the effects of world war II on the home front, Post-World War II Society, Anticommunism and the Roots of the Cold War, cold war events, The Rise of the Middle Class

DDT

First used to kill mosquitoes that caused disease, DDT in the 1950s became the weapon used against insects that destroyed cotton, tobacco, potatoes, apples, and other crops. This greatly helped the nation's food supply and economy. Soon DDT was also being used in residential areas. However, it had unintended effects on the environment (a Michigan study showed it killed large numbers of robins) and humans. After years of research, the US government banned the insecticide in 1972. Other countries continue to use it, however, to control malaria and typhus outbreaks.

Truman's Response

Harry Truman was president when the Cold War began. He had a background in farming and served as a soldier in World War I (1914-1918). He tried his hand at several occupations as a young man and finally seemed to find his niche as a judge in Kansas City, Missouri. Later, the idea of attempting several jobs helped him give the appearance of a "common man." In 1934, he was elected to the US Senate and subsequently became Roosevelt's running mate in the 1944 election. Read more details of Truman's biography. Truman ordered the dropping of the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ushering the world into the atomic age. He believed that although the devastation would be immense, the use of atomic weapons would ultimately save lives, especially American lives. He went on to make decisions that were labeled the Truman Doctrine. His policies drove US foreign policy for the rest of the twentieth century.

redefining the Role of Government

In the post-World War II United States, the federal government began to take a more active role in society. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson all enacted laws and social programs aimed to improve the lives of Americans. During this time, the US government began spending more money and becoming more invested in social programs. President Truman stated in his 1948 State of the Union address that in order "to protect human resources" the US government must become more proactive in preventing poverty, illness, and homelessness in US society. Many of the social programs enacted during this period are still in effect in some form, and each has profoundly shaped the identity of the national culture. Watch the video on the next screen to learn more.

The End of the Korean War

The Korean police action was at a stalemate in 1951 but continued for two more years. The limited war cost the United States over $50 billion and killed more than 50,000 Americans. More than 2 million Koreans were killed, and North Korea was devastated. In July 1953, an armistice was reached that left Korea still divided at the 38th parallel. Consequences From 1950 to 1953, defense spending in the United States increased to two-thirds of the federal budget. American intervention preserved a precarious balance of power in Asia. Truman increased the powers of the presidency and set a precedent for future undeclared wars.

. And Reactions to It

. . The affluence of society led to the development of a youth culture. While teenagers probably never had it so good before, many were nevertheless dissatisfied. Figures of rebellion became popular with the younger generation. In literature, J. D. Salinger's classic novel The Catcher in the Rye featured the disaffected narrator Holden Caufiled, and on the big screen teens flocked to see the 1955 film Rebel Without a Cause in which James Dean plays a juvenile delinquent whose parents are at a loss to understand his behavior. In fact, there was a rise in teenage crime in the 1950s. And in music, where their parents had enjoyed the mellow voice of Frank Sinatra and other crooners, young teens were listening to something new—the fast, rocking beat of rock and roll. Originated by black musicians like Chuck Berry and Little Richard, the music gained popularity across the nation when Alan Freed, a white disc jockey from Cleveland, began playing it on his radio show. In 1956, Elvis Presley hit the scene with a single, Heartbreak Hotel. Presley's music drew on black and white traditions—blues, country, and gospel. With his sexy hip swivel and sultry voice, Elvis shocked adults and made teens swoon. He became the most famous star in America.

West Berlin Blockade and Airlift

ther political situations were also contributing to the Cold War. Following Germany's surrender at the end of the war, the United States, Britain, and France were responsible for occupation zones in the city of West Berlin. By early 1948 the three countries merged their zones, and a plan to establish a functioning government was under way. The Soviets took exception to this political unification and decided to blockade West Berlin. The Berlin Airlift was the response from the United States, France, and Britain. For months, plane after plane dropped massive amounts of life-saving supplies in West Berlin, thwarting the Soviets' plan to use starvation and intimidation to force the Allies to either give up Berlin or buy into a plan to unify all of Germany under the Soviets. The Soviets abandoned their blockade in 1949, a month after the formation of NATO. The western-controlled Federal Republic of Germany established their government. The Soviets, not to be outdone, allowed for formation of the German Democratic Republic, still solidly in the Soviet-dominated eastern zone. This meant that the country of Germany was divided into two independent nations.

Changes in Federal Spending

A Demand for Defense Before World War II, the United States maintained only a small peacetime military force. During this prewar era, the country favored isolationism, or refraining from action in international affairs. After World War II, the nation began retaining a larger peacetime military that could quickly respond to international conflicts. After seeing the aggression displayed by Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in the 1930s, the US government believed that future military aggression could not be tolerated. Also, the rise of the Soviet Union as a military superpower reaffirmed the US belief that the country must counter any international hostility. The growing hostility between the United States and Soviet Union led to the Cold War, which produced a massive buildup of military weapons and an ideological competition to influence affairs around the world. Spending on defense accounted for 18 percent of the US budget in 1940. In 1950, that number rose to 32 percent, and in 1960, defense spending accounted for 50 percent of the entire US budget. By comparison, in the year 2000, 16 percent of the US budget went to defense spending.

Government Supply Agencies

A centralized procurement agency, the Office of Production Management (OPM), was established in January of 1941 in anticipation of American involvement in World War II. Donald Nelson, former executive vice president of Sears Roebuck, was named as Director of Priorities. By July, the Supply, Priorities, and Allocations Board (SPAB) was established to deal with inefficiencies in supply processes. Nelson was named as the director of the board. Roosevelt abolished the OPM and SPAB after the United States entered World War II. In January of 1942, the War Production Board (WPB) was created by executive order, with Nelson at the helm. The WPB was given sweeping controls that allowed it to assign priorities to scarce materials production and prohibit the production of non-essential goods. The board existed for 3 years, yet supervised the production of $185 billion worth of war supplies. $100 billion of military orders were placed in 1942 alone, requiring a full and efficient industrial capacity to meet the demand.

The Beats

A more trenchant critique of conformist society, perhaps, emerged in the writings of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and a loose group of other authors who were dubbed the Beats. They rebelled against a middle-class culture based on a steady income, a home in the 'burbs, and two to three children. Instead, they wanted to break through convention and acknowledge life in all its intensity and beautiful messiness. Ultimately, the Beats' accusation against the mainstream was that it was soulless; both Kerouac and Ginsberg had mystical leanings, turning to the English poet William Blake and eastern philosophy for inspiration. Ginsberg's long poem Howl (1956) chronicles the madness, sex (both gay and straight), and drug-induced spiritual journeys of Ginsberg and his friends as they sought "the ancient heavenly connection to the starry dynamo." Society was shocked. Howl was alleged to be pornographic and the US government took the publisher, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, to trial. He was vindicated by a not guilty verdict—and the fact that Howl has become a modern poetic classic. On the Road, published a year after Howl in 1957, was Jack Kerouac's paean to exuberance and frenzied vitality. The novel traces Sal Paradise, the protagonist, as he travels back and forth across the country in search of the soul of America. Needless to say, he doesn't visit any suburbs. Life is in the jazz clubs, on city streets with hustlers, in farm fields with immigrant laborers. Young readers responded, and On the Road became a bestseller as well as another literary classic.

Rise of the Automobile

Along with the single-family home with its white picket fence (or the fragment of one that came with a Levittown Cape Cod), the car now became ubiquitous. Automobile sales soared, as people left the cities for the suburbs. Most men (who were usually the breadwinners) still worked in the cities, so the car was a necessity. And with one car with Dad, soon enough families needed two cars. In part, this was because the era of the child had begun, and Mom was now driving the kids to the skating rink or the movies or any number of other activities that sprung up for these pampered youngsters. In part, the suburbs were designed around automobile transportation. No sidewalks for walking, no town bus systems. So, a second car, a formally unheard of luxury for most, became the norm.

Poised for the Future

America also benefited from German wartime advancements. After the war, the US government enlisted select scientists to immigrate to America to work in key industries. Perhaps the most influential scientist was Werner von Braun, a leader in the development of German rocket-fueled weapons. Braun helped to develop satellites and the American space program. He became the director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960. World War II created the opportunity for technological advancements, requiring an organized supply chain and a deep pool of talent. At the end of the war, the United States was poised for prosperity, expansion, and diversification. The only other superpower still standing was the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the cold war conflict pitting capitalism against communism.

A Society of Carefree Consumption

Americans born after World War II lived in a society that was vastly different from the one their parents had been born into. Parents were now able to buy vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and other innovations to make home life easier. Teenagers had much more expendable income than in previous generations. They were able to purchase record players, cameras, and magazines. This increase in carefree consumption helped the US economy avoid the postwar recession that many analysts feared would hit. In addition, the first computers allowed companies and the government to process documents and data faster. Computers and more-efficient machinery resulted in US productivity increasing by 35 percent between 1945 and 1955. While many European and Asian nations focused on rebuilding their war-torn societies and economies, the United States lived in a period of material abundance. During the uncertainty of World War II, Americans had saved $150 billion, equivalent to nearly $2 trillion today. After the war ended, Americans spent their savings on new products, which helped the US gross national product (GNP) double between 1945 and 1960. By 1970, Americans made up only 6 percent of the world's population but produced and consumed almost 66 percent of the world's goods.

The Anticommunist Crusade

As the Cold War expanded on the global stage during the 1940s and 1950s, the nation experienced a second Red Scare comparable to the one after World War I. Fears of Communism, spies and subversion dominated the cultural landscape. President Truman attempted to confront these fears by implementing a loyalty review system in 1947, requiring federal government employees to demonstrate their patriotism. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), originally convened in 1938, investigated numerous private citizens and government employees over the years in an attempt to expose anyone who was involved in subversive activities. Hollywood was especially suspect because of its far-reaching ability to influence Americans. In 1947 ten members of the Screen Writers Guild refused to respond to the question "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist party?" They all refused to answer the question, citing the First Amendment, and were sentenced to up to a year in prison. In Hollywood, they were blacklisted, unable to get work in the movie industry again. This culture of fear infiltrated American homes via television, radio, and print media as accusations of treason and would lead to the McCarthy trials in the 1950s. Frequently compared to witch hunts, these trials were broadcast across the nation.

Racism on the Home Front

Approximately 400,000 Japanese men and women migrated to Hawaii and the Pacific coast between 1885 and 1924. This immigrant group was better educated and had more money than most European immigrants. They quickly dominated California agriculture, drawing animosity from white laborers and farmers. Fueled by long standing prejudice and post Pearl Harbor panic, Executive Order No. 9066 stripped 110,000 Japanese, two-thirds of them American citizens, of their property, and moved them to internment camps; one such camp was located in Amache, Colorado. While Mexican Americans were encouraged to fill US labor shortages by the government through the bracero program, they continued to experience discrimination. Young Latinos wearing loud zoot suits were perceived to be cultural rebels. Racial tensions erupted in Los Angeles in 1943 when sailors searched out and attacked zoot-suited youths, starting a multi-day riot. African Americans (10 percent of the American population at the start of the war) were the largest minority group. While the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was actively fighting discrimination, progress continued to be slow. African Americans hoped that World War II would provide opportunities to improve domestic conditions.

Potsdam Conference

At the conference in Potsdam (July 1945), the three allied leaders met to complete postwar arrangements that had begun at Yalta. President Harry Truman, who took the office following the death of Roosevelt just a short time before, represented the United States. Again, the Allies found very little on which they could agree, resulting in a diplomatic impasse, a precursor to the Cold War during which military power held sway over diplomacy. During the Potsdam Conference, Truman issued Japan an ultimatum. If it didn't surrender by August 3, it would face complete destruction. Japan rejected the order, and on August 6, 1945, the city of Hiroshima was devastated by an atomic bomb. Two days later, Stalin declared war on Japan

African Americans in the Military

At the start of the war, blacks were excluded from the army, the army air forces, and the marines. The navy permitted blacks to serve as waiters. Yielding to home front pressure, the army formed several all black units; however they were led by white officers because of the dominant belief that blacks were not capable of leading men on the battlefield. The Navy began recruiting blacks in 1942. By the end of 1943, 79,000 of the 504,000 troops overseas were black and over 1 million served during the course of the war. The units remained segregated throughout the war. Even blood and blood plasma donated by whites and blacks, as per the directives of the American Cross, were segregated. This is especially ironic as Dr. Charles Drew, an African American hematologist, discovered how to store blood plasma safely. He established the American Red Cross blood bank, and was its first director. Black forces were generally assigned to home-front service positions. The only black army division to experience combat was the 92nd Infantry. The Tuskegee Airmen, the black 94th Pursuit Squadron, gained renown for its skill protecting bombers.

The Korean War

Before World War II began, Korea had been under Japanese rule for 35 years. An agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union, reached at the Potsdam Conference, gave the part of Korea north of the 38th parallel to the Soviets and the part of the country south of the 38th parallel to the Americans. As they did with Germany after World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union set up rival regimes in the two parts of Korea, which resulted in a deadly rivalry between the two new countries. In June 1950, North Korea, with the aid of Soviet-made tanks, invaded South Korea. Surprised, South Korean troops were driven southward to the sea in a small territory surrounding the city of Pusan. By September 1950, the North Koreans controlled most of the Korean peninsula.

The Space Race

Before the 1950s, space exploration existed only in science fiction. But when the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik, into space in 1957, humans entered the space age. In 1958, President Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). The United States and Soviet Union then entered the Space Race, a peaceful competition in space flight. The Soviet Union won early on by placing the first person, Yuri Gagarin, in space in 1961. The next year, President Kennedy made a bold declaration that the United States would put a man on the moon by 1970. In 1969, NASA's Apollo 11 mission put two men on the moon and fulfilled Kennedy's goal.

Causes of the Cold War

Before the war ended, the leaders of the three allied countries met for two conferences in 1945, one in Yalta and one in Potsdam. Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill represented the Soviet Union and Great Britain respectively. The United States was represented by Franklin Roosevelt at Yalta and by Harry Truman at Potsdam. Conference at Yalta At the time of the Yalta conference (February 1945), the Soviets were a major, successful force in Eastern Europe. The United States had suffered large losses in the Battle of the Bulge and was facing huge casualties in the Pacific. Roosevelt made concessions to the Soviets concerning territory in Manchuria in return for Stalin's promise to come to the aid of the Americans in the Pacific. The Allied leaders also agreed on the concept of a new international peace-keeping organization, which would become the United Nations. However, they did not reach an agreement on what to do with Poland or reach any conclusions about the future of Germany.

World War II Legacy

Blacks assigned overseas were generally afforded more opportunity to develop skills and demonstrate abilities than those on the home front. They were also frequently treated better in foreign countries than they were in the United States. At war's end, they returned home with self-confidence and more expansive perspectives. The contribution of African Americans to the war effort did not go unrecognized. In 1948, Executive Order 9981 ending segregation was issued by President Truman. The order established equal treatment and equal opportunity within the armed forces

The Cost of War

Building a war machine took a domestic toll. In addition to rationing and inflation, the National War Labor Board (NWLB) mandated ceilings on wages. Labor unions, which gained over 3 million new members during the war, deeply resented government-imposed wage restrictions. Congress passed the Smith-Connelly Anti-Strike Act in June of 1943 to quell strike threats. This act enabled the federal government to seize and operate any industries slowed by strikes and made strikes against a government-operated industry a criminal offense. The government took over the coal mining industry during the war and even assumed control of railways for part of the war. By the end of the war, less than 1 percent of the total labor force work hours were affected via work stoppages. The war was expensive; the total war bill was more than $330 billion: 10 times the expense of WWI and double all cumulative spending since 1776. The national debt more than quadrupled from 1940 to 1945.

A Changing US Economy

During the war, the US government had contracted with large companies to produce the materials needed for battle. This partnership between the government and companies resulted in big corporate profits. For example, in 1940 the top 100 US companies accounted for 30 percent of all US manufacturing. In comparison, by 1943 these same 100 companies produced 70 percent of US manufactured goods. After 1945, US corporations continued to thrive. Factories that had produced tanks and ammunition during the war began producing automobiles and toasters. This change resulted in more higher-paying, white-collar jobs for US workers compared to the prewar years, which further fueled the demand for consumer goods. During the 1950s and 1960s, white-collar and service-sector positions grew, while manual labor and farm jobs declined.

Computers

Computers were still in their infancy in the 1950s. They were huge, expensive machines and mostly used for in scientific and military research. With the replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors in 1956, however, computers became smaller and more efficient. Businesses started to use them. At this time, IBM dominated the computer industry in the United States.

Early Cold War Plans and Policies

Early Cold War Plans and Policies Marshall Plan In 1947, President Truman appointed George C. Marshall as Secretary of State. In 1957, Marshall suggested the European Recovery Program, also known as the Marshall Plan. He put together a plan to offer massive aid to European countries that were suffering extreme hardships as they recovered from the devastation of war. The countries had to agree to get together and work out a joint plan for economic recovery. Not surprisingly, the Soviet Union and its allies chose not to participate. Congress had a difficult time approving such a huge amount of money on top of contributions already made for the European economic recovery, plus support for the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank. But a Communist coup in Czechoslovakia sponsored by the Soviets compelled Congress to pass the legislation. By September of 1948, the Economic Cooperation Act was passed, implementing the Marshall Plan. With the Marshall Plan, prosperity returned to Western Europe, slowing the communist influence in countries such as Italy and France. And, since Europe was spending a good deal of the aid they received on US goods, prosperity was shared with the United States as well.

The Rise and Fall of MacArthur

General Douglas MacArthur, as UN commander, led the entire Korean operation. He decided in September to launch a surprise attack from the sea behind enemy lines at Inchon. This attack was successful, and the North Korean troops retreated to their own territory north of the 38th parallel. South Korean troops followed. The MacArthur forces also crossed the 38th parallel to keep the North Korean troops from regrouping and to attempt to liberate all of Korea from Communism. At this point, the Chinese got involved. They had warned that they would not sit idly by if their border with Korea was threatened. So when MacArthur moved northward, the Chinese decided to act. In November 1950, hundreds of thousands of Chinese soldiers entered the fighting. They pushed the overextended MacArthur and his troops back to the 38th parallel.

African Americans on the Home Front

In 1940, whites had a 10 percent unemployment rate while African Americans experienced a 20 percent unemployment rate. The majority of employed blacks held unskilled jobs, earning a family income of one-third that of the average white family. Wartime job opportunities drove significant domestic migrations, as people sought new jobs in cities such as Detroit, Los Angeles, and Seattle. The south experienced the most dramatic shift in population. Even though the south received a disproportionate number of defense contracts in an effort to stimulate the stagnant economy, 1.6 million blacks left the south to migrate to Northern and Western cities. Rather than leave discrimination behind, racial tensions moved from a regional to a national stage. Blacks were initially denied access to higher paying jobs and tensions escalated over housing and segregated facilities. Membership in the NAACP grew rapidly to nearly 500,000 members. Threats of a Negro March on Washington in 1941 caused FDR to issue an executive order that forbade discrimination in defense industries. The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was established to ensure compliance with the order

Introduction

In 1944, women would draw lines on the backs of their legs to imitate the seam of a nylon stocking. The United States was at war. There were no luxuries such as nylons to be had. But people didn't grumble. They were used to a sparse lifestyle—and worse even, with the preceding 10 years of the Great Depression. Suddenly, after the war, everything changed. It was like Oz: where once there'd been drab, black-and-white Kansas plains, now all was a brilliantly colored fairyland with a golden road. If you had been a woman wishing for nylons, soon you could have those, and a television, velvet curtains, lacy pillows, and more. The years from 1946 to 1960 were a golden age in the United States. Unlike Europe, where cities had been bombed into rubble and had to be rebuilt, the United States was physically untouched. Postwar construction in America—thousands of miles of highways and millions of new homes—catapulted Americans into the highest standard of living on the planet.

nSC-68

In 1949, the National Security Council issued Memorandum 68 (NSC-68). In it was the recommendation that the United States quadruple their defense funding. President Truman had requested the report due to escalating incidents in the Cold War, such as the Soviets testing a nuclear weapon and the fall of China to communism. But the number of resources requested was astronomical, and the report languished for a time. When North Korea, backed by the Soviets (although somewhat reluctantly), attacked South Korea, NSC-68 was revisited and became a foundational document in the Cold War, providing direction toward the militarization of American foreign policy.

A Bigger Bomb

In 1949, the Soviets tested an atomic bomb; in response, the next year President Truman ordered the development of a hydrogen bomb. Theoretically, an H-bomb would have many more times the power of an A-bomb. By 1952, the United States had one, and when it was tested in the Pacific Ocean, it was 500 times more destructive than the A-bomb used on Hiroshima. But by then, the Soviets had also figured out how to make an H-bomb. The cold war was again at a stalemate.

The Cult of Domesticity

Much of the advertising on television and in magazines was pitched toward women—or, to be precise, wives and mothers. In this era, the middle class woman's place was in the home. She was expected to marry (and during the 1950s, young women were marrying earlier and earlier), have babies, and devote herself to her family. The suburban housewife was supposed to cook, entertain, dote on her husband and children, and keep a sparkling home—exclusively. Although many women had worked during the war years, afterward their place was in the home. They were not encouraged to pursue careers. The percentage of women in relation to men who went to college in the 1950s was actually less than in the 1920s. Of course, being a mother and raising children is wonderful. But with their sense of self effaced and their energies channeled solely into a consumerist mentality, many women found the 1950s mind-numbing and depressing. But few gave voice to their dissatisfaction. In 1963, Betty Friedan published her groundbreaking book, The Feminine Mystique. In it Friedan revealed the muted angst so many women had felt for the previous 15 years.

Changes Within the Presidency

Post-War Politics: An Uneasy Peace We've looked at the shifting economic and social conditions in the United States after World War II, but US politics also evolved during this time. After the war, presidents acted with new powers and took positions that reshaped the role of government in US society. After President Franklin Roosevelt succumbed to a stroke on April 12, 1945, Vice President Harry Truman took the presidential oath. Truman pushed for many of Roosevelt's New Deal principles, such as unemployment insurance, a minimum wage, and a public-works program, but Truman also pursued new progressive programs. Although he became an outspoken liberal, Truman was a pragmatist who acted as a moderate at times. Branching off from the New Deal, Truman said, "Every segment of our population and every individual has a right to expect from his government a fair deal." In this way, Truman branded his own policies as the "Fair Deal," including support for federal funding of education, spending on public housing, and raising the minimum wage.

US Reaction

President Truman reacted quickly. Accused of selling out Eastern Europe and losing China, the president now had an opportunity to prove he could stand up to Communist aggression, which, remember, had been the basis of his foreign policy of containment. Although NSC-68 preceded the invasion, defense funds requested in the report were not released until actual hostilities had begun in Korea. In July 1950, NSC-76 was issued. This document discussed US options if the Soviets were to directly intervene in Korea. President Truman appealed to the United Nations Security Council directly. The Council issued Resolution 82, which condemned North Korea as an aggressor and called on all of its members to help quickly restore peace in Korea. This was the beginning of the UN police action in Korea. In a matter of days, without permission from Congress, the president moved air, naval, and land troops into action.

The Power of the President

Pretend you are the US president, and South Korea, your ally, has just been invaded by a massive Communist North Korean army. Your administration isn't sure how long the South Koreans can hold out before the North Koreans conquer the region. Would you take the proper legal course and consult Congress before committing US forces to defend South Korea? Or would you see the situation as extreme, declare a national emergency, and commit US forces without consulting Congress because time is of the essence? This situation is the one President Truman faced in the summer of 1950. Seeing a dire crisis, Truman decided that consulting Congress would take too much time and that Congress would agree with his decision anyway. Truman declared a national emergency and had the UN Security Council declare a "police action" to thwart North Korean aggression. Truman's bold action may have saved South Korea, as forces from the United States and United Nations ultimately prevented North Korean troops from conquering South Korea. Nevertheless, two years later, as the war dragged into a stalemate with many casualties, Congress blamed Truman for rushing into war without congressional approval.

Workforce Demographics

Prior to the war, women made up 25 percent of the workforce (12 million). By the end of the war, women made up 33 percent of the workforce (18 million). Nearly half of the 6 million new women workers obtained jobs in defense plants. Most of the women worked in tedious low paying jobs, freeing up men to either take better paying jobs or to join the armed forces. However there was some true integration of the genders in semi-skilled and skilled factory work. Despite the influx of women to the wartime labor force, most American women continued in the traditional role of stay-at-home wife and mother.

African Americans at War

Racial prejudice had eased towards most ethnicities by the time the United States entered World War II, in part because immigration had been constrained between the two world wars. African Americans, along with those of Japanese and Mexican ancestry, continued to experience discrimination. While minority groups supported the war effort, some experienced a paradox: they fought for freedom abroad, while freedoms at home were limited. Minorities rallied behind the slogan "Double V"—victory over the dictators abroad / victory over racism at home.

Rosie the Riveter

Rosie the Riveter became the government-sponsored icon that helped women gain acceptance into traditionally male-dominated roles. Rosie represented the image of the ideal worker: pretty, loyal, efficient, and hard working. The first widely publicized portrait appeared in May of 1943, when Norman Rockwell's image of Rosie appeared on the Saturday Evening Post's cover. Her most well known image appeared on the government poster titled "We can do it." She became a media success, appearing in magazines, billboards, and posters throughout the country. Take a look are her image. What feelings do you think she is expressing? How does her image differ from traditional images?

Technological Advancements

Technology played a significant role in the outcome of World War II. To support the total war effort, government sponsored technological advances were made in weaponry, transportation, communication, medicine and factories and farming. New management methodologies were also developed to orchestrate large and complex projects; the methodological concepts are still used today to manage engineering and its projects. Electronics, such as radar and sonar, proved to be important in the war. Complex problems such as code breaking inspired the development of early computers. ENIAC is viewed to be the first electronic computer; it was developed to improve artillery accuracy. Research important to the development of the atomic bomb led to nuclear power being used to generate electricity. Improvements in farming had a lasting effect on demographics and the economy. New machinery decreased the need for manual labor; returning soldiers flocked to cities rather than return to family farms

New Roles for Women

The American military forces enlisted 15 million men and over 200,000 women in World War II. Women were used in noncombat duties in the Army (WACS) and the Navy (WAVES), as well as the Coast Guard (SPARs). Women were especially needed to fill nursing positions. Even though the government exempted categories of industrial and agricultural workers from the draft, factories and farms remained short of required workers. Six million women joined the work force; more than half of them had never worked for wages prior to the war. A shift in attitude towards women working outside the home started in the 1930s, as women joined the workforce due to economic necessity. Widespread poverty required some women to work to help their families survive. Cultural viewpoints still prevailed; middle class women were expected to stay at home while their husbands worked. When the initial female response was insufficient to meet work demands, the government sponsored a propaganda campaign to lure women into the job market by selling the importance of the war effort.

The Growth of Suburbia and the Rise of the Consumer

The Blooming of Suburbia Have we mentioned that these were boom years for the United States? Well, let's not forget the Baby Boom! From 1946 to 1964, 76 million babies were born, a huge increase in population growth for the country. These new families needed homes. Like everything else, housing construction raced ahead in these years (aided in part by the GI Bill's low interest loans). Between 1950 and 1960, 13 million new homes were built. Most of this construction—11 million of the 13 million—took place outside the cities, in suburbs. With good, paved roads, people could live in the suburbs and commute to work in the cities. During this decade, the population in the suburbs grew six times as fast as did the population of cities. An innovative builder, William Levitt, created what became a cultural symbol of the burgeoning middle class: prefabricated suburban communities. He bought whole lots of land and constructed neighborhoods with identical houses made of identical components. The first "Levittown" rose in Long Island in the 1940s. Because the houses were easily mass produced, they were affordable—less than $8,000. They were nicely designed, and people snatched them up. Read more about these housing developments.

The Beat Generation

The Culture of Conformity . . . While many Americans were blithely enjoying the good life with its unheard of standard of living, some were taking a more pessimistic view of society. Cultural critics worried that people had been seduced by consumerism and mass marketing, lured into complacency and consensus. The Lonely Crowd, written by David Reisman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Denney and published in 1950, was one of the first and most important of these critiques. Reisman and his co-authors' thesis was that cultures marked by high consumption, such as those of the post-World War II years, produced individuals who sought conformity. People yearned to be accepted by others, to meld with the crowd. They shunned individuality and creativity, hampering the development and advancement of society. The Lonely Crowd surprisingly became an instant bestseller. The authors seemed to have tapped into a general social anxiety. So, at the same time that people were purchasing a prefabricated American Dream with the advertising industry's stamp of approval, they may have had some doubts about it. People walking Don't stand out . . . just go to your offices to work!

Advertising

The car was just one of the largest of the new consumer goods of this era. New appliances and electronic gadgets proliferated: the vacuum cleaner, electric coffee makers, and of course, the television. New products that had never existed came into being: scented laundry detergent, marshmallow fluff, and cake mixes. Suddenly a large part of the economy was based upon selling things to individual families. People may have been primed to spend, thrilled by the glut of items after so many years of scarcity. But the old mindset had to be changed, too. In the past, you'd buy an iron and would use it for the next 45 years. A key question for economists was, how to keep people buying? The notion of "planned obsolescence"—where a product wasn't meant to last forever but be replaced—became part of the strategies of many companies. The advertising industry, based on Madison Avenue in New York, also kept people buying. To entice people to buy, the "new and improved!" model was born. Also, with so many products hitting the market, companies needed to make theirs stand out. Why buy one shirt rather than another? What made one can of beans better than another? Brands developed, with appeals to buyers' emotions, their self-image, and their desire for status.

Sputnik I and Sputnik II

The cold war was raging in the 1950s, and in October of 1957, it looked as if the Soviet Union had trumped the United States, successfully launching a satellite into orbit around Earth. Sputnik I was small, but a month later the Soviets sent another satellite, Sputnik II, into space. This one was carrying a living creature—Laika, a little dog. In contrast, the US space program's touted missile launch that year had exploded only yards from the ground, a failure broadcast live on national television.

Building the Nation's Infrastructure and the Gross National Product

The country's social landscape wasn't the only change in the United States during the post-World War II years. Congress helped link the states with a network of paved, high-speed roadways. First, in 1947, money for 32,000 miles of federal highways was approved. And then, in 1956, during the Eisenhower administration, the Federal Highway Act was passed. This act provided a whopping $27 billion to construct 42,000 miles of interstate expressways throughout the country. This legislation had several important effects. Along with the GI Bill, the act pumped money into the economy and was influential in keeping the boom years booming. The Federal Highway Act was a massive jobs bill, with the funds flowing to engineers, construction companies, and the pockets of working men and women in the form of wages. By the end of the 1950s, the gross national product of the United States had doubled—a phenomenal growth spurt in only 15 years. The Federal Highway Act also ensured the triumph of the automobile in American life. Rather than take a train from the city to the countryside or from Boston to Philadelphia, people could now easily drive. Fleets of trucks, rather than railroads, transported factory cargo between the states. The automobile industry quickly became a major player in the nation's economy.

Summary

The postwar years brought about a major transformation of American society. The 1950s were boom years: booming population growth, a booming economy, booming home ownership, and booming college attendance. This was partly the result of sweeping legislation such as the Interstate Highway Act and the GI Bill, which poured money into the economy. Single-family homes became the norm; suburbs grew, attracting people from the cities until, by 1960, the population balance tilted toward the suburbs. Consumerism dominated social life, and people reveled in their purchasing power. Along with prosperity, a culture of conformity developed, however. How could a decade that witnessed such massive transition and change also be one that was characterized by repression and social conformity? The 1950s have been fondly remembered as the golden age of American culture. The 1970s hit TV series Happy Days, for instance, presents a glossy, nostalgic picture of the era. But tensions inherent in the social structure, especially race relations, were just below the surface waiting to bubble over.

Science, Medicine, and Technology

The postwar years saw wonderful advances in these areas. The impetus for discovery varied. In the case of the space program, politics, and military objectives were key. When the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik satellites, the United States was taken by surprise. Read about President Eisenhower's response to the Sputnik challenge. One result of Sputnik was the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 and the beginning of the US space program. Another was a heightened focus on science education in the nation's schools. Congress appropriated $887 million in the National Defense and Education Act to provide loans for college students and bolster science and language programs. Gains in medicine and technology were also stunning during this period. Read about key breakthroughs on the timeline that follows.

Female Response to Call to Arms

The response to the propaganda campaign differed based upon race, economic marital status, and age. Half of the women who took war jobs were already in the workplace; these women were typically from poor minority groups who switched from low paying jobs to higher paying factory work. Young unmarried women were initially targeted, however married women were eventually recruited due to continued labor shortages. Labor demands continued to be so great that married women with young children were recruited. To support the transition of stay-at-home mothers to working mothers, the government was compelled to establish 3,000 day care centers throughout the nation. While patriotism was the original inducement, economic incentives were the deciding factor for most women. Once women began to work, many discovered they liked it

The GI Bill, 1944

The transformation in American society during the postwar years is due largely to the benefits the government gave to returning war veterans. After World War I (1914-1918), society had been unprepared for the influx of men needing training, work, and homes. Determined not to repeat that problem, Congress passed the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, commonly called the GI Bill, in 1944. This sweeping law provided subsidies and low-interest loans that made it possible for World War II veterans to get job training, attend college and graduate school, and buy a home for next to nothing. As a result, over the next decade nearly 8 million men went to college—in 1949 as many as 40 percent of college students were veterans. And 5 million bought or built new homes. White working class men, who in the past couldn't have afforded college or a house, now flooded campuses across the country and moved their families into single-family homes. Read more about the social significance of the GI Bill.

Building a War Economy

The volume of military goods produced by American factories was colossal: 300,000 aircraft, 76,000 ships, 86,000 tanks, 2.6 million machine guns, and 40 billion bullets. In order to fill the military orders, the WPB halted production of goods considered to be non-essential to the war effort, such as passenger cars. Wide-sweeping production efficiencies were required to support the war effort to compensate for loss of workers to the military. Shipbuilder Henry Kaiser was able to assemble a ship in 14 days, earning his moniker "Sir Launchalot." Introduction of heavy farm machinery and improved fertilizers enabled farmers to grow record-breaking wheat harvests in 1944 and 1945. The government intervened when domestic or war situations were perceived to warrant it. Rationing of scarce goods, such as meat and butter, kept down inflation. A national speed limit and gas rationing were imposed to conserve rubber when the Japanese cut off Allied access to natural rubber sources.

The Polio Vaccine

Today, polio seems like an ancient disease. But in the early part of the twentieth century, it was a scourge that caused paralysis or death. Around 25,000 adults and children contracted the disease every year. Salk's vaccine was a medical breakthrough. Administered by a shot, it showed excellent results in test trials in 1954. The next year the government authorized large-scale distribution and school children are now regularly vaccinated. Later, an oral vaccine was invented by Sabin. The disease has been nearly eradicated in the United States.

The Rising Middle Class

Transitioning to a Peacetime Economy At the end of World War II, Americans celebrated victory in the largest and costliest war in world history. Uncertainty and excitement filled the air as the US economy and society transitioned out of wartime. Unlike other countries involved in the conflict, the United States escaped relatively unscathed on the home front. However, transitioning factories, workers, and infrastructure from wartime to peacetime proved to be a daunting task. After World War I, Americans wrestled with reintegrating millions of soldiers back into society. After World War II, the US government sought to avoid this same problem by passing the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, also known as the GI Bill. This law allowed the government to spend $13 billion, or $170 billion in today's money, to provide veterans with opportunities at home, including benefits for education, vocational training, support for home purchases, unemployment insurance, and medical treatment. Nearly 8 million veterans used the GI Bill to attend college or job-training programs. US veterans prospered under the GI Bill. The law succeeded in reintegrating veterans into society and transitioning the nation into a new peacetime era.

Formulation of NATO

Western European countries were also very worried about the Soviets' plans of expansion. In 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg agreed upon and signed a treaty of defensive alliance in Brussels. They invited the United States to join them. Some historians believe that this was to insure that the United States would not return to its isolationism of pre-war days. When the United States did decide to participate in the treaty, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed. Members promised to treat an attack on any member as an attack on all. You can read about the background and early history of NATO through resources available on the internet. The NATO agreement, along with the Truman Doctrine and the Containment Policy, contributed to solidifying US foreign policy in response to the growing Cold War.

Foreign Policies of the Cold War

While Dwight Eisenhower was gearing up for a landslide victory in his 1956 reelection, the world's political climate remained volatile. The Soviet bloc was experiencing a "de-Stalinization" as Nikita Khrushchev strove to distance himself and the U.S.S.R. from the Stalin era. Meanwhile, pro-Stalin leaders in the satellite countries, including Hungary and Poland, led efforts to achieve independence from the Soviet Union. Poland succeeded in establishing a degree of independence; Hungary did not achieve such success. Hungary's declaration that it would withdraw from the Warsaw Pact resulted in Soviet tanks in Budapest and the ultimate execution of Hungarian revolution leader Imre Nagy in 1958. Krushchev's invitation to relax relations with the Eastern European satellites in no way allowed for secession. The United States, recognizing its power limitations, did not send military support to Hungary. Instead, Eisenhower sent a memo to Bulganin, then Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R., noting "profound distress" with the news from Hungary. More importantly, the conflict exposed the limitations of the rigid New Look policy, with its dependence on the sledgehammer "massive retaliation" response of nuclear war when mobile military forces might be more effective.

The United States Emerges as an Economic Power

While World War II ravaged the rest of the world, it revitalized the American economy. With the exception of the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the nation experienced no domestic war damage. Mobilizing American industries to supply a global army made the nation wealthy. The gross national product (GNP) and corporate earnings doubled during the war years. The GNP rose from $100 million in 1940 to more than $200 million in 1945 and corporate earnings grew from $6 billion to nearly $12 billion in four years. The average American benefited from the wealth of the war as well. Overtime pay increased disposable income, despite wage ceilings. Americans had money and were anxious to spend it. On December 7 of 1944, Macy's department store rang up record sales. War had cured the economic depression.

The US Wartime Economy

World War II caused the US government to expand upon the economic ideological changes begun during the Great Depression. The nation focused on economic survival during the 1930s. The Protestant work ethic was weakened during the Great Depression as many of those who had worked hard and saved were as poor as those who did neither. Keynesian economics, introduced in the 1930s, espoused that savings took money away from consumption. Thus, resources were underutilized, constraining economic growth and prosperity. Government intervention was believed to be required to prime the economic pump when the economy stalled. Americans focused on national survival during World War II. The United States was a latecomer to the war effort and the government faced a huge challenge to retool its production and manufacturing centers before Britain and the Soviet Union were overcome by Germany and Japan. The scope of the war was global, requiring supplies to be distributed to allied troops from Europe to the South Pacific. Government response to the challenge was aggressive.

Propaganda Campaigns

World War II was an industrialized war, similar to World War I, making the home front industrial output important to the war effort. As domestic morale was essential to the war effort, propaganda was introduced to ensure civilian commitment. Poster campaigns reached out to women and African Americans, and helped to transform their social roles and images. The press, radio and billboards—traditional forms of advertisement—were used to sustain domestic morale. The United States also mobilized the Hollywood motion picture industry to support wartime propaganda themes. Posters were the primary form of public communication in World War I, and became core to the World War II propaganda effort. The poster campaign was a visual call to arms, used to engage American support for the war by investing in the cause by buying war bonds, rationing, and working more efficiently. The campaign also informed Americans of the dangers of Nazism and reminded citizens of American values. The US Office of War Information (OWI) was created in June of 1942 to control the content and the image of war messages. Many members of the OWI were recruited from the world of advertising and their influence changed the image and message of posters to reflect simple advertising messages.

The Magic Box

You might not be able to imagine life without television, but in 1949 it was a luxury item for the very wealthy; there were fewer than 8,000 black and white units in the whole country. But in the next decade, television sets became smaller and more affordable, and television found its prominent spot in the American home. It became the must-have item, and by 1960 nearly 90 percent of the population owned one. At this time, the family sitcom developed, as did game shows, and even evangelical religious programming. Some people saw the rise of television as spreading mediocrity—in art, in education, in politics. The television did help consolidate mass culture: advertising on TV meant people in California would want to buy the same item as people in Maine.