Test #3 Study Guide Intro to Sociology

Authority

Authority - institutionalized power recognized by the people Traditional - conferred by custom and accepted practice Inherited, kings, sheiks Legal-Rational - derived from written rules, regulations, political systems Constitution, charter Charismatic - made legitimate by leader's personal characteristics or emotional appeal or beliefs (Social movements, popular dictators)

General origins of religion

Biologically based capacity of humans Moral instinct, intuition, reciprocity Codifies appropriate behavioral responses to humans' empathy and sympathy instincts Groupishness Animism: all objects are imbued with a spirit Humans distinguished not so much by morality but by capacity for thinking in terms of universal rules (The Bonobo and the Atheist, de Waal) No religion can be considered more logical or evolved than any other

"Controlling the agenda"

Complex relation btw elite and media and public opinion as to what issues get enough attention to overcome the status quo

Types of Government

Dictatorship - single person in power Monarchy - member of royal family holds power Oligarchy - few individuals hold all power (perhaps indirectly) Iran's theocracy, Russia's pre-Putin "plutocrats" Democracy - rule by the "people" Representative republic, polyarchy

Informal economy

Economic transactions not reported to the government; off the books Trading services Selling goods on the street Illegal transactions As much as 40-60% of economy of developing countries Burdensome regulations Lost tax revenue Much of population unable to own property, borrow, build credit and assets

Education (interactionist perspective)

Labeling children impacts their performance... As well as how teachers deal with them Build relationships, find mates The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and teachers' expectations may affect their students' performance. Symbolic interactionism sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in action. A symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to those who are in power and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized test scores or poor performance in a particular class often lead to a student who is labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to "shake off," which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy

Religion (interactionist perspective)

Meanings that people give religion in their lives Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. To interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in what these symbols communicate. Because interactionists study one-on-one, everyday interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interaction between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in the ordinary components of everyday life, and the ways people express religious values in social interactions—all might be topics of study to an interactionist.

Socialism

Means of production and distribution are (more) collectively owned Meet people's needs rather than to maximize profits More commitment to social welfare Government makes basic economic decisions Quite varied in practice: social democracy, controlled capitalism

Capitalism

Means of production held largely in private hands Driven by income, wealth, profit Market system, prices set by supply vs. demand Cycle of product market (GDP) & income market (GNI) Monopolistic/oligopolistic tendencies Boom and bust cycles Inequality Regulation v. de-regulation

Monogamy

Monogamy - individual has only one partner; Serial monogamy - only one partner.... at a time

Deindustrialization

Relocate from rural to cities, from cities to suburbs Outsource jobs to cheaper labor force outside U.S. De-industrialization is a process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region, especially of heavy industry or manufacturing industry.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Struck down state bans on same sex marriage. The 14th Amendment requires States to license a marriage between two people of the same sex. States must recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-State.

What are the core elements of a social movement, and how effective was the Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement in meeting these elements (according to the article "Pre-Occupied")?

Sustained, organized effort making collective demands Recognized "leadership" tends to improve chances Employs various forms of political action Represents: Worthiness Unity Numbers Commitment Did it meet the core elements of organization, central demands, political action? How? Why not? Why was the movement not sustained? Did it facilitate change? Why or why not? (see google doc)

Ecclesia

a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society Religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society and is recognized as the national or official religion; Islam in Saudi Arabia and Iran, Buddhism in Thailand

Patriarchy

a system of society or government in which the father or eldest male is head of the family and descent is traced through the male line. male head of the family.

Power-elite model

insiders, or economically powerful, coordinate with political or military leaders to influence policy

Pluralist model

policy is influenced by a diversity of competing groups

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within one's own group

Crowdsourcing

using Internet to ask for ideas or participation in an activity or endeavor

Social Change (conflict perspective)

Social change can correct injustices and inequalities. Because the status quo is characterized by social inequality and other problems, sudden social change in the form of protest or revolution is both desirable and necessary to reduce or eliminate social inequality and to address other social ills. Society is characterized by pervasive inequality based on social class, race, gender, and other factors. Far-reaching social change is needed to reduce or eliminate social inequality and to create an egalitarian society. Social problems arise from fundamental faults in the structure of a society and both reflect and reinforce inequalities based on social class, race, gender, and other dimensions. Successful solutions to social problems must involve far-reaching change in the structure of society.

The Hidden Curriculum

According to Snyder, the hidden curriculum goes beyond the explicit demands of the formal curriculum. The goals and requirements of the hidden curriculum are unstated, but inflexible. They concern not what students learn but how and when they learn. The hidden curriculum is rooted in professors' assumptions and values, students' expectations, and the social context in which both professors and students find themselves. To succeed, students must adapt and often resort to ploys and stratagems to cope with the requirements they face. For example, students may adopt a strategy of selective negligence. Within the first month of classes, many students discover they cannot conceivably complete all the work assigned them; consequently, they must selectively neglect portions of the formal schoolwork. Education becomes a grueling competition rather than an enjoyable quest for knowledge. Creativity and wonder are stifled as students shift their exclusive focus to earning high grades and giving correct answers. Students, Snyder maintains, increasingly view their education as a type of game they must master. As a result of conflict over the hidden curriculum, students experience intense personal anxiety, depression, and alienation. Some, even the most gifted, are turned off to education altogether. Students may feel frustration and anger at professors who deny them high grades, who object to creativity, and who demand that students fall in line with the hidden curriculum. But typically students must contain this anger or direct it inward. Students may judge themselves harshly, and those judgments may be reinforced by peers and professors.

Education (functionalist perspective)

Agent of socialization Manifest: Knowledge, job training, bestowal of status Latent: Transmit norms and respect for social institutions Promote social integration, group sharing Learn responsibility, discipline, work habits Stimulate change with openness to ideas and analysis The functionalist theory of education focuses on how education serves the needs of society through development of skills, encouraging social cohesion and sorting of students. According to functionalists, the role of schools is to prepare students for participation in the institutions of society.

Why have health care costs been increasing in the U.S.?

Aging population Obesity Approx 43% of 5-yr-old children drink at least one soda per day Expensive technology MRI costs approx. $1211 in U.S. but $363 in France; C-section is $3676 in U.S. but $606 in Canada Health costs not market driven, but profit driven Do not conform to typical supply v. demand market structure Unnecessary treatments Fraud and abuse Medicare overpayments as high as 25% of costs Nursing home caught giving 91-year-old woman 30+ pills per day she didn't need 25% of Americans under 65 have no insurance 50M working are uninsured Use free services, escalate costs for insured Higher fees charged to those who can pay Average retiree will pay $140K into Medicare while receiving $430K in benefits (CBO) Drug prices increasing (debate over patents) Nurse shortage New bacteria resistant to antibiotics Nursing home problems 28 industrialized countries have universal coverage; US doesn't

Myth of hyper-competence

Conspiracy theories rely on the myth of hyper-competent government - the idea that government knows all, sees all, and can can commit heinous acts - such as 9/11 - in secrecy. In truth, conspiracy theories are impossible because government incompetence in infinite. What is incompetence? It is the lack of the required capacity and skills to perform the task for which a person is chosen in a system. Incompetence is not purely an individual's trait; it is also about the factors built into a system which govern the rules of business. An honest, committed and upright person may have good intentions to play his/her role fairly but that is not the only condition for a system to function. If you are brave and wise, you may not be competent and if you are competent you may not be wise and brave.

Social Change (functionalist & evolutionary perspective)

Evolutionary: Social change moves society in a definite direction, frequently from simple to more complex. Functionalist: Social change must contribute to society's stability. Modest adjecustments must be made to accomadate social change. Society is in a natural state of equilibrium. Gradual change is necessary and desirable and typically stems from such things as population growth, technological advances, and interaction with other societies that brings new ways of thinking and acting. However, sudden social change is undesirable because it disrupts this equilibrium. To prevent this from happening, other parts of society must make appropriate adjustments if one part of society sees too sudden a change. Social stability is necessary for a strong society, and adequate socialization and social integration are necessary for social stability. Society's social institutions perform important functions to help ensure social stability. Slow social change is desirable, but rapid social change threatens social order. Social problems weaken a society's stability but do not reflect fundamental faults in how the society is structured. Solutions to social problems should take the form of gradual social reform rather than sudden and far-reaching change. Despite their negative effects, social problems often also serve important functions for society.

Family (conflict perspective)

Family is reflection of inequality and male dominance Children inherit class/status of parents Feminist view: Questions notion that family with no male is cause for concern; Research on single-parent families, gay/lesbian couples According to conflict theorists, the family works toward the continuance of social inequality within a society by maintaining and reinforcing the status quo. Because inheritance, education and social capital are transmitted through the family structure, wealthy families are able to keep their privileged social position for their members, while individuals from poor families are denied similar status. Conflict theorists have also seen the family as a social arrangement benefiting men more than women, allowing men to maintain a position of power. The traditional family form in most cultures is patriarchal, contributing to inequality between the sexes. Males tend to have more power and females tend to have less. Traditional male roles and responsibilities are valued more than the traditional roles done by their wives (i.e., housekeeping, child rearing). The traditional family is also an inequitable structure for women and children. For example, more than 60 percent of all mothers with children under six are in the paid workforce. Even though these women spend as much (or more) time at paid jobs as their husbands, they also do more of the housework and child care.

Religion (conflict perspective)

Impedes social change by encouraging oppressed people to focus on other- worldly concerns Marx - "... opiate of the masses." False consciousness lessens political action Perpetuates social inequality Feminist view: Subordinates women Religious socialization of children Exclusively male leadership Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has a tremendous amount of wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is small. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the "divine right" of oppressive monarchs and to justify unequal social structures, like India's caste system. Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained. This power dynamic has been used by Christian institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor and to teach them that they shouldn't be concerned with what they lack because their "true" reward (from a religious perspective) will come after death. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication from the divine. The feminist perspective is considered to be another conflict theory view that focuses specifically on gender inequality. In terms of religion, feminist theorists assert that, although women are typically the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally held very few positions of power within religions. A few religions and religious denominations are more gender equal, but male dominance remains the norm of most.

Education (conflict perspective)

Instrument of elite, status quo Stifles creativity and individualism Hidden curriculum - control and discipline takes precedence over learning Credentialism - increasing levels required to enter field Employers use as discriminating factor Pupils sorted according to class, test scores, expectations The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces inequality in the larger society. The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues.

Explain the growing social acceptance of divorce since the 1960s.

More liberal divorce laws (no fault) More families can afford it More practical, families have fewer children Women less dependent on a spouse Alternative to being unhappy During the 1960s, women started to close the education gap and the country started to embrace more progressive politics. As a result, women sought independence, causing the divorce rate to rise significantly. Divorce, while fairly common and accepted in modern U.S. society, was once a word that would only be whispered and was accompanied by gestures of disapproval. In 1960, divorce was generally uncommon, affecting only 9.1 out of every 1,000 married persons. That number more than doubled (to 20.3) by 1975 and peaked in 1980 at 22.6 (Popenoe 2007). Over the last quarter century, divorce rates have dropped steadily and are now similar to those in 1970. The dramatic increase in divorce rates after the 1960s has been associated with the liberalization of divorce laws and the shift in societal make up due to women increasingly entering the workforce (Michael 1978). The decrease in divorce rates can be attributed to two probable factors: an increase in the age at which people get married, and an increased level of education among those who marry—both of which have been found to promote greater marital stability.

Family (interactionist perspective)

Parent/child relationships: Transmission of values resulting from Behavioral problems resulting from Behaviors related to stepfamilies, alternative families Emphasis on symbols, negotiated meaning, and the construction of society as an aspect of symbolic interactionism focuses attention on the roles that people play in society. Role-taking is a key mechanism through which an individual can appreciate another person's perspective and better understand the significance of a particular action to that person. Role-taking begins at an early age, through such activities as playing house and pretending to be different people. These activities have an improvisational quality that contrasts with, say, an actor's scripted role-playing. In social contexts, the uncertainty of roles places the burden of role-making on the people in a given situation. Symbolic interactionists also explore the changing meanings attached to family. They argue that shared activities help to build emotional bonds among family members, and that marriage and family relationships are based on negotiated meanings. The interactionist perspective emphasizes that families reinforce and rejuvenate bonds through symbolic mechanism rituals such as family meals and holidays.

Social Change (interactionist perspective)

People construct their roles as they interact; they do not merely learn the roles that society has set out for them. As this interaction occurs, individuals negotiate their definitions of the situations in which they find themselves and socially construct the reality of these situations. In so doing, they rely heavily on symbols such as words and gestures to reach a shared understanding of their interaction. Social problems arise from the interaction of individuals. People who engage in socially problematic behaviors often learn these behaviors from other people. Individuals also learn their perceptions of social problems from other people.

Polygamy

Polygamy - several spouses at a time; Declined steadily over 20th century; 5 countries in Africa where approx. 20% men have polygamous marriages

Power

Power - ability to exercise one's will over others, thru: Force - actual or threatened use of coercion to impose will Influence - power through persuasion or attraction

Religion (functionalist perspective)

Provides meaning and order in people's lives Reduces anxiety Gives people a feeling of control over their destinies Validates the social order: Reinforces good and evil Gives social values rationale Rituals intensify social solidarity Functionalists contend that religion serves several functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control. In providing answers, religion defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces, including divine beings. For example, it helps answer questions like, "How was the world created?" "Why do we suffer?" "Is there a plan for our lives?" and "Is there an afterlife?" As another function, religion provides emotional comfort in times of crisis. Religious rituals bring order, comfort, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior. One of the most important functions of religion, from a functionalist perspective, is the opportunities it creates for social interaction and the formation of groups. It provides social support and social networking and offers a place to meet others who hold similar values and a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Moreover, it can foster group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people's concept of themselves, sometimes there is an "in-group" versus "out-group" feeling toward other religions in our society or within a particular practice. On an extreme level, the Inquisition, the Salem witch trials, and anti-Semitism are all examples of this dynamic. Finally, religion promotes social control: It reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, following the law, and regulating sexual behavior.

Family (functionalist perspective)

Reproduction Protection Socialization Regulation of sexual behavior Core bonds of loyalty For functionalists, the family creates well-integrated members of society and instills culture into the new members of society. It provides important ascribed statuses such as social class and ethnicity to new members. It is responsible for social replacement by reproducing new members, to replace its dying members. Further, the family gives individuals property rights and also affords the assignment and maintenance of kinship order. Lastly, families offer material and emotional security and provides care and support for the individuals who need care.

Political participation level in the U.S.

Who votes? Older Higher educated, higher income Residential mobility (76% turnout if > 5 years) Volunteerism Registered - about 75% of VAP Reasons behind not voting? Paradox of voting: Benefits<Costs Vote doesn't matter Uninformed Not interested, or don't care Experts have found several social and economic characteristics to be strongly associated with high levels of POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: Education: The single most important characteristic of a politically active citizen is a high level of education. Generally, the more education an individual has, the more likely he or she is to VOTE. Why? Perhaps because the well-educated understand complex issues better, or maybe they have learned the importance of CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY. Or it could just be that their occupations are more flexible in allowing them to take time to go to the polls. Others argue that since educated people tend to be wealthier, they have more at stake in the political process. Age: Despite the big push in the early 1970s to allow 18-year-olds to vote, 18-24-year-olds have consistently held the lowest rate of voting. In fact, in recent years their older siblings (age 25-34 don't do a whole lot better. The highest percentages of eligible voters who actually vote are in those groups 45 and above. Racial and Ethnic Groups: If only race and ethnicity are considered, whites have higher VOTING RATES than do blacks and Latinos. However, that tendency is somewhat deceptive. Some studies that control for income and education levels have found that the voting rates are about the same for whites, blacks, and Latinos. Gender: For many years women were underrepresented at the voting booths, but in recent elections, they have turned out in at least equal numbers to men. In fact, in 1992 and 1996, turnout among women actually exceeded that of men.

Cult

an organized group of people with an obsessive devotion to a person or set of principles •New religious movements (cults): Smaller, often secretive group that represents a new religion or innovation of existing faith; Most major religions began as cults

Incest taboo

cultural rules that forbid sexual relations with certain close relatives norm of marrying outside nuclear family