervous system has received attention? (Teleological approach) Page 229, paragraph 3

The enteric nervous system is a network of neurons in the walls of the digestive track. It is frequently controlled by the autonomic division of the nervous system, but it is also able to function autonomously as its own integrating center.

How does a muscle contract, from neuromuscular junction to muscle twitch? (mechanistic) (Ch 12, pg 406, figure 12.7)

The events are after the neuromuscular junction, there is excitation-contraction coupling, then Ca+ signal which leads to the contraction-relaxation cycle, which leads to either muscle twitch or sliding filament theory

How are hypothalamic neurohormones destine for the anterior pituitary not diluted? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 7, Control of Hormone Release, page 211, right column, 2nd paragraph, line 3-6

The hormones go through a portal system made of two sets of capillaries in series and a set of small veins. The hormones enter the first set of capillaries and then go directly through small veins to the second capillary set.

How are feedback loops different in hypothalamic-pituitary pathways? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 7, Control of Hormone Release, page 214, right column, first paragraph, line 1-4

The hormones in the complex endocrine reflexes must be the feedback signal, because the anterior pituitary pathways do not have a single response. The hormones affect many tissues that have different responses.

What is one of the most dramatic examples of sympathetic action? (p 412, The Autonomic Division, paragraph 4)

The fight or flight response which triggers massive simultaneous sympathetic discharge throughout the body. Heart rate increases, blood vessels to the muscles of the arms, legs, and heart dilate, and the liver produces glucose for muscle contraction.

How does the fight-or-flight response occur? (mechanistic) Chapter 11, page 359, The Autonomic Division, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-9

The fight-or-flight response is a role of the sympathetic branch. In this response, the brain triggers massive simultaneous sympathetic discharge throughout the body. As the body prepares to fight or flee, the heart rate speeds up, the blood vessels to arm muscles, leg muscles, and the heart dilate, and the liver produces glucose to provide energy for contraction of muscles. Digestion becomes low priority when life and limb are threatened, so blood is directed away from the gastrointestinal tract towards the skeletal muscles.

What is the first in the molecular events of a contractile cycle in skeletal muscle? (Teleological, Ch. 12, Skeletal Muscle, pg. 387, column 1, paragraph 2, lines 1-3)

The first event that accords is ATP binds and myosin detaches. An AP molecules binds to the myosin head. ATP-binding decreases the actin-binding affinity of myosin, and myosin releases from actin.

What are the 3 components of the neuromuscular junction? (Teleological Ch. 11, The Somatic Motor Division, pg. 371, column 1, paragraph 4, lines 3-6)

The first is the motor neuron's presynaptic axon terminal filled with synaptic vesicles and mitochondria. The second is the synaptic cleft, and the third is the postsynaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber.

What are the two factors that influence the membrane potential? (Teleological, Ch. 8, Electrical Signals In Neurons, pg. 236, column 2, paragraph 3-4, lines 1).

The first is the uneven distribution of ions across the cell membrane and the second is the differing membrane permeability to those ions.

What are the two neurons in a series that all autonomic pathways consist of? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Autonomic pathways have two efferent neurons in series, page 361, right column, first paragraph, 2-8th line

The first neuron, called the preganglionic neuron, originates in the central nervous system and projects to an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS. There, the preganglion neuron synapses with the second neuron in the pathway, the postganglionic neuron. This neuron has its cell body in the ganglion and projects its axon to the target tissue

What is the first step in sound transmission through the ear? (Teleological, Ch. 10, The Ear: Hearing, pg. 332, top of page)

The first step in sound transmission through the ear is when sound waves strike the tympanic membrane and become vibrations.

How can we increase the force generated by the contraction of a single muscle fiber? Mechanistic approach, chapter 12, Force of contraction increases with summation, page 417, right column, last paragraph, lines 1-5.

The force generated by the contraction of a single muscle fiber can be increased by increasing the rate (frequency) at which muscle action potentials stimulate the muscle fiber.

What are the four lobes that make up the brain? (Teleological, Ch. 9, The Spinal Cord, pg. 296, top graph)

The fore lobes of the brain include the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe.

What 3 divisions of the neural tube are obvious by week 4 of human development? (Pg. 291, paragraph 9, sentence 2)

The forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

How do the different neural receptors differ? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 312, left column, first paragraph, 1-6th line

The four different neural receptors are chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and photoreceptors. Chemoreceptors respond to chemical ligands that bind to the receptor. Mechanoreceptors respond to various forms of mechanical energy like vibration and sound. Thermoreceptors respond to temperature while photoreceptors for vision respond to light.

What are the four types of sensory receptors? (Teleological, Ch. 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, pg. 312, column 1, table at top)

The four types of sensory receptors are Chemoreceptors, Mechanoreceptors, Photoreceptors, and Thermoreceptor.

What is the location and stimulant to free nerve endings? (Teleological, Ch. 10, Somatic Senses, pg. 321, table mid page)

The free nerve endings are located around the hair roots and under the surface of the skin. Its stimulants include temperature, noxious stimuli, and hair movement.

How do functional antagonists work to diminish the effectiveness of each other? (mechanistic) Chapter 7, page 216, Antagonistic Hormones Have Opposing Effects, left column, paragraph 3, lines 1-12

The functional antagonists have opposing physiological actions so that they work against each other. An example: glucagon and growth hormone both raise the glucose concentration in the blood. These are antagonistic to insulin, which lowers glucose concentration in the blood. This may happen through one hormone decreasing the number of receptors for the opposing hormone.

How do the lens of the eye change shape? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, Eye and Vision, page 343, right column, eleventh paragraph, 2-8th line

The lens uses the ciliary muscle to change shape. The ciliary muscle is a ring of smooth muscle that surrounds the lens and is attached to it by inelastic zonules. If the ligaments pull on the lens, it flattens out and assumes the shape required for distance vision.

Why is the limbic system different/unique? What is it's purpose? (tele) 289, right, paragraph five (lines 1-8)

The limbic system is the most primitive region of the cerebrum. It links higher cognitive functions like reasoning with the more primitive emotional responses. The limbic system is comprised of the amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus, which are related to emotion, memory, and learning/memory respectively.

Why doesn't auditory information follow the localization of stimulus rule? (teleological approach) Ch 10, p 331, Coding and Processing Distinguish Stimulus Properties, right column, paragraph 4

The localization of stimulus rule refers to the localization of a stimulus according to which receptive fields are activated. Neurons in the ear do not have receptive fields so location and therefore provide no location information.

How do the autonomic nervous system subdivisions differ in location? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, page 363, rightcolumn, paragraph 1, line 1-2

The main anatomic differences are (1) the pathways' point of origin the CNS and (2) the location of the automatic ganglia.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically? Ch. 11, pg. 369, right column, lines 2-4

The main anatomical differences are (1) the pathways' point of origin in the CNS and (2) the location of the autonomic ganglia.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically? (Mechanistic approach) Page 363, paragraph 1

The main anatomical differences are the pathways' point of origin in the CNS and the location of the autonomic ganglia.

How do the two autonomic branches, sympathetic and parasympathetic, differ anatomically? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches originate in different regions, page 363, right column, first paragraph, 2-11th line

The main anatomical differences are the pathways' point of origin in the CNS and the location of the autonomic ganglia. Most sympathetic pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. Many parasympathetic pathways originate in the brain stem, and their axons leave the brain in several cranial nerves

How much of the parasympathetic fibers is the Vagus Nerve responsible for? (Mechanistic Approach) Page 363, paragraph 3

The major parasympathetic tract is the vagus nerve, which contains about 75% of all parasympathetic fibers.

What is the major parasympathetic tract and what does it carry? (Teleological, Ch. 11, The Autonomic Division, pg. 363, column 2, paragraph 3, lines 3-6)

The major parasympathetic tract is the vagus nerve, which contains about 75%of all parasympathetic fibers. It carries both sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to the organs.

What are the four properties that the CNS must distinguish of a stimulus? (Teleological, Chapter 10, pg. 314, General Properties of Sensory Systems, right column, lines 6-8)

The nature/modality, location, intensity, and duration of the stimulus.

How is the nervous system divided? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Organization of the nervous system, page 227, right column, first paragraph, 1-4th line

The nervous system can be divided into two parts. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory (afferent) neurons and efferent neurons

How is the nervous system divided? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Organization of the Nervous System, page 227, right column, paragraph 1, lines 1-2

The nervous system is divided into two parts: (a) Central Nervous System (CNS) - brain and the spinal cord (b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - sensory (afferent) neurons and efferent neurons (somatic motor division, autonomic division)

How are neurohormones released from the posterior pituitary? (mech) 209, left, paragraph 5, lines 1-6

The neurohormones in the secretory vesicles are transported to the posterior pituitary through the axons. When the hypothalamus receives the stimulus, an electrical signal is sent down distally along the neuron. When the axon terminal is depolarlized, the voltage gated calcium channels open and calcium enters the cell. This calcium entry triggers exocytosis and the secretory vesicles are released into the blood stream to go to their respective targets.

What is the neuromuscular junction, and how does it send messages to the muscle? (ch 11 pg 392, figure 11.10)

The neuromuscular junction is junction between axon terminals, motor end plates on the muscle membrane and the schwann cell sheaths. It communicates by the action potential causes the Ca+2 channels to open, their entry causing ACh to be released into the cleft.

How are the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell related? Chapter 8, page 256, Establishing Synapses depends on Chemical Signals, paragraph 1, lines 1-12

The neuron that delivers the signal to the synapse is known as the presynaptic cell, and the cell that receives the signal is called the postsynaptic cell.

How do neurons from the basal ganglia influence body movement? Ch. 13, pg. 429, right column, paragraph 4, lines 1-4

The neurons have multiple synapses in the CNS and make up the extrapyramidal tract.

How do neurons from the basal ganglia influence body movement? (Mechanistic approach) Ch. 13, pg. 429

The neurons have multiple synapses in the CNS and make up the extrapyramidal tract.

How are neurotransmitter receptors terminated? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, The Autonomic Division, page 366, left column, 1st paragraph, line 5-8

The neurostransmitter can diffuse away, be metabolized by enzymes in the extracellular fluid, or be actively transported into cells around the synapse.

How do nicotinic cholinergic receptors respond to ACh? (mech) 373, left, paragraph 3, lines 1-4

The nicotinic cholinergic receptors have two binding sites for ACh. These chemically gated ion channels open and allow monovalent cations to flow in when ACh binds to the receptors. In skeletal muscles, this net entry of sodium causes muscle fibers to depolarize.

Explain the mechanism of opioid/analgesic drugs. (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 10, Pain modulation, page 323, left column, second paragraph, 6-11th line

The opioid drugs act act directly on CNS opioid receptors that are part of an analgesic system that responds to endogenous opioid molecules. Activation of opioid receptors blocks pain perception by decreasing neurotransmitter release from primary sensory neurons and by postsynaptic inhibition of the secondary sensory neurons

How do the otolith organs and the semicircular canals differ in purpose? (mech) 337, right, paragraph 1, lines 5-9

The otolith organs (saccule and utricle) function to show the linear acceleration and head position. The semicircular canals' purpose is to sense rotational acceleration in multiple directions.

Describe the type of situations in which the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system come into play. (Chapter 11, Teleological, The Autonomic Division, p. 359, right column, lines 25-34)

The parasympathetic branch is active during very routine, normal day-to-day activities such as "rest and digest" functions. The sympathetic branch is active during emotional, high-threat, stressful, or dangerous situations.

How (teological) are the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches different in their functions? (Chapter 11, Subsection The Autonomic Division, p. 386, right column, paragraph 6, lines 4-12)

The parasympathetic branch is dominant, taking command of the routine, quiet activities of day-to-day living, such as digestion. Consequently, parasympathetic neurons are sometimes said to control rest and digest functions. In contrast, the sympathetic branch is dominant in stressful situations, such as the potential threat from the snake. One of the most dramatic examples of sympathetic action is the fight-or-flight response, in which the brain triggers massive simultaneous sympathetic discharge throughout the body.

What is the primary function of an axon? Pg 231, Right Column, Para 2, Lines 1-5 Mech

The primary function of an axon is to transmit outgoing electrical signals from the integrating center of the neuron to target cells at the end of the axon. At the distal end of the axon, the electrical signal usually causes secretion of a chemical messenger molecule

Why (teological) do axons have variable, but usually long, lengths? (Chapter 8, p. 252, Subsection Axons Carry Outgoing Signals to the Target, left column, paragraph 2, lines 1-6)

The primary function of an axon is to transmit outgoing electrical signals from the integrating center of the neuron to the end of the axon. At the distal end of the axon, the electrical signal is usually translated into a chemical message by secretion of a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, or neurohormone.

Where is the primary motor cortex located and what is its function? Chapter 9, The Motor System Governs Output from the CNS, 3rd paragraph, lines 1-3

The primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobes of the cerebrum, and is responsible initiating voluntary movements.

What is the primary muscle of the organs and where is it found? (Teleological, Ch. 12, pg. 378, column 2, paragraph 1, lines 1-3)

The primary muscle for the organs is the smooth muscle. They can be found in the stomach, urinary bladder, and the blood vessels.

How does short term memory get transferred into long term memory? (Mechanistic) pg 316, paragraph 2, lines 2-8

The process of consolidation converts short term memory to long term memory. There are also intermediate levels of memory, which you can recall to help the process of consolidation.

How does fatigue occur physiologically? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 12, Fatigue has multiple causes, page 392, right column, first paragraph, 1-7th line

The psychological term fatigue describes a reversible condition in which an exercising muscle is no longer able to generate or sustain the expected power output. It is influenced by the intensity and duration of the contractile activity, by whether the muscle fiber is using aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, by the composition of the muscle, and by the fitness level of the individual

In order for muscles to contract, the DHP receptor must change conformation. Why is this necessary? (Teleological) Chapter 12: Skeletal Muscle, page 389, left column, 7th paragraph, lines 1-6

The receptor changes conformation when the depolarization of an action potential reaches it. The conformation change opens the RyR Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Stored Ca2+ then flows down its electrochemical gradient into the cytosol, where it initiates contraction

Describe the structure of a synapse

The region where an axon terminal meets its target cell is called a synapse. The neuron that delivers a signal to the synapse is known as the presynaptic cell, and the cell that receives the signal is called the postsynaptic cell. The narrow space between two cells is called the synaptic cleft, which is filled with extracellular matrix whose fibers hold the two cells in position. P. 232 top left column

What are the two types of resistance to current flow within the body? (Chapter 8, Teleological, Electrical Signals in Neurons, pg. 239, left column, lines 21-23)

The resistance of the cell membrane (Rm) and the internal resistance of the cytoplasm (Ri).

How (mechanistic) is the resting potential of the cell affected by the concentration and movement of different ions? (Chapter 8, p. 257, Subsection Ion Movement Creates Electrical Signals, left column, paragraph 4, lines 1-10)

The resting membrane potential of living cells is determined primarily by the K+ concentration gradient and the cell s resting permeability to K+, Na+, and Cl-. A change in either the K+ concentration gradient or ion permeabilities changes the membrane potential. For example, at rest, the cell membrane of a neuron is only slightly permeable to Na+. However, if the membrane suddenly increases its Na+ permeability, Na+ enters the cell, moving down its electrochemical gradient. The addition of positive Na* to the intracellular fluid depolarizes the cell membrane and creates an electrical signal.

What are the two senses that are involved in the chemoreceptors and how are they involved? (Teleological/Mechanism, Ch. 10, Chemoreceptors: Smell and Taste, pg. 324, column 2, paragraph 1, lines 5-9)

The two senses involved in the chemoreceptors are smell and taste. Unicellular bacteria use chemoreception to sense their environment.

Why are two distinct touches sometimes perceived as one touch? (teleological approach) Ch 10, p 329, A Sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field, left column, paragraphs 2 and 3

The secondary receptive field is very large. A secondary receptive field is the merging of several individual receptive fields when several primary sensory neurons converge on a single secondary neuron.

What is the function of the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex? mechanistic approach (chapter 9, the cerebral cortex is organized into functional areas, paragraph 1, column 2, line4-5, page 291)

The sensory areas receive sensory input and translate it into perception (awareness).

How is the sensitivity of an area determined? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 10, General Properties of Sensory Systems, page 312, right column, 5th paragraph, line 1-4

The size of the secondary receptive fields determine the sensitivity of the area to a stimulus. If the area is large, it is less sensitive.

What is the sliding filament theory of contraction? mechanistic approach (Chapter 12, page 385, actin and myosin slide past each other during contraction, right column, paragraph 2, line 7-9)

The sliding filament theory of contraction describes that overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in an energy-requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction.

What does the sliding filament theory predict? Ch. 12, pg. 395, right column, lines 8-11

The sliding filament theory predicts that the tension generated by a muscle fiber is directly proportional to the number of cross bridges formed between the thick and thin filaments.

What is the function of the somatosensory pathways? teleological approach (chapter 9, page 293, the spinal cord and brain integrate sensory information, )

The somatosensory pathways carry information about touch, temperature, pain, itch, and body position.

Why are fast-twitch muscle fibers fast? Page 393, right column, paragraphs 3-5 under Skeletal Muscle is classified by speed and fatigue resistance.

The speed with which a muscle fiber contracts is determined by the isoform of myosin ATPase present in the fiber's thick filaments. Fast twitch fibers sl=plit ATP more rapidly and can complete multiple contractile cycles more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers. Duration of contraction also varies according to fiber type. Twitch duration is determined largely by how fast the sarcoplasmic reticulum removes Ca2+ from the cytosol. Fast twitch fibers pump Ca2+ into their sarcoplasmic reticulum more rapidly than slow-twitch fibers, so fast twitch fibers have faster twitches.

How is the spinal cord structured?

The spinal cord is divided into four regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral, corresponding to the adjacent vertebrae. Each spinal region is subdivided into segments, and each segment gives rise to a bilateral pair of spinal nerves. Just before a spinal nerve joins the spinal cord, it divides into 2 branches called roots. The dorsal root of each spinal nerve is specialized to carry incoming sensory information. The ventral root carries information from CNS to muscle and glands. P.284 Left column middle

How does a sweet, umami, or bitter stimulus get recognized by the tongue, biochemically? (Mechanistic) pg 345, figure 10.14

The sweet, umami, or bitter stimulus have ligands that bind to a GPCR, which goes through a path of signal transduction, and causes Calcium release, and causes an increase in the production of ATP, which causes an action potential to be sent to the brain.

How can one distinguish the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches? Mechanistic approach, Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, Page 378, Right column, fourth paragraph, lines 1-5.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic branches can be distinguished anatomically, but there is no simple way to separate the actions of the two branches on their targets. They are distinguished best by the type of situation in which they are most active

How can the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the nervous system work together, rather than work antagonistically? (Mechanistic) pg 380, column 2, paragraph 3, lines 4-6

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together sometimes: the sympathetic division controls muscle contraction for sperm ejaculation, while the parasympathetic division controls blood flow for a penile erection.

How do the two autonomic branches differ anatomically in terms of the location of the autonomic ganglia? Chapter 11, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions, 1st paragraph, lines 1-8

The sympathetic ganglia are found primarily in two ganglion chains that run along either side of the bony vertebral column, with the additional ganglia along the descending aorta. Parasympathetic ganglia are located either on or near their target organs.

Why is it that the sympathetic nervous have many branch origins in the middle of the spinal chord (T1-L2) while the parasympathetic only has branches in the pons and medulla and in the pelvic nerves? (Ch 11, pg 382, figure 11.5)

The sympathetic nervous system has many branches there because most sympathetic ganglia are close to the spinal chord. The parasympathetic nervous system fibers are 75% in the vagus nerve (Cranial nerve X)

Why must synapse formation be followed by electrical and chemical activity? (Teleological approach) Ch 8, Cells of the Nervous System, page 232, left column, 3rd paragraph, line 1-3

The synapse needs to be stimulated or it will disappear.

Why are t-tubules important with regards to the response time of the muscle fiber? (teleological) Chapter 12, page 382, Skeletal Muscles Are Composed of Muscle Fibers, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-7

The t-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber, which allows them to reach the terminal cistern almost simultaneously. Without the t-tubules, the action potential would reach the center of the fiber only by conducting the action potential through the cytosol - which is much slower and less direct. This would delay the response time of the muscle fiber.

What is evidence supporting the sliding filament theory of contraction? (Teleological Approach) Chapter 12, Actin and Myosin Slide Past Each Other during Contraction, Page 409 right column, 3rd paragraph, lines 3-6.

The theory states that muscle contraction is caused by actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past each other in an energy-requiring process. The length of the A band remains constant despite shortening of the sarcomere, providing support for the theory.

What are the two photoreceptors and their function in the eye? teleological approach (chapter 10, photoreceptors transduce light into electrical signals, paragraph 1, right column, page 348, line 1-7)

The two photoreceptors are the rods and the cones. Rods function in low light and are used in night vision, when objects are seen in black and white. Cones are responsible for high-acuity vision and color vision during the daytime, when light levels are high.

Why do we have cerebrospinal fluid (Teleological approach) Chapter 9, Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, page 280, right column, eighth paragraph, 1-6th line

The two purposes of the cerebrospinal fluid are for physical protection and for chemical protection. The brain and spinal cord float in the thin layer of cerebrospinal fluid between the membranes. The fluid reduces the weight of the brain so that there is less pressure on the blood vessels and nerves.

How is ATP release initiated from type II cells? (Mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 327, Sweet, Bitter, and Umami Tastes, right column, paragraph 2

Type II cell receptors activate a G protein called gustducin, which activates multiple signal transduction pathways, some of which release Ca2+ from intracellular stores, while others open cation channels and allow Ca2+ to enter the cell. These calcium signals then initiate ATP release from the type II cells.

How do we respond to sweet, bitter, and umami tastes? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 327, Sweet, Bitter, and Umami Tastes, right column, paragraph 1-3

Type II taste receptor cells respond to sweet, bitter, and umami tastes. The type II cell receptors activate gustducin (a G protein) that activates multiple signal transduction pathways. Some the pathways release Ca2+ from intracellular stores, while others open cation channels and allow Ca2+ to enter the cell. Ca signals initiate ATP release from type II cells. ATP leaves the cell through gap junction-like channels. ATP acts as a paracrine signal on both sensory neurons and neighboring taste receptor cells creates complex interactions

How do we respond to the sour taste? (mechanistic) Chapter 10, page 327, Taste Transduction Uses Receptors and Channels, right column, paragraph 6, lines 1-9

Type III presynaptic cells respond to sour tastes. H+ mediated depolarization of the presynaptic cell results in serotonin release by exocytosis. Serotonin in turn excites the primary sensory neuron. Increasing H+ (the sour taste signal) also changes pH, so it is thought that H+ acts on ion channels of the presynaptic cell from both extracellular and intracellular sides of the membrane. The intracellular pathways are still unknown.

How is tyrosine involved among neurohormones? (Mechanistic) pg 267, paragraph 10.

Tyrosine is converted into other neurotransmitters/neurohormones, such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. In particular, norepinephrine is involved in the PNS.

How is umami tasted? (mechanistic approach) ch 10, pg 354, Taste transduction uses receptors and channels, paragraph 4, lines 2-10

Umami is tasted when amino acids or proteins are dissolved into the mucus/saliva, eventually reaching type II taste receptor cells. There, a special G protein called gustducin is activated, allowing Ca2+ in and ATP to be released.

Why is chemoreception one of the oldest senses? Page 324, Right Column, Para 1, Lines 1-5 Tele

Unicellular bacteria use chemoreception to sense their environment and primitive animals without formalized nervous systems use chemoreception to locate food and mates.

Why are some hormones difficult to identify and isolate? (Teleological approach) Chapter 7, Hormones, page 208, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-9

Unlike classic hormones that are secreted from identifiable glands that can be surgically removed easily, some hormones are difficult to identify and isolate because they are secreted by endocrine cells that are scattered throughout the wall of the stomach or intestine.

What causes rigor mortis? (Mechanistic, Ch 12, pg 388, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-7)

Upon death, muscles can't bind any more ATP so they end up remaining their tightly bound states so the muscles are essentially frozen.

What causes rigor mortis? (Mechanistic approach) ch 12, Muscle Function, page 376, left column, paragraph 5, lines 1-6

Upon death, myosin is no longer capable of binding to ATP and releasing their grip on the actin. This means that bound myosin is incapable of relaxing, and the muscles essentially remain frozen.

Why was vagotomy ever used in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? (Teleological approach) Chapter 11, The Autonomic Division, page 363, right column, fourth paragraph, 1-7th line

Vagotomy is the procedure of surgically severing the vagus nerve. This technique was performed in the past to study the effects of the autonomic nervous system on various organs. It was also used to treat stomach ulcers because the removal of parasympathetic innervation to the stomach decreased the secretion of stomach acid.

Why is the vagus nerve important for the parasympathetic system? teleological approach (chapter 11, page 363, sympathetic and parasympathetic branches originate in different regions, paragraph 3, right column, line 2-6)

Vagus nerve contains 75 percent of all parasympathetic fibers and carries both sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to organs..

How do relative Na+ and K+ concentrations inside and outside the cell remain essentially unchanged? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 8, Electrical Signals in Neurons, page 257, left column, paragraph 6, lines 3-11

Very few ions move across the membrane in a single action potential, so the concentrations remain essentially unchanged. For example, in order to shift the membrane potential from +30 mV to -70 mV, only 1 in every 100,000 K+ must leave the cell.

How does fast axonal transport function? Chapter 8, Cells of the nervous system, page 231, right column, fifth paragraph, lines 2-13

Vesicles are mitochondria are "walked" along microtubule network using ATP to move along axon in stop and go fashion. It can travel forwards towards the axon terminal and backwards toward the cell body for recycling or digestion.

How does the kiss-and-run pathway function? (mechanistic approach) Ch 8, page 284, Neurotransmitters are Released From Vesicles, left column, paragraph 1, lines 1-8

Vesicles only fuse at the fusion pore, where there is a small channel that is only just big enough for neurotransmitter to flow. Once the neurotransmitter has flowed out, the vesicle leaves, and is able to function as a vesicle again without the need for endocytosis.

What stimulates Pacinian Corpsucles?

Vibration (Figure 10.10, pg 345)

How do smooth and striated muscle differ anatomically? (Mechanistic Approach) Page 378, paragraph 3-4

Viewed under a the microscope smooth muscle lacks the obvious cross-bands(alternating light and dark bands) of striated muscles (skeletal and cardiac).

How can you tell where your body parts are in position to one another even when your eyes are closed? (Mechanistic, CH 13, PG 427, Paragraph 2, 1-9)

We have proprioceptors which serve to tell your brain where various parts of your body are in relation to each other.

Why do we sometimes perceive itch instead of pain? (Teleological approach) Chapter 10, page 320, right column, 4th paragraph.

We perceive itch if a subtype of C fiber is activated by histamine or other stimulus.

How does an awake brain differ from a brain that's asleep? (mechanistic) (ch 9 pg 309, paragraph )

While awake, many neurons in the brain are firing but not in a coordinated fashion. It is rapid, irregular patterns produced by signals from he reticular formation. The asleep brain however (awake-resting) the neuron's electrical activity synchronizes into waves with patterns.

How can fiber composition in the body change? (Mechanistic approach) Chapter 11, Skeletal Muscle, page 419, right column, paragraph 2, lines 1-12

While inheritance is a determining factor for fiber composition, the metabolic characteristics of muscle fibers have plasticity. With endurance training, the aerobic capacity of some fast-twitch fibers can be enhanced until they are almost as fatigue-resistant as slow-twitch fibers. Endurance training also increases the number of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscle tissue, which allows more oxygen-carrying blood to reach the contracting muscle and contributes to the increased aerobic capacity of the muscle fibers.

How are somatic motor neurons necessary for muscle health? (Mechanistic approach) Ch 11, The Somatic Motor Division, page 373, right column, 1st paragraph, line 5-7

Without communication between the motor neuron and the muscle, the skeletal muscles for movement posture are weakened.

Why are somatic motor neurons necessary for muscle health? (teleological) Chapter 11, page 373, The Neuromuscular Junction Contains Nicotinic Receptors, right column, paragraph 1, lines 2-8

Without properly functioning somatic motor neurons, there is disruption of of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Without communication between the motor neuron and the muscle, the skeletal muscles for movement and posture weaken, and so do the skeletal muscles for breathing. In severe cases, the loss of respiratory function can be fatal.

What shape is your lens when you look at a distance vs. when you look at something close. (Pg. 361, paragraph 3, sentence 3 and 5)

Your lens is flattened at a distance and then rounded when glancing at closer objects

Why is the apical membrane of a TRC modified into microvilli? telelogical approach, page 351, Taste transduction uses receptors and channels, Right column, Paragraph 2, Last 3 lines.

b/c microvilli increase surface area in contact with the environment.

Why do scientists think that sleep is good for the immune response? (teleological approach) Ch 9, p 311, Why Do We Sleep? left column, paragraph 4

because certain substances that enhance the immune response have also been identified as sleep-factors

Why might scientists consider the neural circuit the basic functional unit of the nervous system? (teleological approach) Ch 9, p 289, Emergent Properties of Neural Networks, left column, paragraph 2

because even the most basic functions of the nervous system require neural circuits

Why does one side of the brain control the opposite side of the body? (teleological approach) Ch 9, p 302, The Brain Stem is the Oldest Part of the Brain, right column, paragraph 2

because most of the corticospinal tracts that carry information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord cross the midline to the opposite side of the body at a site known as the pyramids

Why is smell so closely linked to certain emotions and memories? (teleological approach) Ch 10, p 342, Olfaction is One of the Oldest Senses, left column, paragraph 4

because olfactory pathways lead to the amygdala and hippocampus

Why are flexor-extensor groups called antagonist pairs? Ch 12, p 400, right column, paragraph 1

because they exert opposite effects

Why can't computers be considered completely accurate analogs of the central nervous system? (teleological approach) Ch 9, p 289, Emergent Properties of Neural Networks, right column, paragraph 3

because they lack plasticity